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Felix I. Lessambo
International Finance
New Players and
Global Markets
International Finance
Felix I. Lessambo
International Finance
New Players and Global Markets
Felix I. Lessambo
Fordham University
New Britain, CT, USA
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
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Acknowledgments
v
Contents
1 International Finance 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Features of International Managerial Finance 2
1.2.1 Foreign Exchange Risk 2
1.2.2 Political Risk 2
1.2.3 Market Imperfection 3
1.2.4 Enhance Opportunities 5
1.3 International Financial transactions 5
2 International Institutions of International Finance 7
2.1 General 7
2.2 The Bretton Woods Architecture 8
2.2.1 The Broader Compromise: From 1945
to 1971 9
2.2.2 The Floating-Rate Dollar Standard:
1973–1984 10
2.2.3 The Plaza-Louvre Accords: From 1985
to 1999 11
2.3 The Post-Bretton Woods Era: New Mandates 12
2.4 Reforming the Bretton Woods Institutions 13
2.5 The Relevancy of the Bretton Woods Institutions 14
2.6 The Two Additional Financial Institutions 15
2.6.1 The New Development Bank 15
vii
viii CONTENTS
xiii
xiv ACRONYMS
FX Foreign Exchange
GAO Government Accountability Office
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
GDP Growth Domestic Product
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
IMF International Monetary Fun
IRC Internal Revenue Code
LIBOR London Interbank Offered Rate
LSE London Stock Exchange
MNC Multinational Company
MTF Mutual Trading Facility
Nasdaq National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations
Exchange
NDB New Development Bank
NYSE New York Security Exchange
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OSF Oil Stabilization Fund
OTC Over-the-Counter
QIA Qatar Investment Authority
SAMA Saudi Arabia Monetary Authority
SEC Securities and Exchange Commission
SOX Sarbanes-Oxley Act
SPV Special Purpose Vehicle
SSE Shanghai Securities Exchange
SWF Sovereign Wealth Fund
TRS Total Return Swap
TSE Tokyo Securities Exchange
UK United Kingdom
US United States of America
VaR Value at Risk
WBG World Bank Group
XTF Exchange Traded Fund
List of Figures
xv
List of Tables
xvii
List of Cited Cases
xix
CHAPTER 1
International Finance
1.1 General
International finance is a branch of financial economics that deals with
the monetary interactions that occur between two or more countries.
International Finance is concerned with topics that include foreign direct
investment and currency exchange rates. International finance is different
from domestic finance in many aspects and the first and the most
significant of them is foreign currency exposure. International financial
management involves a lot of currency derivatives whereas such derivatives
are very less used in domestic financial management. So, the under-
standing of international financial transactions is vital to any MNC. In
the twenty-first century, business has become much more globalized.
Large corporations have customers and production facilities all over the
world now. That accentuates the need for mastery of international finance.
There are numerous risks in transactions involving foreign currencies.
Risk management requires that these risks be identified, quantified, and
monitored. Some risks (such as exchange rate risk) affect all cross-border
currency movements, while others are limited to investment decisions or
financing decisions.
• Monopoly
• Oligopoly
This structure has many buyers but few sellers. These few players in the
market may prevent others from entering. They may set prices together
or, in the case of a cartel, only one takes the lead to determine the price
for goods and services while the others follow.
• Monopolistic Competition
These structures have many sellers, but few buyers. In both cases, the
buyer is the one who manipulates market prices by playing firms against
one another.
1 INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 5
2 Anjan Thakor (2015): International Financial Markets: A Diverse System Is the Key
to Commerce, Center for Capital Markets, p. 22.
3 Felix Lessambo (2020): The US Banking System: Laws, Regulations, and Risk
Management, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 2.
CHAPTER 2
2.1 General
The International Financial Institutions need to be adjusted to the needs
and challenges of the twenty-first century. Today economy differs signif-
icantly from the world status of economy of the 1940s which lead to
the creation of the Bretton Woods and most of the existing interna-
tional financial institutions. The globalization of financial markets, the
debt crisis, cross-border flows of capital, and the raise of new economic
power have weakened the current system.
As Solimano stated: “the dividing lines between the balance of
payments financing (the realm of the IMF) and development lending (the
scope of multilateral development banks) have become less clear.1 ” In the
same vein, the Report of the High-Level Commission on Modernization
of World Bank Group Governance pointed out:
Regional institutions have become increasingly important in the
economic and political life of the Bretton Woods institutions, serving
as catalysts for regional integration, cooperation, and development assis-
tance.2
1 Andres Silimano (1999): Can Reforming Global Institutions Help Developing Countries
Share in the Benefits from Globalization? The World Bank Paper, Washington, DC.
2 Report of the High-Level Commission on Modernization of World Bank Group
Governance, p. 8.
4 The World Bank and the IMF are two distinct institutions: the bank is primarily a
development institution, while the IMF is a cooperative institution that seeks to maintain
an orderly system of payments and receipts among nations.
5 Benjamin J. Cohen (2008): “Bretton Woods System,” in Routledge Encyclopedia of
international Political Economy.
10 F. I. LESSAMBO
6 Niall Fergusson (2008): The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World. New
York Penguin, p. 305.
7 Kenneth A. Reinert (2012): An Introduction to International Economics: New
Perspectives on the World Economy. Cambridge University Press, New York, Chapter 17.
2 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 11
the United States should devaluate its dollar currency. In 1971, President
Nixon announced that the United States would no longer automati-
cally sell gold to foreign banks for the US$. The Nixon administration
imposed a 10% tax on all imports to the United States. Put differently,
in August 1971, the United States announced that it is abandoning the
convertibility of the dollar because of the decrease of the confidence in
the US dollar and was seeking to convert the dollars into gold from
States. This was achieved through the Smithsonian Agreement entered by
the ten countries in 1971. Among other things, the Smithsonian Agree-
ment allowed each one of the ten countries gathered to (i) re-evaluate its
currency against the US$ by up to 10%; and (ii) the band within which the
exchange rate was allowed was raised from 1 to 2.25% in either direction.
The US dollar was devaluated against foreign currencies by about eight
percent. The markets reacted again in February 1973, attacking the US
dollar and forced FOREX to close. In February 12, 1973, the US admin-
istration announced another 10% depreciation of the US dollar. The US
Treasury announced a second devaluation of the dollar against gold to
$42.
8 Cheol S. Eun and Bruce G. Resnick (2007): International Financial Management, 4th
edition. McGraw-Hill, p. 30.
12 F. I. LESSAMBO
trading imbalances, (v) threat of terrorism, (vi) wars, and other inse-
curities compel several experts in these fields to rethink our world. As
far as the international financial institutions are concerned, the enhance-
ment of international financial stability becomes an emergency: the quality
and the management of the international financial institutions need to be
rethought, and their governance revisited in order to face the new chal-
lenges. They need to set up or upgrade monitoring and evaluation systems
to properly assess their performances.
Source IMF
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