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Felix I. Lessambo

International Finance
New Players and
Global Markets
International Finance
Felix I. Lessambo

International Finance
New Players and Global Markets
Felix I. Lessambo
Fordham University
New Britain, CT, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-69231-5 ISBN 978-3-030-69232-2 (eBook)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69232-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgments

Writing a book is always a challenge. But writing a book on International


Finance, a more daring intellectual exercise.
I would like to thank my astoundingly supportive friends who moti-
vated me all along the project, knowing my dedication to the subject
and thought I am more than able to complete this project: Dr. Marsha
Gordon, Dr. Lavern A. Wright, Dr. Lester Reid, Pastor Roland Dalo,
Rahim Samuel Mama, and Jerry Izouele.
And last but not least, thank you to all the original readers of this book
when it was in its infancy. Without your enthusiasm and encouragement,
this book may have never been ready.

v
Contents

1 International Finance 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Features of International Managerial Finance 2
1.2.1 Foreign Exchange Risk 2
1.2.2 Political Risk 2
1.2.3 Market Imperfection 3
1.2.4 Enhance Opportunities 5
1.3 International Financial transactions 5
2 International Institutions of International Finance 7
2.1 General 7
2.2 The Bretton Woods Architecture 8
2.2.1 The Broader Compromise: From 1945
to 1971 9
2.2.2 The Floating-Rate Dollar Standard:
1973–1984 10
2.2.3 The Plaza-Louvre Accords: From 1985
to 1999 11
2.3 The Post-Bretton Woods Era: New Mandates 12
2.4 Reforming the Bretton Woods Institutions 13
2.5 The Relevancy of the Bretton Woods Institutions 14
2.6 The Two Additional Financial Institutions 15
2.6.1 The New Development Bank 15

vii
viii CONTENTS

2.6.2 The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank


(AIIB) 19
2.7 The Dual Framework of International Finance 26
3 The Balance of Payments 29
3.1 General 29
3.2 BoP Key Concepts 30
3.2.1 Double-Entry Recording 30
3.2.2 Net and Gross Recording 31
3.2.3 Time of Recording 31
3.2.4 Valuation 32
3.3 Balance of Payment Accounts 33
3.3.1 The Current Account 33
3.3.2 The Capital Account 37
3.3.3 Financial Account 40
3.4 Statistical Discrepancy 42
3.5 Official Reserves 42
3.6 Significance of the Balance of Payments 43
4 International Corporate Governance 45
4.1 General 45
4.2 The Aim of Corporate Governance 46
4.3 The Agency Approach 48
4.3.1 The Board Fiduciary Duties 48
4.3.2 The Safeguards: The Business Judgment
Rules 50
4.3.3 Limited Shareholders’ Rights 51
4.4 The Flaws and Inadequacies of the Agency Approach 52
4.4.1 The Sarbanes–Oxley Act 53
4.4.2 Re-Examination of the Compensation
Structure 56
5 Foreign Exchange and Money Markets Transactions 61
5.1 General 61
5.2 Foreign Exchange Market Participants 62
5.2.1 Commercial and Investment Banks 62
5.2.2 Multinationals or Big Corporations 63
5.2.3 Brokers 63
CONTENTS ix

5.2.4 Noncommercial Banks 63


5.2.5 Central Banks 63
5.3 Management of Foreign Exchange Risk 64
5.3.1 Hedging 64
5.3.2 Foreign Exchange Gap Analysis 64
5.3.3 Foreign Exchange Rate Duration Analysis 65
5.3.4 Foreign Exchange Rate Simulation Analysis 65
5.3.5 Foreign Exchange Rate Volatility Analysis 65
5.4 Taxation of FOREX 66
5.5 The International Money Markets: Role, Functions,
and Features 70
5.5.1 Roles and Functions 70
5.5.2 The IMM Features 70
5.6 Money Market Interest Rates 71
5.7 Market Participants 71
5.7.1 Commercial Banks 72
5.7.2 Governments 72
5.7.3 Corporations 72
5.7.4 Government-Sponsored Enterprises 73
5.7.5 Money Market Mutual Funds and Other
Short-Term Investment Pools 73
5.7.6 Dealers and Brokers 73
5.7.7 Central Banks 74
5.8 Types of Instruments Traded in the Money Market 74
5.8.1 Treasury Bills 75
5.8.2 Certificate of Deposit 75
5.8.3 Commercial Paper 75
5.8.4 Banker’s Acceptance 75
5.8.5 Repurchase Agreements 76
5.8.6 Discount Window 76
5.8.7 Bankers Acceptances 76
5.8.8 Backup Line of Credit 77
5.8.9 Municipal Notes 77
5.9 Interest Rates in FX and IMM 77
5.9.1 Interest Rates Determination 77
5.9.2 Low-Interest Rates and Risk Concerns 77
x CONTENTS

6 International Equity Markets 79


6.1 General 79
6.2 Equity and Diversification 79
6.3 Top 10 Stock Markets Around the Globe 80
6.3.1 Equity Markets in the United States 80
6.3.2 The New York Security Exchange 81
6.3.3 The Nasdaq 82
6.3.4 The Better Alternative Trading System 82
6.3.5 The Chicago Board Options Exchange 83
6.4 Equity Markets in the EU 83
6.5 Equity Markets in Asia 88
6.6 Equity Markets in Emergingi Economies 90
7 International Bond Markets 91
7.1 General 91
7.2 Types of Bond Markets 92
7.2.1 Domestic Bonds 92
7.2.2 Foreign Bonds 93
7.2.3 Eurobonds 93
7.3 International Bond Market Participants 94
7.4 International Bond Market Volatility 95
7.5 Bond Interest Rates 95
8 International Derivative Markets 97
8.1 General 97
8.2 Forward Contracts 100
8.3 Futures Contracts 101
8.4 Options 102
8.5 Swaps 107
8.5.1 Interest Rate Swaps 108
8.5.2 Currency Swaps 109
8.5.3 Credit Swaps 109
8.5.4 Commodity Swaps 111
8.5.5 Equity Swaps 111
8.6 Credit Derivatives 114
8.6.1 Credit Index 114
8.6.2 Credit Index Tranche 115
CONTENTS xi

9 Exchange Traded Funds (ETF) 117


9.1 General 117
9.2 Differences Between ETFs and Mutual Funds 118
9.3 Purchase and Redemption of ETFs 118
9.4 Regulatory Requirements 118
9.5 ETFs in the Global Markets 118
9.6 Types of ETFs 119
9.6.1 Index-Based ETFs 119
9.6.2 Actively Managed ETFs 119
9.6.3 Leveraged and Inverse ETFs 123
10 International Securitization Markets 125
10.1 General 125
10.2 Benefits or Securitization 126
10.3 Securitization Process 128
10.3.1 The Borrower 129
10.3.2 The Originator/Servicer 129
10.3.3 The SPV 130
10.3.4 The Investors 130
10.4 Securitization Tranches 132
10.5 Securitized Assets 133
10.6 Types of Securitization 136
10.7 Conclusion 138
11 Sovereign Wealth Funds 139
11.1 General 139
11.2 Types of SWFs 140
11.2.1 Stabilizations Funds 141
11.2.2 Saving Funds 142
11.2.3 Reserve Investment Corporation 142
11.2.4 Strategic Development Funds 143
11.2.5 Contingent Pension Reserve Funds 143
11.3 The Dominant Petrodollar-Oil SWFs 143
11.3.1 Oil Funds of the Persian Golf 143
11.3.2 Kuwait 144
11.3.3 The United Arab Emirates 145
11.3.4 Iran 146
11.3.5 Qatar 147
xii CONTENTS

11.3.6 Saudi Arabia 148


11.3.7 Norway Oil Fund 149
11.3.8 The Stabilization Fund of the Russian
Federation 150
11.4 Conclusions and Policy Implications 152

Glossary of Terms 157


Bibliography 165
Index 167
Acronyms

ABS Asset-Backed Securities


BIS Bank for International Settlements
BJR Business Judgment Rule
BoP Balance of Payments
BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South-Africa
BWIs Brettons-Woods’ Institutions
CBO Collateralized Bond Obligation
CBOE Chicago Board Options Exchange
CD Certificate of Deposit
CDS Collateralized Debt Obligation
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CFD Contracts for Differences
CFIUS Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States
CFO Chief Financial Officer
CFTC Commodity Futures Trading Commission
CHF Confoederatio Helvetica Franc (Swiss Franc)
CLO Collateralized Loan Oligation
CLN Credit-Linked Note
CMO Collateralized Mortgage Obligation
CPA Certified Public Accountant
DAX Deutscher Akrienindex
DEM Deutsche Mark
EM Emerging Market
ETF Exchange Traded Funds
FDIC Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
FTSE Financial Times Stock Exchange

xiii
xiv ACRONYMS

FX Foreign Exchange
GAO Government Accountability Office
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
GDP Growth Domestic Product
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
IMF International Monetary Fun
IRC Internal Revenue Code
LIBOR London Interbank Offered Rate
LSE London Stock Exchange
MNC Multinational Company
MTF Mutual Trading Facility
Nasdaq National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations
Exchange
NDB New Development Bank
NYSE New York Security Exchange
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OSF Oil Stabilization Fund
OTC Over-the-Counter
QIA Qatar Investment Authority
SAMA Saudi Arabia Monetary Authority
SEC Securities and Exchange Commission
SOX Sarbanes-Oxley Act
SPV Special Purpose Vehicle
SSE Shanghai Securities Exchange
SWF Sovereign Wealth Fund
TRS Total Return Swap
TSE Tokyo Securities Exchange
UK United Kingdom
US United States of America
VaR Value at Risk
WBG World Bank Group
XTF Exchange Traded Fund
List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 AIIB: Contributions and Voting shares (%) (Source


Korean Ministry of Strategy and Finance [CSIS]) 21
Fig. 3.1 United States BoP: 2016–2019 (Source US Dept of Trade) 42
Fig. 4.1 CEO-to-Worker Compensation ratio, 1968–2018 (Source
Economic Policy Institute [2019]) 58
Fig. 4.2 Ratio between CEO and average worker pay in 2018
(Source OECD) 59
Fig. 6.1 US household equity equity owners (Note Household
sector includes nonprofit organizations. Includes
both directly held equities and equities held through
mutual funds. Source federal reserve flow of funds
accounts) 81
Fig. 6.2 US equity markets ADV (Source Cboe exchange, Inc) 84
Fig. 7.1 Global bond market outstanding (2009–2018) (Source
Bank of International Settlement [BIS]) 92
Fig. 8.1 Outstanding notional amounts of OTC derivatives trend
upwards 98
Fig. 10.1 Securitization structure 129
Fig. 11.1 Top 10 largest sovereign wealth funds 140
Fig. 11.2 SWFs by funding and region (Source Sovereign wealth
fund institute) 141

xv
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Pre-reform and post-reform voting rights 14


Table 2.2 Countries by shareholding at the New Development
Bank 17
Table 2.3 Geographic distributions of loans 25
Table 2.4 Loans by sector 26
Table 3.1 Current account balance 38
Table 3.2 Overview of financial account 41
Table 4.1 Five CEOs with most pay in 2018 57
Table 6.1 The top 10 stock markets around the globe 80
Table 6.2 Largest stock exchange in Europe 86
Table 9.1 Best broad international stock ETFs 121
Table 10.1 Global structure Finance Volumes 136

xvii
List of Cited Cases

Brehm v. Eisner, 906 A 2d 27, 64 (Del. 2006).


