AGARD-AG-300 Vol.

15

AGARD
ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
7 RUE ANCELLE 92200 NEUILLY SUR SEINE FRANCE

AGARDograph 300
Flight Test Techniques Series - Volume 15

Introduction to Avionics Flight Test

Introduction aux Essais des Syst6mes D'armes

by

James M. Clifton, Ph.D.

Department of the Navy
Naval Air Warfare Center - Aircraft Division
Patuxent River
Maryland 20670-5304
United States

This AGARDograph has been sponsored by the Flight Vehicle Integration Panel of AGARD

I DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A

Approved for public release;

199703 1 080Distribution Unlimited

 The Mission of AGARD

According to its Charter, the mission of AGARD is to bring together the leading personalities of the NATO nations in the fields of science and
technology relating to aerospace for the following purposes:

- Recommending effective ways for the member nations to use their research and development capabilities for the common benefit
of the NATO community;

- Providing scientific and technical advice and assistance to the Military Committee in the field of aerospace research and
development (with particular regard to its military application);

- Fade stimulating advances in the aerospace sciences relevant to strengthening the common defence posture;

- Improving the co-operation among member nations in aerospace research and development;

- Exchange of scientific and technical information;

- Providing assistance to member nations for the purpose of increasing their scientific and technical potential;

- Rendering scientific and technical assistance, as requested, to other NATO bodies and to member nations in connection with
research and development problems in the aerospace field.

The highest authority within AGARD is the National Delegates Board consisting of officially appointed senior representatives from v'I'$. •fember
nation. The mission of AGARD is carried out through the Panels which are composed of experts appointed by the National Delegates. " ,*'tant
and Exchange Program and the Aerospace Applications Studies Program. The results of AGARD work are reported to the membei iv. ?.1
NATO Authorities through the AGARD series of publications of which this is one.

Participation in AGARD activities is by invitation only and is normally limited to citizens of the NATO nations.

The content of this publication has been reproduced

directly from material supplied by AGARD or the authors.

Published March 1996

Copyright info
All Rights Reserved

ii
 Preface

Lieutenant General "Jimmy Doolittle" is most often remembered for his famed raid on Japan using B-25 aircraft launched from the deck of the Navy
aircraft carrier Hornet;however, this amazing man's contributions to aviation hardly ended there. Besides being the first person to be awarded a Sc.D.
in Aeronautical Science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he was arguably the father of the discipline that is now called Avionics. He
placed the first instrument flight equipment in an aircraft, performed the first long distance flight using instruments alone and even performed the first
instrument approaches [ref. 58]. It seems likely; however, that even he could not have imagined the proliferation of avionics equipment in modern
aircraft, particularly military aircraft.

Modem military aircraft rely heavily on highly complex electronic systems to make them effective weapons in a world filled with equally sophisticated
counter systems. These components can add up to as much as 80% of the aircraft price tag. As new systems are developed, numerous tests are
necessary to provide feedback in the iterative design process and to ensure that design parameters are met. Unfortunately, little has been written on
the techniques for testing these systems. Even today, test pilot training programs stress aircraft performance and handling qualities testing while the
majority of test work revolves around avionics testing. This book is an attempt to put in print the rudimentary knowledge necessary for a test pilot
or engineer to develop and execute a cost effective and quick test of a modern avionics system.

iii
 Pref ace

Le general *Jimmy Doolittle* est plus souvent connu pour son fameux raid sur le Japon k bard d'un B25 lanci du porte avions Hornet, cependant,
la contribution de cet homme remarquable k l'aviation ne s'arrete pas Ai.

Non seulement premi~re personne Aavoir recu un doctorat en sciences adronautiques du MIT, il eat sans conteste le p6re de cette discipline que l'on
appelle maintenant l'avionique. 13a le premier dquip6 un avion pour le vol aux instruments, effectud le premier vol longue distance en volant
uniquement aux instruments et maine effectu6 lea premi~res approches aux instruments (ref 58). 11 semble probable maigre tout qu'il n'aurait pu
imaginer l'essort de l'avionique dans lea avions modemes, particulierement les avions d'armnes.

Les aviona militairei mxodernes d~pendent largement de syst~mes 6lectroniqes complexes pur lea rendre efficaces dana un monde rempli de syst~mes
adverses 6galement sophistiquds. Ces systames peuvent reprdsenterjusqu'h 80% du prix de 1'avion. Au fuir et k mesure du d~velopment de ces
systames, de nombreux essais deviennent n~cessaires pour assurer un retour d'information dans le procesaus it~ratif de conception et pour sissurer
que lesasp~cifications sont remplies. Malheureusement, il y a peu d'6crits sur ces techniques d'essais. M~me aujourd' hui, lea programmes
d'inatruction des pilotes d'essaia insistent davantage sur lea aspects performances et qualit~s de vol alors que l'essentiel des essais en vol concerne
lea syst~mes avioniques. Ce manuel eat une tentative pour d~crire lea cannaissances de base utiles 5 un pilate ou A un ingenicur d'essais pour
concevoir et ex~cuter un programme d'essais de ces syst~mes modernes qui sait rapide et d' un bon rapport qualit6-coflt.

iv
 FOREWARD

This book is intended as an introductory document to the subject of avionics flight testing. The target reader is the novice tester, desiring
an initial exposure to the subject. Reference is made throughout the book to more in-depth documents, where they exist. In practical application,
the new tester should use this book as a primer and then refer to the more detailed documents relating to the class of avionics under test or to the
experience of more senior testers.