Francis v. New Jersey Bank, 432 A 2d. 814 (NJ 1981).
In Re Walt Disney Co. Derivative Litigation, Del. Ch. 2003-
In Re Walt Disney Co. v. Derivative Litigation (Disney IV), 906 A 2d 27, 63-68.
Moleney v. Brincat, 722 A 2d 5, 10 (Del. 1998).
Paramount Communications, Inc. v. QVC Network, Inc. 637, A 2d (Del. 1994).
Revlon Inc. v. MacAndrews & Forbes Holding Inc., 506 A 2d 173 (Del. 1985).
Smith v. Gorkhom, 488 A 2d 858 (Del. 1985).
Unocal V. Mesa Petroleum Co., 493 A 2d 946 (Del. 1985).

xix
CHAPTER 1

International Finance

1.1 General
International finance is a branch of financial economics that deals with
the monetary interactions that occur between two or more countries.
International Finance is concerned with topics that include foreign direct
investment and currency exchange rates. International finance is different
from domestic finance in many aspects and the first and the most
significant of them is foreign currency exposure. International financial
management involves a lot of currency derivatives whereas such derivatives
are very less used in domestic financial management. So, the under-
standing of international financial transactions is vital to any MNC. In
the twenty-first century, business has become much more globalized.
Large corporations have customers and production facilities all over the
world now. That accentuates the need for mastery of international finance.
There are numerous risks in transactions involving foreign currencies.
Risk management requires that these risks be identified, quantified, and
monitored. Some risks (such as exchange rate risk) affect all cross-border
currency movements, while others are limited to investment decisions or
financing decisions.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1


Switzerland AG 2021
F. I. Lessambo, International Finance,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69232-2_1
2 F. I. LESSAMBO

1.2 Features of International


Managerial Finance
International finance provides four types of challenges unknown to
domestic finance: (i) foreign exchange risk, (ii) political risk, (iii) market
imperfection, and (iv) enhanced opportunities.

1.2.1 Foreign Exchange Risk


The financial benefits and costs of an international transaction can be
affected by exchange rate movements that occur after the firm is legally
obligated to complete the transaction. Foreign exchange exposure refers
to the risk a company undertakes when making financial transactions
in foreign currencies. All currencies can experience periods of high
volatility which can adversely affect profit margins if suitable strategies
are not in place to protect cash flow from sudden currency fluctuations.
The VaR measure of exchange rate risk is used by firms to estimate the
riskiness of a foreign exchange position resulting from a firm’s activities,
including the foreign exchange position of its treasury, over a certain time
period under normal conditions. Savvy managers take actions to protect
against FX risk, such as hedging (forward contract). Otherwise, the firm’s
performance will be negatively affected by exchange rate movements.

1.2.2 Political Risk


Political risk is the risk an investment’s returns could suffer as a result
of political changes or instability in a country. Political risk is among the
most important factors facing international investors. In many emerging
and frontier markets, the political situation is affected by more than influ-
ences within the country being considered. Instability affecting invest-
ment returns could stem from a change in government, legislative bodies,
other foreign policymakers, or military control. Political risk is also known
as “geopolitical risk,” and becomes more of a factor as the time horizon of
investment gets longer. There are a variety of decisions governments
make that can affect individual businesses, industries, and the overall
economy. These include taxes, spending, regulation, currency valuation,
trade tariffs, labor laws such as the minimum wage, and environmental
regulations. The laws, even if just proposed, can have an impact. Regu-
lations can be set at all levels of government, including federal, state,
1 INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 3

and local, as well as in other countries. Political risk is a dynamic


phenomenon. Hence, political risk assessment requires constant moni-
toring of all five categories of risks and fashioning of mitigation strategies.
Multinational and global companies have come to manage their cash flows
in a basket of currencies (dollars, euros, and yen) to mitigate the risk
of the sudden devaluation and revaluation of a single currency, often a
reflection of a country’s fragile state of economy and unstable politics. In
the contemporary globalized economy, sound assessment of political risk
can save millions to a business from regulatory or structural risks or can
generate windfall profits. Major political risks include: Nationalization,
confiscation, and others.

1.2.3 Market Imperfection


An imperfect market is one in which individual buyers and sellers can
influence prices and production, where there is no full disclosure of infor-
mation about products and prices, and where there are high barriers to
entry or exit in the market. It’s the opposite of a perfect market, which is
characterized by perfect competition, market equilibrium, and an unlim-
ited number of buyers and sellers. Sellers and businesses use the imperfect
of the markets as a means to make/maximize profits. Under perfect
competition, the equilibrium price, margin profits, and margin cost are
known to both sellers and buyers. Portfolio investments target arbitrage
between different markets, for instance, different rates of interests or the
reduction of risks by diversification to markets that are not perfectly posi-
tively correlated. Market imperfections also generate profit opportunities
for businesses that can reduce or eliminate them. MNC can lower costs
tracing to imperfections and earn a competitive advantage not available
to a firm operating domestically.1
All financial markets are by nature imperfect markets. That is, indi-
vidual buyers and sellers can influence prices and production, there is
no full disclosure of information about products and prices, and there
are high barriers to entry or exit in the market. Many financial transac-
tions are made in a situation of imperfect information, where either the
buyer, the seller, or both, are less than 100% certain about the qualities of
what is being transacted. For example, traders in the financial market do

1 Ramon P. DeGennaro (2005): Market Imperfections, The Federal Reserve of Atlanta.


4 F. I. LESSAMBO

not possess perfect or even identical knowledge about financial products.


The traders and assets in a financial market are not perfectly homoge-
neous. New information is not instantaneously transmitted, and there is
a limited velocity of reactions. The term imperfect market is somewhat
misleading, and the range of market imperfections is as wide as the range
of all real-world markets—some are much or less efficient than others.
Every industry has some form of imperfection. Imperfect competition
can be found in the following structures:

• Monopoly

This is a structure in which there is only one (dominant) seller. Prod-


ucts offered by this entity have no substitutes. These markets have high
barriers to entry and a single seller who sets the prices on goods and
services. Prices can change without notice to consumers.

• Oligopoly

This structure has many buyers but few sellers. These few players in the
market may prevent others from entering. They may set prices together
or, in the case of a cartel, only one takes the lead to determine the price
for goods and services while the others follow.

• Monopolistic Competition

In monopolistic competition, there are many sellers who offer similar


products that can’t be substituted. Businesses compete with one another
and are price makers, but their individual decisions do not affect the other.

• Monopsony and Oligopsony

These structures have many sellers, but few buyers. In both cases, the
buyer is the one who manipulates market prices by playing firms against
one another.
1 INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 5

1.2.4 Enhance Opportunities


International finance is an important tool to find the exchange rates,
compare inflation rates, get an idea about investing in international
debt securities, ascertain the economic status of other countries, and
judge the foreign markets. The international financial system is vast and
complex. It consists of various financial institutions and markets (i.e.,
stocks, bonds, commodities, and derivatives). The growth of the global
financial system creates new opportunities for businesses and governments
to drive economic growth, and increases access for new participants, in
addition to expanding opportunities for innovation.2
Put differently, international finance enables individuals and firms to
protect against adversity in one financial jurisdiction (state), and seize
the best opportunity in another financial jurisdiction and achieve global
growth. For instance, the structure and regulation of the US banking
system differ from the rest of the world.3 US banks are subject to more
stringent regulations than banks elsewhere, therefore, US banks may
seek incentives by migrating their activities within jurisdictions with less
stringent regulations.

1.3 International Financial transactions


International transaction implies financial transactions that cross the
borders because of various situations: (i) the lender and the borrower
reside in two different countries, (ii) borrowing in foreign currencies,
(iii) sending money from a US-based head office to a factory in Mexico
City. In the last example, even though the money never changes hands—
it still belongs to the company—it did cross borders. So, it’s a form of
international finance.

2 Anjan Thakor (2015): International Financial Markets: A Diverse System Is the Key
to Commerce, Center for Capital Markets, p. 22.
3 Felix Lessambo (2020): The US Banking System: Laws, Regulations, and Risk
Management, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 2.
CHAPTER 2

International Institutions of International


Finance

2.1 General
The International Financial Institutions need to be adjusted to the needs
and challenges of the twenty-first century. Today economy differs signif-
icantly from the world status of economy of the 1940s which lead to
the creation of the Bretton Woods and most of the existing interna-
tional financial institutions. The globalization of financial markets, the
debt crisis, cross-border flows of capital, and the raise of new economic
power have weakened the current system.
As Solimano stated: “the dividing lines between the balance of
payments financing (the realm of the IMF) and development lending (the
scope of multilateral development banks) have become less clear.1 ” In the
same vein, the Report of the High-Level Commission on Modernization
of World Bank Group Governance pointed out:
Regional institutions have become increasingly important in the
economic and political life of the Bretton Woods institutions, serving
as catalysts for regional integration, cooperation, and development assis-
tance.2

1 Andres Silimano (1999): Can Reforming Global Institutions Help Developing Countries
Share in the Benefits from Globalization? The World Bank Paper, Washington, DC.
2 Report of the High-Level Commission on Modernization of World Bank Group
Governance, p. 8.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 7


Switzerland AG 2021
F. I. Lessambo, International Finance,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69232-2_2
8 F. I. LESSAMBO

Thus, time has come to rethink an adequate balance of power between


the Bretton Woods Institutions, the regional development banks, and
even the International Investment Banks. As many countries seem to
prefer their close regional development banks over the distant global
Bretton Woods institutions. As Jose Antonio Ocampo has said:
The current system will only be workable if it is based on stronger
regionalism. A stronger regionalism is the only way to balance the
huge asymmetries in power that we have in the system—that is center-
periphery.
It is good to have competition between regional and sub-regional
development banks and among the bilateral donor community. Similarly,
it is good to have various regional monetary funds.
Indeed, the governance within these development banks are more
inclusive relative to the corporate structure still in existence within the
Bretton Woods institutions dominated by the West. There is a greater
degree of representation for developing countries in the most important
decision-making bodies.

2.2 The Bretton Woods Architecture


The Bretton Woods Conference, officially known as the United Nations
Monetary and Financial Conference, was a gathering of delegates from
44 nations that met from July 1 to 22, 1944 in Bretton Woods, New
Hampshire, to devise a new financial architecture for the post-War World.
The two major accomplishments of the conference were the creation of
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).3
Participants in the conference, to some extent, believed that free
trade not only promoted international prosperity but also international
peace. The conference discussion was dominated by two rival plans devel-
oped, respectively, by Harry Dexter White of the US Treasury and John
Maynard Keynes of Great Britain.
The Keynes plan proposed during the Bretton Woods negotiations in
1944 involved the creation of an International Clearing Union, which
would act as an international central bank and issue its own currency

3 Jose Antonio Ocampo (2005): “The Democratic Deficit in International Arrange-


ments,” in Protecting the Poor: Global Financial Institutions and the Vulnerability of Low
Income Countries, pp. 117–118.
2 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 9

(the bancor), the value of which would be determined at a fixed price


to gold. Each member country would establish a fixed but adjustable
exchange rate in relation to the bancor. International payments balances
would be settled by using the bancor as a unit of account. The bancor
would have very limited convertibility; countries could purchase bancors
but could not convert them into gold. In other words, bancor reserves
would remain within the system to avoid the possibility of a drain on
reserves. Each country would also be allocated a quota of bancor based
upon their levels of imports and exports.
Dexter White, the “Assistant Secretary” pushed for the exchange rates
of member-country currencies fixed to the dollar, and foreign govern-
ments and central banks could exchange dollars for gold at $35 per ounce.
Dexter convinced other participants that the newly designed architecture
would help reduce trade barriers and allow capital to flow freely between
member countries.

2.2.1 The Broader Compromise: From 1945 to 1971


The compromise that ultimately emerged was much closer to Dexter
White’s plan than to that of Keynes, reflecting the overwhelming power
of the United States as World War II was drawing to a close.4 Under the
new architecture, trade would be progressively liberalized, but restrictions
on capital movements remained.5
Harry Dexter White, Special Assistant to the US Secretary of the
Treasury, and John Maynard Keynes, an advisor to the British Trea-
sury, independently drafted plans for organizations that would provide
financial assistance to countries experiencing short-term deficits in their
balance of payments. This assistance would help ensure that such coun-
tries would not adopt protectionist or predatory trade and monetary
policies to improve their balance of payments position. Both plans envi-
sioned a world of fixed exchange rates: the US dollar was to be pegged
to gold at $35 per ounce, while other countries of the world were to
peg to the US dollar or directly to gold. Thus the US dollar stood as

4 The World Bank and the IMF are two distinct institutions: the bank is primarily a
development institution, while the IMF is a cooperative institution that seeks to maintain
an orderly system of payments and receipts among nations.
5 Benjamin J. Cohen (2008): “Bretton Woods System,” in Routledge Encyclopedia of
international Political Economy.
10 F. I. LESSAMBO

the currency of the international financial institutions. A role it plays


still today. The fixed exchange rate regime established at Bretton Woods
endured for the better part of three decades. However, in the late 1940s,
with the US growing balance of payment deficits coupled with the pres-
sure facing the US$ in global currency exchanges, the United States could
not withstand the situation and after some failed monetary policies in the
1960s, the US Treasury took some palliative measures to fix the system. In
January 1961, for instance, the Kennedy Administration pledged to main-
tain $35 per ounce convertibility. The United States and its European
allies set up a gold pool in which their central banks would buy and sell
gold to support the $35 price in the London market. The effort was not
successful, until 1968 when the rush out of dollars began—capital flight.
Investors and multinational companies began to flow out of dollar assets
and into German mark assets.6
Advocates of the Gold-exchange system argue that the system econ-
omizes on gold because countries can use not only gold but also
foreign exchange as an international means of payment. However, the
gold-exchange system as devised contained its germ of failure.
Professor Robert Triffin,7 on the other hand, predicted that the system
was programmed to collapse in the long-run. He pointed out two
elements: (i) to satisfy the growing need for reserves, the United States
needed to run continuous balance-of-payment deficits; and (ii) contin-
uous balance-of-payment deficits would impair the public confidence in
the US$. Robert Triffin’s prediction, known as the “Triffin Paradox”
came to pass in the early 1970s.

2.2.2 The Floating-Rate Dollar Standard: 1973–1984


After the dollar exchange crisis of August 1971 (when President
Richard Nixon suspended the dollar’s convertibility into gold) and
February/March 1973 floating exchange rates became the norm for the
currencies of the major industrialized nations. To understand the situa-
tion, it is worthy to recall that in 1970, the United States entered into
recession. The markets believed that in order to counter the recession,

6 Niall Fergusson (2008): The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World. New
York Penguin, p. 305.
7 Kenneth A. Reinert (2012): An Introduction to International Economics: New
Perspectives on the World Economy. Cambridge University Press, New York, Chapter 17.
2 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 11

the United States should devaluate its dollar currency. In 1971, President
Nixon announced that the United States would no longer automati-
cally sell gold to foreign banks for the US$. The Nixon administration
imposed a 10% tax on all imports to the United States. Put differently,
in August 1971, the United States announced that it is abandoning the
convertibility of the dollar because of the decrease of the confidence in
the US dollar and was seeking to convert the dollars into gold from
States. This was achieved through the Smithsonian Agreement entered by
the ten countries in 1971. Among other things, the Smithsonian Agree-
ment allowed each one of the ten countries gathered to (i) re-evaluate its
currency against the US$ by up to 10%; and (ii) the band within which the
exchange rate was allowed was raised from 1 to 2.25% in either direction.
The US dollar was devaluated against foreign currencies by about eight
percent. The markets reacted again in February 1973, attacking the US
dollar and forced FOREX to close. In February 12, 1973, the US admin-
istration announced another 10% depreciation of the US dollar. The US
Treasury announced a second devaluation of the dollar against gold to
$42.

2.2.3 The Plaza-Louvre Accords: From 1985 to 1999


The Plaza Accord was a growth transfer policy for Europe and Japan that
was wholly detrimental to the United States. It was a pro-growth agree-
ment signed by the former “G-5 nations8 ” constraining the United States
to devalue its currency due to a current account deficit approaching an
estimated 3% of GDP. The Plaza Accord allowed the dollar to slide 20%
against the Japanese yen, 15% against the French franc and 15% against
the German Deutsch mark. Some considered the Plaza Accord as being
broadly detrimental to the United States. However, the US manufac-
turers would again become profitable due to favorable exchange rates
abroad, an export regimen that became quite profitable. A high US dollar
means American producers can’t compete at home with cheap imports
coming from Japan and European nations because those imports are
much cheaper than what American manufacturers can sell according to
their profitability arrangements. The United States pushed for a multilat-
eral intervention, designed to allow for a controlled decline of the dollar

8 Cheol S. Eun and Bruce G. Resnick (2007): International Financial Management, 4th
edition. McGraw-Hill, p. 30.
12 F. I. LESSAMBO

and the appreciation of the main anti-dollar currencies. Each country


agreed to make changes in its economic policies and to intervene in
currency markets as necessary to bring down the value of the dollar. The
United States agreed to cut the federal deficit and to lower interest rates.
Japan promised a looser monetary policy and financial-sector reforms,
and Germany agreed to institute tax cuts. France, the UK, Germany,
and Japan agreed to raise interest rates. The impact of the intervention
was immediate and within two years the dollar had fallen 46% to the
Deutsche Mark (DEM) and 50% to the Yen (JPY). By the end of 1987,
the dollar had fallen by 54% against both the Deutsche Mark and the
yen from its peak in February 1985. The US Economy became geared
more toward exports, while Germany and Japan increased their imports.
This helped resolve the current account deficits and helped to minimize
protectionist policies. Despite these efforts, the US$ continued to decline
vis-à-vis the Deutsche and other concurrent currencies. The United States
was sustaining huge twin deficits in its domestic and current account
budgets. In 1986, the trade deficit rose to approximately $166 billion
with exports at about $370 billion and imports at about $520 billion.
The trade deficit alone approached approximately 3.5% of the GDP, while
the Japanese had a surplus of 4.5% and the Germans 4% of the GDP. To
halt the decline, the G-6 entered into a new arrangement “The Louvre
Accord,” aimed to stabilize the US$, to cooperative to achieve exchange
rate stability, and to closely monitor macroeconomic policies. The United
States pledged to tighten fiscal policy, Japan agreed to loosen monetary
policy. The participants agreed to intervene if major currencies moved
outside a set of ranges. The dollar rose shortly after the accord was signed.

2.3 The Post-Bretton Woods Era: New Mandates


The post-Bretton Woods era which started in 1973 has altered the
mandates of the two key institutions from the Bretton Woods: the IMF
and the World Bank. The IMF was assigned new roles in the inter-
national monetary system, and the World Bank champions the fight
against poverty in order to lift its member countries on the path of
sustainable economic growth. Further new global challenges, mainly (i)
the prevention and emergence of the spread of infectious diseases, (ii)
climate change, (iii) international financial stability, (iv) international
2 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 13

trading imbalances, (v) threat of terrorism, (vi) wars, and other inse-
curities compel several experts in these fields to rethink our world. As
far as the international financial institutions are concerned, the enhance-
ment of international financial stability becomes an emergency: the quality
and the management of the international financial institutions need to be
rethought, and their governance revisited in order to face the new chal-
lenges. They need to set up or upgrade monitoring and evaluation systems
to properly assess their performances.