The first chapter provides a detailed discussion of the content and utility of the book. Chapters two through five provide a discussion of
the theory and techniques for testing airborne air-to-air and air-to-ground radar, airborne navigation systems, electro-optical systems, and stores
management sets, respectively. Each chapter begins with an introduction to the theory of operation of each class of system with sufficient detail to
understand the test techniques which are next presented. Each test technique is developed in a largely self-contained fashion. Chapter six is a
discussion of general considerations for developing a flight test profile combining some number of the previously described techniques. Chapter seven
is a detailed case study and chapter eight includes some conclusions and recommendations.

As mentioned above, this book is intended as an introductory document for the novice. As such, caution should be exercised when directly
applying the techniques provided here. Further research is warranted in most cases including more advanced documents relating to the theory and
testing of the class of avionics in question. Chapter one points out that adequate references do not exist for every class of avionics, in these cases,
it is important to search out persons with practical experience in testing similar systems.

V
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A number of people have contributed directly or indirectly to this book. First, I would like to recognize Bob Richards, J.J. McCue, Tim
Lenahan, George Masters and the entire U. S. Naval Test Pilot School staff, circa 1988, for their excellent introduction to the flight test process.
Their classroom instruction and textbooks were the major source of the information in this document. Next, I would like to thank Professors Lou
Schmidt, Rick Howard and Eric Pagenkopf for the early editing as well as the superb classroom instruction in the more rigorous side of engineering.
IABob Curbeam, USN, wrote the chapter on stores management system testing and I want to acknowledge and thank him for his rapid and concise
efforts. Goodjob for a fighter guy. Next, I would like to thank Sarah Brenzo and June Norris for the excellent final editing and type setting. Finally,
I would like to thank my wife Gena for hanging in there during the hours I spent in writing and editing.

vi
 CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE
The Mission of AGARD ....................... ............................ ii

Preface ............................ ................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................... .............................. v

1.0. INTRODUCTION ........................... ............................. 1

2.0. AIR-TO-AIR AND AIR-TO-GROUND RADAR SYSTEMS ............. .............. 4
2.1. INTRODUCTION TO RADAR THEORY ................. .................. 4
2.1.1. General ...................... ......................... 4
2.1.2. Pulsed Radars .................. ...................... 4
2.1.3. Doppler Radars ................... ..................... 9
2.1.4. Pulse Doppler Radars ............. .................. 10
2.1.5. Advanced Techniques ............ ................... .. 11
2.1.5.1. Pulse Compression .......... ................ .. 11
2.1.5.2. Doppler Beam Sharpening ...... ............. .. 11
2.1.5.3. FM Ranging ............. ................... 12
2.1.6. Displays ................. ........................ 12
2.1.7. Analog Versus Digital ............ .................. .. 13
2.1.8. Radar Tracking ............... ..................... 13
2.1.9. Missions ................. ........................ 15
2.1.10. Radar Systems Human Factors ........ ............... .. 15
2.1.11. The Sample Radar System .......... ................. .. 16
2.2. AIR-TO-AIR AND AIR-TO-GROUND RADAR TEST TECHNIQUES .. ....... .. 16
2.2.1. Preflight and Built-in-Tests ....... .............. .. 16
2.2.1.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 16
2.2.1.2. General .............. ..................... .. 16
2.2.1.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 16
2.2.1.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 16
2.2.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 17
2.2.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 17
2.2.1.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 17
2.2.2. Controls and Displays .......... ...................... 20
2.2.2.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 20
2.2.2.2. General ....................................... .. 20
2.2.2.3. Instrumentation .................... 21
2.2.2.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 21
2.2.2.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 21
2.2.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 21
2.2.2.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 22
2.3. AIR-TO-AIR RADAR TEST TECHNIQUES ........... ................ 25
2.3.1. Scan Rate ................ ........................ .. 25
2.3.1.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 25
2.3.1.2. General .................. ...................... 25
2.3.1.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 25
2.3.1.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 25
2.3.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 25
2.3.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 25
2.3.1.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 25
2.3.2. Scan Angle Limits .............. .................... .. 27
2.3.2.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 27
2.3.2.2. General .............. ..................... .. 27
2.3.2.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 27
2.3.2.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 27
2.3.2.5. Procedure .............. .................... .27
2.3.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 27
2.3.2.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 27
2.3.3. Elevation Angle Limits ........... ................. 29