2.4 Reforming the Bretton Woods Institutions


The Bretton Woods institutions, in their current structures, require major
reform in their governance approach. The reform package, which came
into effect on January 26, 2016 after a five-year delay, failed to meet the
demands and expectations proposed by developing countries at the G-20
summit in London. Indeed, the BRICS pushed for a redistribution of
IMF voting shares in order to better reflect the twenty-first century
economic realities. Voting shares are crucial not only in determining the
maximum amount of financial resources a member country commits to
provide to the IMF, but also, the member country’s access to the IMF
resources. At the IMF, for instance, the distribution of voting power
remains severely imbalanced in favor of the United State, European coun-
tries, and Japan. More, the United States still has veto power over an
array of major decisions. Though the US share of world gross domestic
product (GDP) has declined from about 50% of the world economy at
the end of World War II to about 20% today, It is uncertain whether
the United States will support a substantial increase in IMF quotas and
sure up financial resources. The choice lies with other major countries,
mainly the European Union, on whether they are willing to update these
institutions governance and perhaps their survival. From corporate gover-
nance viewpoint, the under-representation of low- and middle-income
countries on the Bretton Woods institutions (BWIs). More, the Executive
Boards is exacerbated by the historic gentleman agreement between the
United States and European countries, which has seen the Fund and Bank
led by a European and US national, respectively, since their inception
(Table 2.1).
14 F. I. LESSAMBO

Table 2.1 Pre-reform


Pre-reform Post-reform
and post-reform voting
rights United States 17.661 United States 17.398
Japan 6.553 Japan 6.461
Germany 6.107 China 6.390
France 4.502 Germany 5.583
United 4.502 France 4.225
Kingdom
China 3.994 United 4.225
Kingdom
Italy 3.305 Italy 3.159
Saudi Arabia 2.929 India 2.749
Canada 2.670 Russia 2.705
Russia 2.493 Brazil 2.315
India 2.441 Canada 2.311
Netherlands 2.164 Saudi Arabia 2.095
Belgium 1.931 Spain 1.999
Brazil 1.782 Mexico 1.868
Spain 1.687 Netherlands 1.831

Source IMF

2.5 The Relevancy


of the Bretton Woods Institutions
With China becoming the largest official external creditor to developing
country governments worldwide, and its loan conditions more lenient,
the relevancy of the BWIs is at stake. By some estimates, China is
larger than World Bank and IMF individually and all of the Paris Club
creditors combined.9 More recent study estimates that more than two
dozen countries now owe more than 10% of their GDP of the Chinese
government.10
The under-representation of the developing countries within the
decisional instances of both the IMF and the World Bank Group is
well-documented. According to Daniel D. Bradlow, only 16 directors
represent the remaining 176 member states of both institutions. This
means that each of these directors represents on average slightly less
than 11 states. This unrepresentativeness has largely blown the Bretton

9 Horn, Reinhart, and Trebesch, 2019.


10 Horn et al., 2019.
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aussöhnen; eine kurze Beichte ablegen.
Reconcomio, m. fam. wiederholtes Zucken n. mit den Achseln;
Argwohn, Verdacht, m.; fig. fam. Kitzel, m., Gelüste, n.
Recóndito, adj. geheim, verborgen; dunkel.
Reconducción, f. Erneuerung f. eines Pachtvertrages.
Reconducir, va. den Pachtvertrag erneuern.
Reconocedor, m. Prüfer, Untersucher; Besichtiger; Revisor, m.
Reconocer, va. sorgfältig prüfen, untersuchen, besichtigen,
durchsehen; revidieren; anerkennen; bescheinigen; eingestehen;
mit Dank anerkennen; verdanken; rekognoscieren (Mil.);
wiedererkennen, erkennen; einsehen; bemerken; –se, vr. zur
Erkenntnis kommen; bereuen; sich schuldig bekennen; sich seiner
Eigenschaften bewußt sein, fam. sich fühlen.
Reconocido, adj. dankbar, erkenntlich.
Reconocimiento, m. Wiedererkennung; Dankbarkeit,
Erkenntlichkeit; Anerkennung; Untersuchung, Besichtigung;
Rekognoscierung, f. (Mil.)
Reconquista, f. Wiedereroberung, f.
Reconquistar, va. wiedererobern.
Reconstrucción, f. Wiedererbauung; Wiederherstellung, f.
Recontar, va. wieder erzählen; nochmals zählen.
Recontento, adj. sehr zufrieden; sehr vergnügt; –, m. große
Zufriedenheit, f.
Reconvalecencia, f. Wiedergenesung, f.
Reconvalecer, vn. wieder genesen.
Reconvención, f. Überführung; Gegenklage, f. (Jur.)
Reconvenir, va. überführen; eine Gegenklage anstellen (Jur.).
Recopilación, f. gedrängte Wiedergabe; Sammlung f. von
Gesetzen, Verordnungen etc.
Recopilar, va. im Auszuge wiedergeben; in eine Sammlung
aufnehmen.
Recoquín, m. fam. kleiner dicker Kerl, m.
Recordable, adj. erinnerlich; denkwürdig.
Recordación, f. Erinnerung, f.
Recordar, va. in Erinnerung bringen, erinnern; –, vn. aufwachen,
erwachen; –se, vr. sich erinnern.
Recordativo, adj. erinnernd.
Recorrer, va. durchgehen, sorgfältig durchsehen, durchsuchen;
durchblättern; ausbessern; –, vn. seine Zuflucht nehmen.
Recortado, adj. ausgezackt, zackig (Bot.); –, m. ausgeschnittene
Figur f. von Papier.
Recortar, va. beschneiden; ausschneiden (Figuren aus Papier etc.);
die Umrisse einer Figur angeben (Mal.).
Recorte, m. Beschneiden; Ausschneiden, n.; –s, pl. Abschnitzel,
npl.
Recoser, va. (wieder) annähen; flicken, ausbessern.
Recostadero, m. Ruheplatz, m.
Recostar, va. legen, hinlegen, niederlegen; –se, vr. sich
niederlegen, um auszuruhen.
Recova, f. Aufkauf m. von Hühnern, Eiern etc. zum Wiederverkauf,
Hökerei, f.; Hühnermarkt, Eiermarkt, m.; Koppel f. Hunde.
Recoveco, m. Krümmung, f., Winkel m. einer Strasse, Gasse etc.;
fig. Winkelzug, m.
Recovero, m. Kleinhändler m. mit Hühnern, Eiern, Höker, m.
Recreación, f. Ergötzung, Belustigung; Erholung, f.
Recrear, va. ergötzen, belustigen; –se, vr. sich ergötzen, sich
belustigen.
Recreativo, adj. ergötzend, ergötzlich, belustigend.
Recrecer, vn. zunehmen, anwachsen.
Recrecimiento, m. Zuwachs, m., Zunahme, f.
Recreo, m. s. RECREACIÓN; Vergnügungsort, m.
Recriminación, f. Gegenbeschuldigung, f.
Recriminar, va. eine Beschuldigung mit einer Gegenbeschuldigung
erwidern; –se, vr. sich gegenseitig beschuldigen.
Recrudecer, vn. von neuem ausbrechen (Krankheit).
Recrudescencia, f. Wiederausbruch, m., Verschlimmerung f. einer
Krankheit.
Rectangular, rectángulo, adj. rechtwinkelig.
Rectángulo, m. Rechteck, n. (Geom.)
Rectificación, f. Berichtigung, Verbesserung; Rektifizierung, f.
Rectificar, va. berichtigen, verbessern; rektifizieren; läutern,
reinigen (Chem.).
Rectificativo, adj. berichtigend, verbessernd; läuternd.
Rectilíneo, adj. geradlinig.
Rectitud, f. Geradheit, gerade Richtung, f.; fig. Rechtschaffenheit,
Redlichkeit; Gerechtigkeit, Billigkeit; Richtigkeit, Genauigkeit, f.
Recto, adj. gerade; recht; fig. redlich; gerecht, billig; richtig;
eigentlich.
Rector, m. Rektor; Pfarrer, m.
Rectorado, m. Rektorat, n.
Rectoral, adj. Rektor-; sala –, m. Hörsaal, m.
Rectorar, vn. Rektor werden, sein.
Rectoría, f. Rektorwürde, f., Rektoramt, n.; Pfarrei, f.
Recua, f. Koppel f. Saumtiere oder Lasttiere; fig. Menge f. Sachen,
die hintereinander folgen.
Recuadrar, va. übergattern (Mal.).
Recuadro, m. Einteilung f. in Quadrate.
Recuaje, m. Saumtierzoll, m.
Recuarta, f. vierte Guitarrensaite, f.
Recudimiento, m. Mahnzettel, m.
Recudir, va. zahlen, entrichten, erlegen; –, vn. zurückspringen,
zurückprallen.
Recuento, m. Nachzählung, f.; Inventar, n.
Recuerdo, m. Erinnerung, f., Andenken, Gedenken, Gedächtnis, n.;
Erwähnung; Mahnung, f.; –s, pl. Empfehlungen, fpl., Grüße, mpl.
Recuero, m. Maultiertreiber, m.
Recuesto, m. Abhang, m.
Reculada, f. Zurückweichen, n.
Recular, vn. zurückweichen, zurückgehen; fig. fam. nachgeben, von
seiner Meinung abstehen.
Reculo, adj. ungeschwänzt (Huhn).
Reculones, á –, adv. fam. zurückweichend, zurückgehend.
Recuperable, adj. wieder erlangbar.
Recuperación, f. Wiedererlangung, Wiedergewinnung;
Wiedereroberung, f.
Recuperar, va. wiedererlangen, wieder an sich bringen; –se, vr.
sich wieder erholen (von einem Mißgeschick etc.).
Recurrir, vn. seine Zuflucht nehmen, sich wenden an; Berufung
einlegen (Jur.); außergewöhnliche Mittel ergreifen, um etwas zu
erreichen; zurückkehren.
Recurso, m. Zuflucht; Berufung, f., Rekurs; Regreß, m. (Jur.);
Rückkehr, f., Rücklauf, m.; Gesuch, n.; –s, pl. Lebensunterhalt, m.,
Mittel, npl.; fig. Hilfsquellen, fpl.
Recusable, adj. verwerflich (Jur.).
Recusación, f. Verweigerung; Verwerfung, f. (Jur.)
Recusar, va. ausschlagen, nicht annehmen; abschlagen,
verweigern; ablehnen, verwerfen (Jur.).
Rechazamiento, m. Zurücktreibung; Zurückweisung, f.
Rechazar, va. zurücktreiben; zurückstoßen; abweisen,
zurückweisen; fig. widerlegen.
Rechazo, m. Rückprall; Rückstoß, m.
Rechifla, f. Spott, Hohn, m., Spötterei, f.
Rechiflar, va. verspotten, höhnen; lächerlich machen.
Rechinamiento, m. Knarren n. eines Rades.
Rechinar, vn. knarren (Rad, Thür); fig. ungern in etwas einwilligen.
Rechoncho, adj. fam. dick und untersetzt, stämmig.
Rechupete, ser de –, fam. ganz köstlich, sehr angenehm sein.
Red, f. Netz; Garn; Netzgewebe, n.; Kramladen m. für Brot etc.;
Dorfgefängnis, n.; fig. hinterlistige Nachstellung, Schlinge, Falle, f.,
Fallstrick, m.; – del aire, Netz zum Fang von Zugvögeln; – de
pájaros, fig. fam. dünnes, schlechtgewebtes Zeug, n.; echar la
–, fig. fam. alle Maßregeln treffen, um etwas zu erreichen.
Redacción, f. Abfassung, Redaktion, f.
Redactar, va. abfassen, redigieren.
Redactor, m. Redakteur; Herausgeber, m.
Redada, f. Netzwurf, m.; fig. Fang, m.
Redar, va. das Netz auswerfen.
Redargución, f. Widerlegung, f.; Vorwurf, m.
Redargüir, va. widerlegen; vorwerfen.
Redecilla, f. Netzarbeit, f.; Haarnetz, n.
Rededor, m. Umkreis, m.; al –, adv. herum, ringsherum.
Redención, f. Rückkauf, m.; Wiedereinlösung; Ablösung f. eines
Kapitals etc.; Loskaufung, f., Loskauf, m.; Erlösung, f.; fig. Hilfe, f.
Beistand, m.
Redentor, m. Erlöser, Heiland; Redemptoristenmönch, m.
Redero, adj. Netz-; –, m. Netzflechter, m.
Redhibición, f. Rückgabe f. einer gekauften Sache.
Redhibir, va. den Kauf aufheben und die gekaufte Sache
zurückgeben.
Redición, f. Wiederholung f. des bereits Gesagten.
Redicho, adj. fam. unnötig wiederholt; gekünstelt im Reden.
Redil, m. Pferch, m., Schafhürde, f.
Redimible, adj. loskäuflich; rückkäuflich; ablöslich, tilgbar.
Redimir, va. loskaufen; rückkaufen; ablösen (Hypothek etc.), tilgen.
Redingote, m. langer weiter Überrock, Überzieher, m.
Rédito, m. Einkommen, n., Einkünfte, fpl.; Ertrag, m.
Redituable, adj. einträglich.
Redituar, va. eintragen, einbringen, abwerfen.
Redivivo, adj. wieder lebendig geworden.
Redoblado, adj. stämmig, untersetzt; paso –, m. Geschwindschritt,
m. (Mil.)
Redoblamiento, m. Verdoppelung, f.
Redoblante, m. Trommelwirbler, m.
Redoblar, va. verdoppeln; umbiegen (Nagel); wiederholen; –, vn.
den Wirbel schlagen (Trommler).
Redoble, m. Verdoppelung, f.; Trommelwirbel, m.
Redolor, m. tauber Schmerz, m.
Redoma, f. Phiole, f.
Redomado, adj. schlau, verschlagen, listig, verschmitzt.
Redonda, f. Runde, Gegend, Umgegend, f., Umkreis, m.; á la –,
adv. in der Runde, ringsherum.
Redondamente, adv. ringsherum; fig. rund, gerade heraus, klar
und deutlich.
Redondear, va. runden, abrunden; –se, vr. fig. seine Sachen ins
Reine bringen; fam. es zu etwas bringen.
Redondel, m. runde Fussbodenmatte, f.; fam. Kreis; runder Mantel
m. ohne Kragen.
Redondez, f. Rund(e), n., Rundung; Runde, f.; Umfang, Umkreis,
m.
Redondilla, f. Redondille, f. (Versart.)
Redondo, adj. rund; fig. tadellos, makellos; klar, deutlich; letra –a,
f. Rundschrift, f.; seda –a, f., Wattseide, f.; –, m. Rund(e), n.; fig.
fam. hartes Geld, n., klingende Münze, f.; de –, adv. kurzröckig,
en –, im Umkreise; ringsherum.
Redondón, m. fam. großer Kreis, m., große Runde, f.
Redopelo, m. Gegenstrich, m.; fig. Zank, Streit m. unter mehreren;
al –, adv. gegen den Strich (auch fig.).
Redor, f. kleine runde Binsenmatte, f.
Redro, adv. fam. zurück, rückwärts; hinten.
Redrojo, m. Spätfrucht, f.; fig. fam. schwächliches Kind,
Nestküchlein, n.
Reducción, f. Versetzung f. in den vorigen Zustand; Verkleinerung,
Verminderung, Verringerung; Herabsetzung; Reduktion;
Einschränkung, Beschränkung; Umwandlung, f.
Reducible, adj. zurückführbar; was sich verkleinern, vermindern,
herabsetzen, reduzieren, einschränken läßt.
Reducimiento, m. s. REDUCCIÓN.
Reducir, va. zurückführen; zurückbringen; in den vorigen Zustand
versetzen; verkleinern, vermindern, verringern; herabsetzen;