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 Page

2.3.3.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 29

2.3.3.2. General ............. .. ...................... .. 29
2.3.3.3. Instrumentation .......... . ................ 29
2.3.3.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 29
2.3.3.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 29
2.3.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 29
2.3.3.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 30
2.3.4. Tracking Rate Limits ............. .................. 32
2.3.4.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 32
2.3.4.2. General ................ ...................... 32
2.3.4.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 32
2.3.4.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 32
2.3.4.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 32
2.3.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 32
2.3.4.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 32
2.3.5. Antenna Stabilization Limits ....... .............. .. 34
2.3.5.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 34
2.3.5.2. General ......................................... 34
2.3.5.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 34
2.3.5.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 34
2.3.5.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 34
2.3.5.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 34
2.3.5.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 35
2.3.6. Minimum Range ................ ...................... .. 38
2.3.6.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 38
2.3.6.2. General ......................................... 38
2.3.6.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 38
2.3.6.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 38
2.3.6.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 38
2.3.6.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 38
2.3.6.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 38
2.3.7. Range and Bearing Accuracy ......... ............... .. 40
2.3.7.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 40
2.3.7.2. General ....................................... 40
2.3.7.3. Instrumentation ..................... 40
2.3.7.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 40
2.3.7.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 40
2.3.7.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 41
2.3.7.6. Data Cards ............. ................... 41
2.3.8. Range and Bearing Resolution ....... ............... .. 43
2.3.8.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 43
2.3.8.2. General .............. ..................... .. 43
2.3.8.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 43
2.3.8.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 43
2.3.8.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 43
2.3.8.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 44
2.3.8.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 44
2.3.9. Maximum Detection Range .......... ................. .. 46
2.3.9.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 46
2.3.9.2. General .............. ..................... .. 46
2.3.9.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 46
2.3.9.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 46
2.3.9.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 46
2.3.9.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 47
2.3.9.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 47
2.3.10. Maximum Unambiguous Range ......... ............... 49
2.3.10.1. Purpose ............... .................... 49
2.3.10.2. General ............... .................... 49
2.3.10.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 49
2.3.10.4. Data Required ........... ................. 49
2.3.10.5. Procedure ............. ................... 49
2.3.10.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 49
2.3.11. Maximum Acquisition Range ......... ............... 51
2.3.11.1. Purpose ............... .................... 51
2.3.11.2. General ............... .................... 51

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 Page

2.3.11.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 51

2.3.11.4. Data Required ........... ................. 51
2.3.11.5. Procedure ............... ................... 51
2.3.11.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 51
2.3.11.7. Data Cards ............ ................... .. 51
2.3.12. Blind Ranges ................ ...................... .. 53
2.3.12.1. Purpose ............... .................... 53
2.3.12.2. General ............... .................... 53
2.3.12.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 53
2.3.12.4. Data Required ........... ................. 53
2.3.12.5. Procedure ............. ................... 53
2.3.12.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 53
2.3.12.7. Data Cards ............ ................... .. 53
2.3.13. Groundspeed/Course/Altitude Accuracy .... .......... .. 55
2.3.13.1. Purpose ............... .................... 55
2.3.13.2. General ............... .................... 55
2.3.13.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 55
2.3.13.4. Data Required ........... ................. 55
2.3.13.6. Procedure ............. .................... 55
2.3.13.7. Data Reduction and Presentation ... ........ 55
2.3.13.8. Data Cards ............ ................... .. 56
2.3.14. Velocity Resolution ............. .................. 62
2.3.14.1. Purpose ............... .................... 62
2.3.14.2. General ............... .................... 62
2.3.14.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 62
2.3.14.4. Data Required .................. ......... 62
2.3.14.5. Procedure ............. ................... 62
2.3.14.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 62
2.3.14.7. Data Cards ............ ................... .. 62
2.3.15. Blind Speeds ................ ...................... .. 64
2.3.15.1. Purpose ............... .................... 64
2.3.15.2. General ............... .................... 64
2.3.15.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 64
2.3.15.4. Data Required ........... ................. 64
2.3.15.5. Procedure ............. ................... 64
2.3.15.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 64
2.3.15.7. Data Cards ............ ................... .. 65
2.3.16. Air Combat Modes .............. .................... .. 68
2.3.16.1. Purpose ............... .................... 68
2.3.16.2. General ............... .................... 68
2.3.16.3. Instrumentation ........... ............... 68
2.3.16.4. Data Required ........... ................. 68
2.3.16.5. Procedure ............. ................... 68
2.3.16.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 68
2.3.16.7. Data Cards ............ ................... .. 68
2.3.17. False Alarm Rate .............. .................... .. 70
2.3.17.1. Purpose ............... .................... 70
2.3.17.2. General ............... .................... 70
2.3.17.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 70
2.3.17.4. Data Required ........... ................. 70
2.3.17.5. Procedure ............. ................... 70
2.3.17.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 70
2.3.17.7. Data Cards ............ ................... .. 71
2.3.18. Track File Capacity ............. .................. 73
2.3.18.1. Purpose ............... .................... 73
2.3.18.2. General ............... .................... 73
2.3.18.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 73
2.3.18.4. Data Required ........... ................. 73
2.3.18.5. Procedure ............. ................... 73
2.3.18.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 73
2.3.18.7. Data Cards ........................... ... 73
2.3.19. Mission Utility and Integration. ...... ............ .. 75
2.13.9.1. Purpose ............... .................... 75
2.3.19.2. General ............... .................... 75
2.3.19.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 75