reduzieren; einschränken; beschränken; zusammenziehen,
zusammendrängen; verwandeln, auflösen; umwechseln; zu etwas
nötigen, bringen, bewegen; einrichten, einrenken (Chir.); –se, vr.
sich einschränken, sich einrichten; sich beschränken; sich fügen,
sich bescheiden; sich entschließen.
Reducto, m. Feldschanze, f. (Mil.)
Redundancia, f. Überfluß, m., Übermaß, n., Überschwang;
Wortschwall, m.; Weitschweifigkeit, f.
Redundar, vn. überlaufen, überfließen, überströmen; gut oder
schlecht ablaufen, ausfallen.
Reduplicación, f. Verdoppelung; Wiederholung, f.
Reduplicar, va. verdoppeln, wiederholen.
Reedificación, f. Wiedererbauung, f.
Reedificar, va. wieder (auf)bauen; wiederherstellen.
Reelección, f. Wiederwahl, f.
Reelegir, va. wiederwählen.
Reembolsar, va. zurückzahlen, rückzahlen, decken.
Reembolso, m. Zurückzahlung; Deckung, f.
Reemplazar, va. ersetzen, (wieder) erstatten; ersetzen, vertreten.
Reemplazo, m. Ersatz, m., Wiedererstattung; Stellvertretung, f.;
Stellvertreter, Ersatzmann, m. (Mil.)
Reencuentro, m. Begegnung, f., Zusammentreffen, n.
Reenganchamiento, m. Wiederanwerbung, Neuanwerbung, f.
(Mil.)
Reenganchar, va. wieder anwerben (Mil.); –se, vr. sich wieder
anwerben lassen.
Reengendrar, va. wieder erzeugen; aufs neue hervorbringen.
Reensayar, va. nochmals versuchen.
Reensayo, m. nochmaliger Versuch, m.
Reexaminación, f. nochmalige Prüfung, Nachprüfung, f.
Reexaminar, va. nochmals prüfen.
Reexportar, va. wieder ausführen (Waren).
Refacción, f. Imbiß, m., Labung, Erquickung, Erfrischung,
Vergütung, f.; fam. Nachlaß, Zahlungsabzug, m., Refaktie, f.
Refajo, m. kurzer Frauenrock; Unterrock, m.
Refalsado, adj. falsch, betrügerisch.
Refección, f. Imbiß, m.; Wiederherstellung, f.
Refectorio, m. Refektorium, n., Speisesaal m. in Klöstern.
Referencia, f. Bericht, m., Erzählung, f.; Bezug, m., Beziehung, f.
Referir, va. berichten, erzählen; –se, vr. sich beziehen,
bezugnehmen auf.
Refigurar, va. sich wieder vorstellen.
Refilón, de –, adv. schräg.
Refinación, f. Verfeinerung, f.
Refinado, adj. hochfein, ausgezeichnet, vorzüglich; fig. abgefeimt,
raffiniert, verschmitzt; boshaft.
Refinador, m. Läuterer, Reiniger, m.
Refinadura, f. Verfeinerung; Reinigung, Läuterung, f.
Refinamiento, m. Raffinement, n., List, Schlauheit, f.
Refinar, va. verfeinern; reinigen, läutern; fig. vervollkommnen.
Refino, adj. hochfein; –, m. Verfeinerung, f.; Spezereiladen, m.
Refirmar, va. bestätigen.
Refitolero, adj. fig. fam. zudringlich, sich in alles mischend, vorlaut,
naseweis; tändelnd.
Reflectar, vn. zurückstrahlen.
Reflector, m. Reflektor, m.
Reflejar, vn. zurückstrahlen; –, va. überlegen; –se, vr. fig. sich
widerspiegeln.
Reflejo, adj. zurückgestrahlt; fig. überlegt, überdacht; –, m.
Widerschein, Reflex, Abglanz, m.
Reflexión, f. Zurückstrahlung, f., Widerschein, m.; Rückwirkung, f.;
Reflex, m. (Mal.); fig. Überlegung, f., Nachdenken, n.,
Betrachtung, Erwägung, f.
Reflexionar, va. überlegen, bedenken; –, vn. nachdenken.
Reflexivo, adj. zurückstrahlend; sich widerspiegelnd; überlegend,
nachdenkend, nachdenklich; rückwirkend, rückbezüglich; verbo
–, m. rückbezügliches Zeitwort, n. (Gram.)
Reflorecer, vn. von neuem, wieder blühen; fig. wieder aufblühen.
Refluir, vn. zurückfließen, zurückströmen.
Reflujo, m. Rückfluß, m., Zurückfließen, n., Abfluß, m.; Ebbe, f.
Refocilación, f. Erquickung; Ergötzung, Belustigung, f.
Refocilar, va. erquicken; ergötzen, belustigen.
Reforma, f. Reform; Verbesserung; Wiederherstellung;
Einschränkung; Abschaffung; Abdankung; Reformation, f.
Reformable, adj. verbesserlich; verbesserungsbedürftig.
Reformación, f. Reformierung; Umformung; Verbesserung, f.
Reformado, adj. reformiert; abgedankt, verabschiedet (Mil.).
Reformador, m. Reformator, m.
Reformar, va. reformieren; umformen; bessern, verbessern;
wiederherstellen; einschränken; abschaffen, abstellen; abdanken,
verabschieden; schmälern, vermindern; –se, vr. sich bessern; sich
mäßigen.
Reformatorio, adj. reformatorisch.
Reforzada, f. fingerbreites Seidenband, n.; Baßsaite f. für Harfe
oder Geige.
Reforzar, va. verstärken; befestigen; ermutigen.
Refracción, f. Strahlenbrechung, f.
Refractar, va. brechen (Lichtstrahlen).
Refractario, adj. wortbrüchig; feuerfest.
Refrán, m. Sprichwort, n.
Refregadura, f., refregamiento, refregón, m. Reiben, n.,
Reibung, f.
Refregar, va. reiben; fig. fam. vorwerfen.
Refreir, va. nochmals braten, backen; aufbraten.
Refrenable, adj. was zu zügeln ist.
Refrenamiento, m. Zügeln, n., Zügelung, Bändigung, Bezähmung,
f.
Refrenar, va. zügeln, im Zaume halten (auch fig.); fig. bändigen,
bezähmen.
Refrendación, f., refrendo, m. Gegenzeichnung, f., Visum, n.
Refrendar, va. gegenzeichnen; visieren (Pässe); fig. fam.
wiederholen.
Refrendario, m. Gegenzeichner, m.
Refrendata, f. Gegenzeichnung, f.
Refrescador, adj. erfrischend, kühlend.
Refrescadura, f.; refrescamiento, m. Erfrischung; Abkühlung, f.
Refrescar, va. erfrischen, kühlen, abkühlen; fig. erneuern; wieder
auffrischen; –, vn. kühl werden, sich abkühlen; sich erfrischen,
eine Erfrischung nehmen; –se, vr. sich erfrischen; die frische Luft
genießen.
Refresco, m. Erfrischung, Stärkung, f., Imbiß, m.; kühlendes
Getränk, n.; de –, als Zugabe.
Refriega, f. Gefecht, Treffen, Scharmützel, n.; fig. Streit, m.
Refrigeración, f. Abkühlung; Erkaltung, f.
Refrigerante, m. Kühlfaß; Kühlgefäß, n.
Refrigerar, va. kühlen, abkühlen, erfrischen; fig. stärken, neue
Kräfte geben, erquicken.
Refrigerativo, adj. kühlend, erfrischend.
Refrigerio, m. Kühlung, Erfrischung, f.; fig. Linderung, f., Trost, m.;
Labsal, n., Erquickung, f.
Refringir, va. brechen (Lichtstrahl).
Refrito, adj. aufgebraten.
Refuerzo, m. Verstärkung, f.; Zuwachs, m.; Unterstützung, Hilfe, f.,
Beistand, m.
Refugiar, va. Zuflucht gewähren, bei sich aufnehmen; –se, vr. sich
flüchten.
Refugio, m. Zuflucht, f., Zufluchtsort, m.
Refulgencia, f. Glanz, Schimmer, m.
Refulgente, adj. glänzend, schimmernd.
Refundición, f. Umschmelzung, f., Umguß, m.
Refundir, va. umschmelzen, umgießen; fig. verschmelzen;
einverleiben; umarbeiten; –, vn. gut oder schlecht ausfallen.
Refunfuñadura, f., refunfuño, m. Schnauben n. aus Unwillen,
Brummen, n.
Refunfuñar, vn. aus Unwillen schnauben, in den Bart brummen.
Refutación, f. Widerlegung, f.
Refutar, va. widerlegen.
Refutatorio, adj. widerlegend.
Regadera, f., regadero, m. Gießkanne, f.
Regadío, adj. bewässerbar; –, m. Bewässerung, f.
Regadizo, adj. bewässerbar, bewässerungsfähig.
Regador, adj. bewässernd, begießend; –, m. Bewässerer, Begießer,
m.
Regadura, f. einmaliges Begießen, n.
Regajal, regajo, m. Pfütze, Lache, f.
Regala, f. Dalbord, n. (Mar.)
Regalada, f. königlicher Marstall, m.
Regalado, adj. lecker; köstlich; lieblich, anmutig.
Regalador, adj. freigebig; –, m. freigebiger Mann, m.; Glättholz, n.
Regalamiento, m. Beschenkung; reiche Bewirtung, f., Regalieren,
n.; freundliche Aufnahme, aufmerksame Behandlung, f.; Ergötzen,
n.
Regalar, va. beschenken; reich bewirten, regalieren; freundlich
aufnehmen, aufmerksam behandeln; liebkosen; ergötzen,
belustigen; –se, vr. sich gütlich thun.
Regalejo, m. kleines Geschenk, n.
Regalía, f. Regal, königliches Vorrecht, n.; fig. besonderes Vorrecht;
–s, pl. Nebeneinnahmen, fpl.
Regalillo, m. Muff, m.
Regaliz, m., regaliza, f. Süßholz, n.
Regalo, m. Geschenk; Vergnügen, n.; Leckerei, f.; Schmaus, m.;
Wohlleben, n., Behaglichkeit, f.
Regalón, adj. fam. leckerhaft, verweichlicht.
Regañada, f. andalusische Torte, f.
Regañado, adj. ungern, widerwillig gegeben oder gethan; pan –,
m. geborstenes Brot, n.
Regañamiento, m. Knurren, Zähnefletschen; Murren, Brummen;
Schelten, Geschelte, n.
Regañar, vn. knurren, die Zähne fletschen (Hund); murren,
brummen; schelten; (auf)platzen, aufspringen, bersten (Früchte
etc.); –, va. ausschelten, auszanken.
Regañir, vn. nochmals heulen.
Regaño, m. mürrisches Gesicht und Geschelte, n.; fig.
aufgesprungene, krustenlose Stelle f. am Brot; fam. Verweis, m.
Regañón, adj. fam. mürrisch, sauertöpfisch, zänkisch.
Regar, va. bewässern, begießen; berieseln; sprengen, besprengen;
netzen, benetzen; durchfließen (Fluß ein Land).
Regata, f. Bewässerungsrinne; Regatta, Ruderwettfahrt, f.
Regate, m. rasche Seitenbewegung f. des Körpers, Ausweichen, n.;
fig. fam. Ausflucht, f.
Regatear, va. handeln, feilschen; Kleinhandel treiben; fig. fam.
verweigern; –, vn. ausweichen; Ausflüchte machen; wettrudern.
Regateo, m. Handeln, Feilschen, n.
Regatería, f. Kleinhandel, m.
Regatón, m. Kleinhändler, Krämer, Höker; Feilscher, m.; Zwinge, f.
Regatonear, va. Kleinhandel, Krämerei, Hökerei treiben.
Regatonería, f. Kleinhandel, m., Krämerei, Hökerei, f.;
Krämerladen, m.
Regazo, m. Rockschoß; Schoß, m.
Regencia, f. Regieren, n., Regierung; Regentschaft, f.
Regeneración, f. Wiedererzeugung; Wiederherstellung;
Wiedergeburt, f.
Regenerar, va. wiedererzeugen, wiederhervorbringen;
wiederherstellen; –se, vr. wiedergeboren werden.
Regentar, va. vorstehen, präsidieren, ein Ehrenamt bekleiden; –,
vn. den Herrn, den Gebieter spielen.
Regente, adj. regierend, herrschend; –, m. Regent; Präsident m.
eines Obergerichtshofes; Studienrektor m. in einem Kloster;
Professor; Faktor m. einer Buchdruckerei; –, f. Regentin;
Präsidentin, f.
Regentear, va. den Herrn, den Gebieter spielen.
Regiamente, adv. königlich, fürstlich; fig. großartig.
Regicida, m. Königsmörder, m.
Regicidio, m. Königsmord, m.
Regidor, adj. regierend, herrschend; –, m. Regierer, Herrscher,
Regent; Stadtrat, Ratsherr, Schöffe, m.