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 Page

2.3.19.4. Data Required .............. .............. 75

2.3.19.5. Procedure ............. ................... 75
2.3.19.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 76
2.3.19.7. Data Cards ............ ................... .. 76
2.3.20. Introduction to Advanced Air-to-Air Radar Test
Techniques ................ ....................... .. 78
2.4. AIR-TO-GROUND RADAR TEST TECHNIQUES ........ ............... .. 82
2.4.1. Scan Rate .................. ........................ .. 82
2.4.1.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 82
2.4.1.2. General .............. ..................... .. 82
2.4.1.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 82
2.4.1.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 82
2.4.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 82
2.4.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 82
2.4.1.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 83
2.4.2. Scan Angle Limits .............. .................... .. 85
2.4.2.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 85
2.4.2.2. General .............. ..................... .. 85
2.4.2.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 85
2.4.2.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 85
2.4.2.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 85
2.4.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 85
2.4.2.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 86
2.4.3. Elevation Angle Limits ........... ................. 88
2.4.3.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 88
2.4.3.2. General .............. ..................... .. 88
2.4.3.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 88
2.4.3.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 88
2.4.3.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 88
2.4.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 88
2.4.3.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 88
2.4.4. Antenna Stabilization Limits ......... .............. 90
2.4.4.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 90
2.4.4.2. General .............. ..................... .. 90
2.4.4.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 90
2.4.4.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 90
2.4.4.6. Procedure .............. .................... .. 90
2.4.4.7. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 90
2.4.4.8. Data Cards ............. ................... 91
2.4.5. Minimum Range ................ ...................... .. 94
2.4.5.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 94
2.4.5.2. General .............. ..................... .. 94
2.5.4.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 94
2.5.4.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 94
2.4.5.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 94
2.4.5.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 94
2.5.4.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 94
2.4.6. Doppler Beam Sharpened Notch Width ..... ........... .. 96
2.4.6.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 96
2.4.6.2. General .............. ..................... .. 96
2.4.6.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 96
2.4.6.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 96
2.4.6.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 96
2.4.6.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 96
2.4.6.7. Data Cards ............. ................... 96
2.4.7. Range and Bearing Accuracy ......... ............... 98
2.4.7.1. Purpose .............. ..................... .. 98
2.4.7.2. General .............. ..................... .. 98
2.4.7.3. Instrumentation .......... ................. .. 98
2.4.7.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 98
2.4.7.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 98
2.4.7.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ... ......... .. 98
2.4.7.7. Data Cards ........... ........................ 99
2.4.8. Range and Bearing Resolution ......... .............. .101
2.4.8.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .101

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 Page

2.4.8.2. General ................ ..................... .. 101

2.4.8.3. Instrumentation ..................... .. 102
2.4.8.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 102
2.4.8.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 102
2.4.8.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 103
2.4.8.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 103
2.4.9. Maximum Detection Range ............ ................. .. 108
2.4.9.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 108
2.4.9.2. General ................ ..................... .. 108
2.4.9.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 108
2.4.9.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 108
2.4.9.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 108
2.4.9.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 109
2.4.9.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 109
2.4.10. Mapping Quality and Consistency ....... ............ .. 111
2.4.10.1. Purpose ............... .................... 111
2.4.10.2. General ............... .................... 111
2.4.10.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 111
2.4.10.4. Data Required ........... ................. .. 111
2.4.10.5. Procedure ............. ................... .. 111
2.4.10.6. Data Analysis and Presentation .... ......... .. 111
2.4.10.7. Data Cards .............. ................... .. 111
2.4.11. Mission Utility and Integration ....... ............ .. 113
2.4.11.1. Purpose ............... .................... 113
2.4.11.2. General ............... .................... 113
2.4.11.3. Instrumentation ........... ................ 113
2.4.11.4. Data Required ........... ................. .. 113
2.4.11.5. Procedure ............. ................... .. 113
2.4.11.6. Data Analysis and Presentation .... ......... .. 113
2.4.11.7. Data Cards .............. ................... .. 113
2.4.12. Introduction to Advanced Air-to-Ground Radar Test
Techniques .... ...................... ........... 115

3.0. AIRBORNE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS TESTING ............ .................. .. 118

3.1. INTRODUCTION TO NAVIGATION THEORY .......... ................ .. 118
3.1.1. General .......................... 118
3.1.2. Inertial Navigation Systems. ............... 119
3.1.2.1. Components ............. ................... .. 119
3.1.2.2. Analytic/Semi-Analytic and North Pointing/Wander
Azimuth Systems ............ ................. .. 119
3.1.2.3. Vertical Tracker ........... ................ 119
3.1.2.4. The Vertical Channel ......... .............. 120
3.1.2.5. The Horizontal Channel ......... ............. .. 120
3.1.2.6. Initialization and Alignment of the INS ....... .. 120
3.1.2.7. Inertial Navigation System Augmentation ....... .. 122
3.1.2.8. Characteristic INS Errors ........ ............ .. 122
3.1.3. OMEGA .................... .......................... .. 123
3.1.3.1. Theory ............... ..................... .. 123
3.1.3.2. Accuracy ............... .................... 125
3.1.4. Tactical Air Navigation ............ ................. .. 126
3.1.4.1. Theory ............... ..................... .. 126
3.1.5. Missions ................... ........................ 127
3.1.6. Navigation System Human Factors ........ ............. .. 128
3.1.7. The Flyover Method ............. ................... .. 128
3.2. NAVIGATION SYSTEMS TEST TECHNIQUES ......... ............... .. 129
3.2.1. Preflight and Built in Tests ......... .............. 129
3.2.1.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 129
3.2.1.2. General ......................................... 129
3.2.1.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 129
3.2.1.4. Data Required .............. ................. .. 129
3.2.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 129
3.2.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 129
3.2.1.7. Data Cards ........... ........................ 130
3.2.2. Controls and Displays ............ .................. .. 133
3.2.2.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 133

xi
 Page

3.2.2.2. General .............. ...................... .. 133

3.2.2.3. Instrumentation . . . ............... 134
3.2.2.4. Data Required .... .................. 134
3.2.2.5. P[ cedure .............. .................... .. 134
3.2.2.6. D. a Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 135
3.2.2.7. De a Cards ............. ................... .. 135
3.3. INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS TEST TECHNIQUES ...... ........... .. 138
3.3.1. Initialization and Alignment ......... .............. 138
3.3.1.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 138
3.3.1.2. General ................ ..................... .. 138
3.3.1.3. Instrumentation .......... ................... 139
3.3.1.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 139
3.3.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 139
3.3.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 139
3.3.1.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 140
3.3.2. Static Position Accuracy ........... ................ 143
3.3.2.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 143
3.3.2.2. General ................ ..................... .. 143
3.3.2.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 143
3.3.2.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 143
3.3.2.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 143
3.3.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 143
3.3.2.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 143
3.3.3. Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy .... ........ .. 145
3.3.3.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 145
3.3.3.2. General ................ ..................... .. 145
3.3.3.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 145
3.3.3.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 145
3.3.3.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 145
3.3.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 147
3.3.3.7. Data Cards ................... 147
3.3.4. Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy ............. 151
3.3.4.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 151
3.3.4.2. General ................ ..................... .. 151
3.3.4.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 151
3.3.4.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 151
3.3.4.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 151
3.3.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 152
3.3.4.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 152
3.3.5. Dynamic Update Performance ......... ............... .. 158
3.3.5.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 158
3.3.5.2. General ................ ..................... .. 158
3.3.5.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 158
3.3.5.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 158
3.3.5.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 158
3.3.5.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 159
3.3.5.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 159
3.3.6. Mission Utility and Integration ........ ............. .. 163
3.3.6.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 163
3.3.6.2. General ................ ..................... .. 163
3.3.6.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 163
3.3.6.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 163
3.3.6.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 163
3.3.6.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 164
3.3.6.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 164
3.3.7. Introduction to Advanced Inertial Navigation System Test
Techniques ................. ....................... .. 166
3.4. OMEGA NAVIGATION SYSTEM TEST TECHNIQUES ........ ............. .. 169
3.4.1. Initialization ............... ..................... .. 169
3.4.1.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 169
3.4.1.2. General .................. .................. ... 169
3.4.1.3. Data Required ............ .................. .. 169
3.4.1.4. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 169
3.4.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 169
3.4.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 169

Aii
 Page

3.4.1.7. Data Cards .. ........ ...... ........... .. 170

3.4.2. Dynamic Position Accuracy ............. .............. 172
3.4.2.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 172
3.4.2.2. General ................ ..................... .. 172
3.4.2.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 172
3.4.2.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 172
3.4.2.5. Procedure ................ .................... .172
3.4.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 173
3.4.2.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 174
3.4.3. Lane Ambiguity Resolution .......... ................ .. 178
3.4.3.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 178
3.4.3.2. General ................ ..................... .. 178
3.4.3.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 178
3.4.3.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 178
3.4.3.5. Procedure ................ ................... .178
3.4.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 178
3.4.3.7. Data Cards ................... 178
3.4.4. Mission Utility and Integration ............. 180
3.4.4.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 180
3.4.4.2. General ................ ..................... .. 180
3.4.4.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 180
3.4.4.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 180
3.4.4.5. Procedure ................ .................... .180
3.4.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 180
3.4.4.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 180
3.5. COUPLED GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM/INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM . 184
3.5.1. General .. ........... .............. 184
3.5.2. Space Segment ......................... 184
3.5.3. Control Segment .. ....................... 184
3.5.4. User Segment ............................ 184
3.5.5. Selective Availability ...... ................. 185
3.5.6. Accuracies .......... ....................... 185
3.5.7. Precise Space Positioning Instrumentation ........ 187
3.5.8. Sample System ................ ...................... .. 187
3.6. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM TEST TECHNIQUES ........ ............ .. 188
3.6.1. Initialization and Alignment ......... .............. 188
3.6.1.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 188
3.6.1.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 190
3.6.1.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 190
3.6.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 190
3.6.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 192
3.6.1.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 193
3.6.2. Static Position Accuracy ........... ................ 204
3.6.2.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 204
3.6.2.2. General ....................... 204
3.6.2.3. Instrumentation. ................. 204
3.6.2.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 204
3.6.2.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 204
3.6.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 204
3.6.2.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 204
3.6.3. Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy .... ........ .. 206
3.6.3.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 206
3.6.3.2. General ......................................... 206
3.6.3.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 206
3.6.3.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 206
3.6.3.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 207
3.6.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 207
3.3.3.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 208
3.6.4. Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy ...... .......... .. 212
3.6.4.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 212
3.6.4.2. General ................ ..................... .. 212
3.6.4.3. Instrumentation ............ ................ .. 212
3.6.4.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 212
3.6.4.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 213
3.6.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 213