Regiduría, f. Amt n. eines Stadtrats.
Régimen, m. Benehmen, Betragen, n., Aufführung;
Regierungsform, f.; regierter Fall, m. (Gram.); Diät, f.
Regimentar, va. in Regimenter ordnen (Mil.).
Regimiento, m. Regiment, n. (Mil.); Stadtobrigkeit, f.
Regio, adj. königlich; fig. herrlich, prächtig, großartig.
Región, f. Gegend, Region, f.
Regir, va. regieren, herrschen; leiten, führen; regieren (Gram.); –,
vn. zu Kraft bestehen; dem Steuer gehorchen; el que rige, der
laufende Monat.
Registrador, m. Beschauer; Registrator; Thorschreiber, m.
Registrar, va. genau betrachten, besichtigen; untersuchen;
durchsuchen; registrieren, eintragen, einschreiben; verzeichnen;
bezeichnen, ein Lesezeichen ins Buch legen; –se, vr. sich
einschreiben lassen.
Registro, m. genaue Betrachtung, Besichtigung; Untersuchung,
Durchsuchung, f.; Register, n.; Eintragung, Einschreibung, f.;
Verzeichnis; Protokoll, n.; Ort m., von wo man etwas übersehen,
in etwas hineinschauen kann; Registratur, f.; Zollregister;
Zollzettel, m.; Zollhaus, Zollamt, n.; Angabe, Vorzeigung f. der
verzollbaren Waren; Urkundenbuch, n.; Orgelregister; Pedal n. am
Klavier; Buchregister; Buchzeichen, Blattzeichen, n.; echar todos
los –s, fig. sein möglichstes thun.
Regla, f. Lineal; Richtscheit, n.; Regel; Ordnung; Vorschrift;
Richtschnur, f.; Grundsatz, m.; Ordensregel; Lebensregel;
Monatsreinigung, f., Regel der Frauen; Muster, Vorbild, n.;
Methode, f., Verfahren, n.; á –, adv. regelrecht; fig.
vernunftgemäß; en –, in Ordnung; fig. ordentlich, wie sich's
gehört.
Reglado, adj. geregelt, geordnet; regelmäßig, ordentlich; mäßig,
genügsam im Essen und Trinken.
Reglamentar, va. durch Verordnung, durch Statut bestimmen,
anordnen.
Reglamentario, adj. vorschriftsmäßig.
Reglamento, m. Verordnung, Vorschrift, Verfügung, f., Statut,
Reglement, n.
Reglar, adj. Ordens-.
Reglar, va. liniieren; regeln, ordnen, anordnen: ordentlich
einrichten; –se, vr. sich mäßigen; sich einrichten; sich richten
nach.
Regleta, f. Durchschußlinie, Reglette, f. (Typ.)
Reglón, m. großes Lineal, n.; Tünchscheibe, f.
Regocijado, adj. erfreulich, belustigend, erheiternd.
Regocijador, m. Lustigmacher, Spaßmacher, m.
Regocijar, va. erfreuen, ergötzen, belustigen, erheitern; –se, vr.
sich erfreuen, sich ergötzen, sich belustigen.
Regocijo, m. Jubel, m.; Freude, Fröhlichkeit, Lust, f., Vergnügen, n.,
Lustbarkeit, Belustigung, f.
Regodearse, vr. fam. sich ergötzen, Vergnügen finden; schäkern,
scherzen, spaßen.
Regodeo, m. Ergötzlichkeit, f., Vergnügen, n.; Scherz, m.
Regojo, m. Stück Brot n., das auf dem Tisch übrig bleibt; fig. Knabe
m. von kleinem Wuchs, Knirps, m.
Regoldar, vn. rülpsen; fig. fam. prahlen.
Regoldo, m. wilde Kastanie, Roßkastanie, f.
Regolfar, vn. zurückfließen, zurückströmen.
Regolfo, m. Zurückfließen, n.; Golf, Meerbusen, m.
Regona, f. großer Bewässerungsgraben, m.
Regordete, adj. fam. klein und dick.
Regosto, m. Appetit, m., Verlangen n. nach einer Sache, an der
man Geschmack gefunden.
Regraciar, va. Dank sagen, sich bedanken.
Regresar, vn. zurückkehren; wieder in den Besitz eintreten.
Regresión, f. Zurückgehen, n., Rückgang, m.
Regreso, m. Rückkehr, Zurückkunft, Rückreise, f.; Rückschritt;
Rückanspruch, Regreß, m. (Jur.)
Regruñir, vn. sehr laut grunzen.
Reguardarse, vr. sich vorsehen, sich hüten.
Regüeldo, m. Rülpsen, Aufstoßen, n., Rülps, m.; fig. Prahlerei, f.
Reguera, f. Bewässerungsgraben, m.; Ankertau, n. (Mar.)
Reguero, m. Rinne, f., Rinnsal, n.; Spur f. von einer vergossenen
Flüssigkeit.
Regulación, f. Schätzung, f., Überschlag, m.; Berechnung;
Regelung, Regulierung, f.
Regulado, adj. geregelt, geordnet; berichtigt.
Regulador, m. Regulator, m.
Regular, adj. regelmäßig; regelrecht; kunstgemäß; ordentlich;
mittelmäßig, gewöhnlich, alltäglich; Ordens-; por lo –, adv.
gewöhnlich.
Regular, va. schätzen, überschlagen; abmessen; berechnen;
regeln, ordnen, regulieren, berichtigen.
Regularidad, f. Regelmäßigkeit; genaue Beobachtung f. der
Ordensregel; gewöhnliche Art f. zu handeln.
Regularizar, va. regulieren, in Ordnung bringen.
Regularmente, adv. regelmäßig; ordentlich; gewöhnlich; natürlich;
mittelmäßig.
Régulo, m. Fürst m. eines kleinen Staates, Duodezfürst; Basilisk, m.
Regurgitar, vn. wieder von sich geben; überfließen.
Rehabilitación, f. Wiedereinsetzung f. in den vorigen Stand,
Wiederherstellung, f.
Rehabilitar, va. wieder in den vorigen Stand setzen,
wiederherstellen; rehabilitieren.
Rehacer, va. wieder machen, noch einmal machen, von neuem
anfangen; umarbeiten; ausbessern, wiederherstellen; ersetzen; –
se, vr. sich erholen, wieder zu Kräften kommen.
Rehacimiento, m. Wiederherstellung, Ausbesserung; Erholung,
Kräftigung, Stärkung, f.
Rehacio, adj. halsstarrig, widerspenstig, störrig; starrköpfig.
Rehartar, va. übersättigen.
Rehecho, adj. umgearbeitet; ausgebessert, wiederhergestellt;
mittelgroß, untersetzt.
Rehelear, vn. bitter schmecken.
Reheleo, m. bitterer Geschmack, m., Bitterkeit, f.
Rehén, m. Geißel, f.; Unterpfand, n.
Rehenchimiento, m. Nachfüllen; Ausstopfen, n.
Rehenchir, va. nachfüllen; ausfüllen; ausstopfen.
Reherimiento, m. Zurücktreibung, f.
Reherir, va. zurücktreiben.
Reherrar, va. wieder beschlagen (Hufe).
Rehervir, vn. nochmals sieden; fig. entbrennen vor Liebe etc.; –se,
vr. gären, anfangen sauer zu werden (eingemachte Früchte).
Rehilandera, f. Papierwindmühle f. der Kinder.
Rehilar, va. zu fest zusammendrehen beim Spinnen; –, vn. sich
zitternd bewegen.
Rehilete, m. Federball; kleiner, befiederter Pfeil, m.; fig. Spitze,
Stichelei, f.
Rehilo, m. zitternde Bewegung, f.; Flattern, n.
Rehogar, va. würzen; schmoren.
Rehollar, va. zertreten.
Rehoyo, m. tiefes Loch, n.
Rehuir, va. u. vn. fliehen; zurückschrecken, zurückweichen; aus
dem Wege gehen, vermeiden; ausschlagen, ablehnen, verweigern;
verschmähen.
Rehumedecer, va. wieder anfeuchten, befeuchten, naß machen.
Rehundir, va. in die Tiefe versenken; umschmelzen, umgießen;
austiefen, vertiefen; fig. verschwenden, vergeuden, verschleudern.
Rehusar, va. ausschlagen, ablehnen, verweigern.
Reidero, adj. fam. zum Lachen reizend, lächerlich.
Reidor, m. Lacher, m.
Reimpresión, f. Wiederdruck, Abdruck, Neudruck, m.; neue
Auflage, f.
Reimprimir, va. wieder drucken, neu drucken; wieder auflegen.
Reina, f. Königin; Herrscherin, f.
Reinado, m. Regierungsdauer, Regierungszeit, f.
Reinador, m. Herrscher, m.
Reinar, va. regieren, herrschen; fig. Mode sein.
Reincidencia, f. Rückfall m. in einen Irrtum.
Reincidente, adj. rückfällig.
Reincidir, vn. zurückfallen in einen Irrtum etc.
Reincorporación, f. Wiedereinverleibung, f.
Reincorporar, va. wieder einverleiben.
Reino, m. Königreich; Reich, n.; Reichsversammlung, f.,
Reichsstände, mpl.; Tierreich; Pflanzenreich, Steinreich.
Reintegración, f., reintegro, m. Wiedereinsetzung;
Wiederherstellung, f.; Ersatz, m., Entschädigung, f.
Reintegrar, va. wieder einsetzen; wiederherstellen; ergänzen,
ersetzen, entschädigen; –se, vr. sich schadlos halten.
Reir, vn. lachen (auch fig.); fig. spotten; –se, vr. lachen; lustig sein;
fig. fam. anfangen zu reißen (Zeug); –se de, fig. fam. auslachen,
verspotten, sich lustig machen über; echarse á –, fig. fam. sich
ausschütten (platzen) vor Lachen.
Reis, mpl. Reis, m., portugiesische Münze = 6/10 Centimo.
Reiteración, f. Wiederholung, f.
Reiterar, va. wiederholen; erneuern.
Revindicación, f. Zurückforderung, f. (Jur.)
Revindicar, va. zurückfordern (Jur.).
Reja, f. Pflugschar, f.; Gitter; Umpflügen, n.
Rejalgar, m. roter Schwefelarsenik, m.
Rejero, m. Gittermacher, m.
Rejilla, f. Gitter, n. im Beichtstuhl; Kohlenbecken, n.; – del coche,
Gepäcknetz, n. (Eisenbahn.)
Rejo, m. Stachel; Eisenstachel; Eisenbeschlag m. einer Thür.
Rejón, m. zugespitzte Eisenstange, f.; Wurfspieß m. der
Stierfechter.
Rejonazo, m. Wurf, Stich, Stoß m. mit dem Wurfspieß.
Rejoneador, m. Stierfechter m. mit Wurfspieß.
Rejonear, va. den Wurfspieß nach dem Stier schleudern und ihn
damit verwunden.
Rejoneo, m. Stiergefecht n. mit dem Wurfspieß.
Rejuela, f. Gitterchen, kleines Gitter; Kohlenbecken, n.
Rejuvenecer, va. verjüngen; –, vn. u. –se, vr. wieder jung werden,
sich verjüngen.
Relación, f. Bericht, m., Erzählung, Beschreibung, f.; Vortrag, m.;
Beziehung, Verbindung, f., Zusammenhang, Bezug, m., Verhältnis,
n.; Verkehr, Umgang, m.; entfernte Verwandtschaft; Erwähnung;
Romanze, f.; – de ciego, Lied n. des Blinden; fig. fam. Geplärre,
n.; decir –, hacer –, anspielen (auf etwas).
Relacionar, va. berichten, erzählen, vortragen; erwähnen; –se, vr.
in Beziehung, in Verbindung stehen (untereinander).
Relacionero, m. Bänkelsänger, m.
Relajación, f., relajamiento, m. Erschlaffung, Schlaffheit, f.;
Bruch, m.; fig. Auflockerung f. der Sitten, Ungebundenheit;
Erlassung f. eines Gelübdes, Eides; Ruhe, Erholung f. von der
Arbeit.
Relajador, relajante, adj. erschlaffend.
Relajar, va. schlaffmachen, erschlaffen; abspannen; erlassen
(Gelübde, Eid, Strafe); –, vn. ausruhen von der Arbeit, sich
erholen, sich zerstreuen; –se, vr. erschlaffen, schlaff werden;
nachlassen; sich einen Bruch zuziehen; fig. liederlich werden, sich
dem Laster ergeben.
Relamer, va. nochmals lecken, ablecken; –se, vr. sich die Lippen
ablecken; fig. sich übermäßig schminken; prahlen.
Relamido, adj. geleckt, gesucht, geputzt.
Relámpago, m. Blitz, m., Wetterleuchten, n.; fig. Aufleuchten, n.,
plötzlicher Schein, m.; schnell Vorübergehendes, n.; witziger
Einfall, m.; Fell n. auf dem Auge der Pferde.
Relampaguear, vn. blitzen, wetterleuchten; fig. blitzen, funkeln,