xiii
 Page

3.6.4.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 214

3.6.5. Navigation Performance in Overwater/Multipath
Environment .................. ....................... .. 219
3.6.5.1 Purpose ............... ..................... .. 219
3.6.5.2. General ................ ..................... .. 219
3.6.5.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 219
3.6.5.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 219
3.6.4.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 219
3.6.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 219
3.6.4.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 219
3.6.6. Mission Utility and Integration ........ ............. .. 222
3.6.6.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 222
3.6.6.2. General ................ ..................... .. 222
3.6.6.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 222
3.6.6.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 222
3.6.6.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 223
3.6.6.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 223
3.6.6.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 223
3.6.7. Introduction to Advanced Coupled Global Positioning
System/Inertial Navigation System Test
Techniques ................. ....................... .. 225
4.0. ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEM TESTING ............... .................... 228
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRO-OPTICAL THEORY ......... ............. .. 228
4.1.1. General .................. ......................... .. 228
4.1.2. Infrared Systems ............... .................... 228
4.1.2.1. Discriminating Targets from Clutter .......... .. 228
4.1.2.2. Image Scanning ........... ................. .. 230
4.1.2.3. Infrared Atmospheric Transmittance ... ....... .. 230
4.1.2.4. Radiation Detectors .......... ............... .. 230
4.1.2.5. Forward Looking Infrared Radar ..... ......... .. 232
4.1.3. Electro-Optical System Human Factors ..... .......... .. 235
4.2. ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEMS TEST TECHNIQUES ........ ............. .. 235
4.2.1. Preflight and Built in Tests ......... .............. .. 235
4.2.1.1. Purpose ................ .................... . 235
4.2.1.2. General ................ ..................... .. 235
4.2.1.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 235
4.2.1.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 235
4.2.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 235
4.2.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 235
4.2.1.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 236
4.2.2. Controls and Displays ............ .................. .. 239
4.2.2.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 239
4.2.2.2. General ......................................... 239
4.2.2.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. ..240
4.2.2.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 240
4.2.2.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 240
4.2.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 241
4.2.2.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 241
4.2.3. Instantaneous Field of View .......... ............... .. 244
4.2.3.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 244
4.2.3.2. General ......................................... 244
4.2.3.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. ..244
4.2.3.4. Data Required ............ .................. ..244
4.2.3.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 244
4.2.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 244
4.2.3.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 244
4.2.4. FLIR Slew Limits ............... .................... 247
4.2.4.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 247
4.2.4.2. General ......................................... 247
4.2.4.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 247
4.2.4.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 247
4.2.4.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 247
4.2.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 247
4.2.4.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 247

xiv
 Page

4.2.5. Slew Rates.................................................250

4.2.5.1. Purpose............................................250
4.2.5.2. General............................................250
4.2.5.3. Instrumentation....................................250
4.2.5.4. Data Required......................................250
4.2.5.5. Procedure..........................................250
4.2.5.6. Data Analysis and Presentation....................250
4.2.5.7. Data Cards.........................................251
4.2.6. FLIR Pointing Accuracy .................................... 254
4.2.6.1. Purpose............................................254
4.2.6.2. General............................................254
4.2:6.3. Instrumentation. .................................. 254
4.2.6.4. Data Required......................................254
4.2.6.5. Procedure..........................................254
4.2.7. Field of Regard............................................258
4.2.7.1. Purpose............................................258
4.2.7.2. General............................................258
4.2.7.3. Instrumentation. .................................. 258
4.2.7.4. Data Required......................................258
4.2.7.5. Procedure..........................................258
4.2.7.6. Data Analysis and Presentation....................258
4.2.7.7. Data Cards.........................................258
4.2.8. Line of Sight Drift Rate .................................. 262
4.2.8.1. Purpose............................................262
4.2.8.2. General. ....................... 262
4.2.8.3. Instrumentation....................262
4.2.8.4. Data Required......................................262
4.2.8.5. Procedure..........................................262
4.2.8.6. Data Analysis and Presentation....................262
4.2.8.7. Data Cards.........................................262
4.2.9. FLIR Resolution............................................265
4.2.9.1. Purpose............................................265
4.2.9.2. General. ..........................................265
4.2.9.3. Instrumentation. .................................. 270
4.2.9.4. Data Required......................................270
4.2.9.5. Procedure..........................................270
4.2.9.7. Data Cards.........................................273
4.2.10. FLIR Maximum Range........................................278
4.2.10.1. Purpose...........................................278
4.2.10.2. General...........................................278
4.2.10.3. Instrumentation .................................. 278
4.2.10.4. Data Required .................................... 278
4.2.10.5. Procedure.........................................278
4.2.10.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ................... 279
4.2.10.7. Data Cards........ ..............................279
4.2.11. Mission Utility and Integratio-n..........................281
4.2.11.1. Purpose...........................................281
4.2.11.2. General...........................................281
4.2.11.3. Instrumentation .................................. 281
4.2.11.4. Data Required.....................................281
4.2.11.5. Procedure.........................................281
4.2.11.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ................... 281
4.2.11.7. Data Cards........................................281
4.2.12. Introduction to Advanced Electro-Optical System Test
Techniques................................................283

5.0. STORES MANAGEMENT SET TESTING. ......................................... 284

5.1. INTRODUCTION TO STORES MANAGEMENT SET THEORY......................284
5.1.1. General .................................................... 284
5.1.2. Stores Management Set Architecture........................284
5.1.3. Controls and Displays......................................285
5.1.4. Missions...................................................287
5.2. STORES MANAGEMENT SET TEST TECHNIQUES ............................. 288
5.2.1. Stores Management Set Integration Ground Tests. ..........288
5.2.1.1. Purpose............................................288

XV
 Page

5.2.1.2. General ...................... 288

5.2.1.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 288
5.2.1.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 288
5.2.1.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 288
5.2.1.6. Data Analysis ............ .................. .. 288
5.2.1.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 288
5.2.2. Preflight and Built-In-Tests ......... .............. .. 290
5.2.2.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 290
5.2.2.2. General ....................................... .. 290
5.2.2.3. Instrumentation ........ ................. 290
5.2.2.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 290
5.2.2.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 290
5.2.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 290
5.2.2.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 290
5.2.3. Controls and Displays ............ .................. .. 293
5.2.3.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 293
5.2.3.2. General ......................................... 293
5.2.3.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 294
5.2.3.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 294
5.2.3.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 294
5.2.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 294
5.2.3.7. Data Cards ............... ................... 295
5.2.4. Mission Utility and Integration ........ ............. .. 298
5.2.4.1. Purpose ................ ..................... .. 298
5.2.4.2. General ......................................... 298
5.2.4.3. Instrumentation ............ ................. .. 298
5.2.4.4. Data Required ............ .................. .. 298
5.2.4.5. Procedure .............. .................... .. 298
5.2.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation ..... ......... .. 299
5.2.4.7. Data Cards ............. ................... .. 299
6.0. FLIGHT PLANNING ...................... ............................ 304

7.0. CASE STUDY ......................... .............................. 305

7.1. INTRODUCTION ..................... .......................... 305
7.2. AIR-TO-GROUND RADAR RESOLUTION USING A MINIMUM OF
INSTRUMENTATION .................. ......................... .. 305
7.2.1. Background ................. ....................... .. 305
7.2.2. The Test Article ............... .................... 306
7.2.3. Theoretical Resolution ........... ................. .. 306
7.2.4. Designing the Test ............. ................... .. 311
7.2.5. Data Cards ................. ....................... .. 313
7.2.6. Summary .................. ......................... .. 324
8.0. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............. .................... .. 324

REFERENCES ........................... ................................. 325

xvi
 List of Figures
Figure 1 Categories of Avionics
Figure 2 Two Dimensional Antenna Sidelobe Pattern
Figure 3 Airborne Pulse Doppler Return Spectrum
Figure 4 Sample Display Formats
Figure 5 Sample AV1 , Instrument Correction Plot
Figure 6 Sample AV, Position Error Plot
Figure 7 True Mach Number M From V, and h.
Figure 8 OMEGA Transmission Format
Figure 9 OMEGA Fix
Figure 10 Control Segment Components
Figure 11 The Global Positioning System Concept
Figure 12 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Figure 13 Space Domain Filtering
Figure 14 Infrared Atmospheric Transmittance at Sea Level
Figure 15 Sample Forward Looking Infrared Radar
Figure 16 Sample Rectilinear Plot
Figure 17 Typical Collimator/Bar Target Combination
Figure 18 Sample Heated Ground Bar Target
Figure 19 Line of Sight Jitter
Figure 20 FLIR Spatial Frequency Response
Figure 21 Ground Resolvable Differential Temperature Versus Spatial Frequency
Figure 22 Airborne and Ground Resolvable Differential Temperature Versus Spatial
Frequency
Figure 23 Generic Stores Management Set Block Diagram
Figure 24 Azimuth Resolution for Targets of Known Separation
Figure 25 Fictional Air-to-Ground Resolution Array Diagram
Figure 26 Relationship of Display Dimensions, Scale Sizes and Pixel Grid
Figure 27 Radar Resolution Array Horizontal Beam Width
Figure 28 Radar Resolution Array Vertical Beam Width

xvii
 List of Tables
Table I Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced Air-to-Air
Radar Tests
Table II Additional Assets or Instrumentation for Use in Advanced Air-to-Ground
Radar Tests
Table III Omega Ground Stations
Table IV Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced Inertial
Navigation Systems Tests
Table V Additional Assets or Instrumentation for Use in Advanced OMEGA Tests
Table VI Typical GPS Linear and Angular Dynamic Limits
Table VII Additional Assets or Instrumentation for Use in Advanced Coupled Global
Positioning/Inertial Navigation System Tests
Table VIII Additional Assets or Instrumentation for Use in Advanced Electro-
Optical Systems Tests
Table IX Additional Assets or Instrumentation for Use in Advanced Stores
Management Set Tests
Table X Theoretical Azimuth Resolution for All Air-to-Ground Radar Modes and
All Azimuth Resolution Target Separations
Table XI Theoretical Display Resolution
Table XII Comparison of Radar and Display Theoretical Range Resolution
Table XIII Comparison the Radar and Display Theoretical Azimuth Resolution