leuchten (Augen).
Relance, m. zweiter Wurf, m.; nochmaliges Auswerfen n. des
Netzes; zufälliges Ereignis; Glück oder Unglück n. im Spiel;
Einwerfen n. des Zettels in die Wahlurne; de –, adv.
zufälligerweise, von ungefähr.
Relanzar, va. zurücktreiben; den Wahlzettel wieder in die Urne
werfen.
Relapso, adj. rückfällig; –, m. Rückfälliger, m.
Relatar, va. berichten, erzählen; Bericht erstatten.
Relativo, adj. bezüglich, sich beziehend, relativ; –, m.
Beziehungswort, n. (Gram.)
Relato, m. Bericht, m.; Erzählung, f.
Relator, adj. berichtend; erzählend; –, m. Erzähler;
Berichterstatter; Referent, m.
Relatoria, f. Amt n. des Berichterstatters.
Relavar, va. nochmals waschen.
Relave, m. nochmaliges Waschen, n.; Erzwäsche, f.
Releer, va. wieder lesen, noch einmal lesen.
Relegación, f. Verbannung; Verweisung, f.
Relegar, va. verbannen; verweisen.
Relej, releje, m. Geleise, n., Wagenspur, f.; Weinstein m. auf den
Lippen.
Relente, m. Abendtau, Nachttau, m.
Relentecer, vn. im Tau feucht werden.
Relevación, f. Entlastung, Entledigung; Erleichterung; Erlassung,
Freisprechung; Ablösung (Mil.); Abhülfe, f.
Relevante, adj. vorzüglich, ausgezeichnet.
Relevar, va. in erhabener Arbeit verfertigen; entlasten, entledigen,
erleichtern; abhelfen; erlassen (Schuld, Abgabe); lossprechen,
freisprechen; ablösen (Mil.); ersetzen, vertreten; hervorheben
(Mal.); fig. rühmen, preisen; –, vn. sich hervorheben (Mal.); sich
belaufen, betragen (Summe).
Relevo, m. Ablösung; ablösende Schildwache, f. (Mil.)
Relicario, m. Reliquienschrein, m.
Relieve, m. erhabene Arbeit, f., Relief, n.; alto –, Hochrelief; bajo
–, Flachrelief; –es, pl. Überreste mpl. einer Mahlzeit.
Religar, va. nochmals binden; fester binden.
Religión, f. Religion, f., Gottesglaube, m., Gottesverehrung,
Gottesfurcht, Frömmigkeit; Gewissenspflicht, f.; Klosterleben, n.;
geistlicher Orden, m.; entrar en –, ins Kloster gehen.
Religionario, m. Reformierter, m.
Religiosa, f. Ordensgeistliche, Nonne, f.
Religiosidad, f. Religiosität, Frömmigkeit, f.
Religioso, adj. religiös, gottesfürchtig, fromm; treu, gewissenhaft;
ordensgeistlich, Kloster-; –, m. Ordensgeistlicher, Mönch, m.
Relimar, va. nochmals feilen, nachfeilen.
Relimpiar, va. nochmals reinigen.
Relimpio, adj. fam. sehr rein.
Relinchar, vn. wiehern.
Relincho, m. Wiehern, n.
Relindo, adj. sehr hübsch, sehr schön.
Reliquia, f. Überbleibsel, n., Rest, Überrest, m.; Reliquie, f.,
Heiligtum, n.; fig. Nachwehen, pl.
Reloj, m. Uhr, f.; – de bolsillo, Taschenuhr; – de campana,
Glockenuhr, Schlaguhr; – de pared, – de péndola, Wanduhr,
Pendeluhr; – de repetición, Repetieruhr; – desconcertado, fig.
Mensch m., der verrückt handelt oder spricht; estar como un –,
fig. sich einer vollkommenen Gesundheit erfreuen.
Relojera, f. Uhrgehäuse, Uhrgestell, n.
Relojería, f. Uhrmacherkunst, Uhrmacherei; Uhrmacherwerkstatt, f.,
Uhrmacherladen, Uhrenladen, m.
Relojero, m. Uhrmacher, m.
Reluciente, adj. glänzend, funkelnd; leuchtend.
Relucir, vn. glänzen, funkeln, schimmern; leuchten (auch fig.); fig.
hervorleuchten.
Reluchar, vn. streiten, kämpfen, ringen.
Relumbrar, vn. hell leuchten, scheinen, strahlen.
Relumbrón, m. Aufleuchten, n., plötzlicher heller Schein, m.;
Flittergold, n.; fig. Flitter, m.; hohle Phrase, f.
Rellanar, va. ebnen; –se, vr. sich setzen, sich niedersetzen, sich
hinsetzen.
Rellano, m. Treppenabsatz, m.
Rellenar, va. nachfüllen, ausfüllen; ausstopfen, vollstopfen;
überfüllen; füllen, stopfen (Speisen); polstern; –se, vr. fig. fam.
sich den Magen vollstopfen, überfüllen.
Relleno, adj. sehr voll, angefüllt; –, m. Füllsel; Nachfüllen, n.,
Nachfüllung, f.
Remachar, va. nieten, vernieten, umnieten.
Remache, m. Nieten, Umnieten, n.
Remadura, f., remamiento, m. Rudern, n.
Remandar, va. wiederholt befehlen.
Remanecer, vn. unvermutet (wieder) erscheinen.
Remanente, m. Rest, Überrest; Überschuß, m.
Remangar, va. aufstülpen, aufstreifen, aufkrämpeln (Ärmel);
aufschürzen (Kleider).
Remango, m. Aufstülpen, Aufstreifen, Aufkrämpeln n. der Ärmel;
Aufschürzen, n.
Remansarse, vr. langsamer fließen, sich stauen (Fluß).
Remanso, m. stilles Wasser, Wasser, n.; fig. Trägheit, Langsamkeit,
f.
Remar, va. rudern; fig. mühsam arbeiten, sich abmühen.
Remarcar, va. nochmals zeichnen, bezeichnen; anmerken.
Rematado, adj. unheilbar, aufgegeben; rettungslos verloren;
verurteilt.
Rematante, m. Steigerer m., der den Zuschlag erhält.
Rematar, va. enden, beendigen, vollenden; abschließen
(Rechnung); zuschlagen (bei Versteigerungen); mit einem Schuß
erlegen; den letzten Stich vernähen, durch einen Knoten sichern;
–, vn. enden, aufhören; auslaufen (in eine Spitze); –se, vr.
verloren gehen; zu Grunde gehen, verderben.
Remate, m. Ende, n., Schluß, Abschluß; Ausgang, m.; Beendigung,
f.; äußerstes Ende, Spitze, f.; Gipfel; Zuschlag m. bei
Versteigerungen; Giebelzinne, Krönung f. eines Gebäudes; de –,
adv. rettungslos; unwiderruflich; unheilbar; por –, schließlich, zum
Schluß.
Remecer, va. hin- und herbewegen, schütteln.
Remedable, adj. nachahmbar.
Remedador, m. Nachahmer; Nachäffer, m.
Remedar, va. nachahmen, nachmachen; jemandes Beispiel folgen;
nachäffen.
Remediable, adj. abhelfbar.
Remediador, adj. abhelfend; –, m. Helfer, Retter, m.
Remediar, va. abhelfen, steuern; helfen, beistehen; retten;
bessern, verbessern; wiedergutmachen; heilen; hindern,
verhindern; vermeiden, umgehen.
Remedición, f. Nachmessen, n., Nachmessung, f.
Remedio, m. Abhülfe, f.; Hülfsmittel; Rettungsmittel; Arzneimittel,
Heilmittel, Mittel; Rechtsmittel, n.; Besserung, Verbesserung;
Zuflucht; Hülfe, Aushülfe, f.; – casero, Hausmittel; no haber –,
no tener más –, unvermeidlich, unabänderlich sein.
Remedir, va. nochmals messen, nachmessen.
Remedo, m. Nachahmung; Nachäffung, f.
Rememorar, va. erinnern.
Rememorativo, adj. erinnernd.
Remendado, adj. geflickt, ausgebessert; gefleckt, getupft, getigert
(Tiere).
Remendar, va. flicken, ausbessern; bessern, verbessern; ergänzen.
Remendón, m. Flicker, Ausbesserer; Flickschneider, m.; –a, f.
Flickerin, Ausbesserin, Flickschneiderin, Flicknäherin, f.
Remense, adj. aus Reims.
Remera, f. Schwungfeder, f.
Remero, m. Ruderer, m.
Remesa, f. Rimesse; Geldsendung, f.
Remesar, va. Rimessen machen; zusenden; die Haare, den Bart
ausraufen.
Remesón, m. Ausraufen n. der Haare, des Bartes; Handvoll f.
ausgeraufter Haare; Parieren n. des Pferdes im schnellsten Lauf.
Remeter, va. wieder hinstellen, hinlegen, hinsetzen; hineinstecken;
die Windeln wechseln.
Remiel, m. aus dem Zuckerrohr gepreßter Saft m. nach dem
zweiten Sud.
Remiendo, m. Flicken, Flick, m.; Flicken, Ausbessern, n., Flickerei,
f.; Flecken, Fleck m. (bei Tieren); kleine Accidenzarbeit, f. (Typ.);
fig. Zusatz, m., Einschiebsel, n.; fam. aufgenähtes Ordenszeichen,
n.; á –s, adv. fig. fam. stückweise, in Unterbrechungen; esto es –
de otro paño, fig. fam. das gehört nicht, paßt nicht hierher.
Remilgado, adj. geziert, zimperlich.
Remilgarse, vr. sich zieren, zimperlich thun.
Remilgo, m. Ziererei, Zimperlichkeit, f.
Reminiscencia, f. Rückerinnerung, Erinnerung, Reminiscenz, f.;
Nachklang, m.
Remirado, adj. umsichtig, vorsichtig, bedächtig.
Remirar, va. nochmals ansehen, betrachten; genau ansehen; –se,
vr. umsichtig, vorsichtig sein; sich beschauen, sich betrachten.
Remisible, adj. erläßlich, verzeihlich.
Remisión, f. Übersendung, Zuschickung, Überweisung;
Rücksendung; Auslieferung; Erlassung, Vergebung, Verzeihung;
Nachlässigkeit, Lässigkeit; Laßheit, Schlaffheit; Erschlaffung, f.;
Nachlassen, n.; Hinweis, m.
Remisivo, adj. verweisend; nachlassend.
Remiso, adj. nachlässig, lässig; unentschlossen, zögernd; schlaff;
schwach.
Remisoria, f. Begleitschreiben, n. (Jur.).
Remisorio, adj. erlassend, vergebend.
Remitente, adj. nachlassend; –, m. Absender m. eines Briefes;
Remittent, m.
Remitir, va. übersenden, zuschicken, überweisen, remittieren;
ausliefern; erlassen, vergeben, verzeihen; freisprechen;
aufschieben, verschieben; überlassen, anheimstellen; verweisen;
–, vn. nachlassen, schwächer werden; –se, vr. sich beziehen, sich
berufen auf.
Remo, m. Ruder, n., Riemen, m.; fig. mühsame Arbeit, f.; á – y sin
sueldo, adv. fig. fam. mit Mühe und Plage, aber ohne Nutzen; á –
y vela, fig. fam. rasch, schnell, emsig; –s, pl. Arme und Beine,
pl.; Flügel, mpl.
Remoción, f. Entfernung, Wegschaffung, Wegräumung; Absetzung
f. vom Amte.
Remojadero, m. Kübel m. zum Wässern der Fische.
Remojar, va. wieder anfeuchten, naßmachen; einweichen.
Remojo, m. Wiederanfeuchten, Einweichen, Wässern, n.
Remolacha, f. Runkelrübe, f.
Remolar, m. Rudermacher, m.
Remolcar, va. schleppen, bugsieren (Schiffe).
Remoler, va. wiederholt mahlen, feiner mahlen.
Remolimiento, m. wiederholtes Mahlen, n.
Remolinar, vn. sich kreisförmig herumdrehen.
Remolinear, va. wie im Wirbel drehen.
Remolino, m. Wirbelwind; Strudel, Wasserstrudel; Haarwirbel, m.;
fig. wirrer Zusammenlauf, Volksauflauf, m.; Verwirrung; Unruhe, f.
Remolón, adj. schlaff, träge, arbeitsscheu.
Remolonear, vn., –se, vr. aus Trägheit oder Faulheit zaudern,
zögern; fam. faulenzen.
Remolque, m. Schleppen, Bugsieren; Schlepptau, n. (Mar.); á –,
adv. im Schlepptau; fig. getrieben, unfreiwillig.
Remondar, va. nachmals reinigen, säubern, ausputzen (Bäume
etc.).
Remonta, f. Vorschuhen, Besohlen, n.; Remonte, f. (Mil.)
Remontar, va. verjagen, verscheuchen (Wild); Remonte abhalten,
mit frischen Dienstpferden versehen (Mil.); neu ausstopfen
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