xviii
 List of Data Cards
Card 1: Preflight/Turn On Data Card
Card 2: Built In Tests Data Card
Card 3: Controls Data Card
Card 4: Displays Data Card
Card 5: Air-to-Air Scan Rate Data Card
Card 6: Air-to-Air Scan Angle Limits Data Card
Card 7: Air-to-Air Elevation Angle Limits Data Card
Card 8: Tracking Rate Limits Data Card
Card 9: Air-to-Air Antenna Stabilization Limits Data Cards
Card 10: Air-to-Air Minimum Detection And Tracking Range Data Card
Card 11: Air-to-Air Range And Bearing Accuracy Data Card
Card 12: Air-to-Air Range And Bearing Resolution Data Card
Card 13: Air-to-Air Maximum Detection Range Data Card
Card 14: Maximum Unambiguous Range Data Card
Card 15: Maximum Acquisition Range Data Card
Card 16: Blind Ranges Data Card
Card 17: Groundspeed/Course/Altitude Data Cards
Card 18: Velocity Resolution Data Card
Card 19: Blind Speeds Data Cards
Card 20: Air Combat Maneuvering Modes Data Card
Card 21: False Alarm Rate Data Card
Card 22: Track File Capacity Data Card
Card 23: Air-to-Air Mission Utility And Integration Data Card
Card 24: Air-to-Ground Scan Rate Data Card
Card 25: Air-to-Ground Scan Angle Limits Data Card
Card 26: Air-to-Ground Elevation Angle Limits Data Card
Card 27: Air-to-Ground Antenna Stabilization Limits Data Cards
Card 28: Air-to-Ground Minimum Range Data Card
Card 29: Doppler Beam Sharpened Notch Width Data Card
Card 30: Air-to-Ground Range and Bearing Resolution Data Cards
Card 31: Air-to-Ground Maximum Detection Range Data Card
Card 32: Mapping Quality and Consistency Data Card
Card 33: Air-to-Ground Mission Utility and Integration Data Card
.Card 34: Navigation System Preflight/Turn On Data Card
Card 35: Navigation System Built In Test Data Card
Card 36: Navigation System Controls Data Card
Card 37: Navigation System Displays Data Card
Card 38: Initialization and Alignment Data Cards
Card 39: Static Position Accuracy Data Card
Card 40: Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards
Card 41: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards
Card 42: Dynamic Update Performance Data Cards
Card 43: INS Mission Utility and Integration Data Card
Card 44: OMEGA Initialization Data Card
Card 45: Dynamic Position Accuracy Data Cards
Card 46: Lane Ambiguity Resolution Data Card
Card 47: OMEGA Mission Utility and Integration Data Card
Card 48: Initialization and Alignment Ground Test Data Cards
Card 49: Initialization and Alignment Airborne Data Cards
Card 50: Static Positioning Accuracy Data Card
Card 51: Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards
Card 52: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards
Card 53: Navigation Performance in Overwater/Multipath Environment
Card 54: GPS/INS Mission Utility and Integration Data Card
Card 55: Preflight/Turn On Data Card
Card 56: Built In Tests Data Card
Card 57: Controls Data Card
Card 58: Displays Data Card
Card 59: Instantaneous Field of View Data Cards
Card 60: FLIR Slew Limits Data Card

xix
Card 61: Slew Rates Data Cards
Card 62: FLIR Pointing Accuracy Data Cards
Card 63: Field of Regard Data Cards
Card 6-,: FLIR Line of Sight Drift Rate Data Cards
Card 65: FLIR Resolution Data Cards
Card 66: FLIR Maximum Range Data Card
Card 67: FLIR Mission Utility and Integration Data Card
Card 68: Integration Ground Test
Card 69: Preflight/Turn On Data Card
Card 70: Built In Tests Data Card
Card 71: Controls Data Card
Card 72: Displays Data Card
Card 73: SMS Air-To-Air Mission Utility And Integration Data Card
Card 74: SMS Air-To-Ground Mission Utility and Integration Data Card
Card 75: Case Study 1 Data Card 1
Card 76: Case Study 1 Data Card 2
Card 77: Case Study 1 Data Card 3
Card 78: Case Study 1 Data Card 4
Card 79: Case Study 1 Data Card 5
Card 80: Case Study 1 Data Card 6
Card 81: Case Study I Data Card 7
Card 82: Case Study 1 Data Card 8

xx
 ACRONYMS, SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
A=antenna capture Area drifth=measured horizontal drift
a=local speed of sound drift,=measured vertical drift

ACM=Air Combat Maneuvering ECM=Electronic CounterMeasures

ACP=Armament Control Panel EHF=Extremely High Frequency

AGARD=Advisory Group for Aerospace EO=Electro-Optical

Research and Development
ESM=Electronic Support Measures
AGL=Above Ground Level
EW=Electronic Warfare
ALT=ALTitude to begin air-to-ground
resolution array test run f=frequency in hertz

AMTI=Airborne Moving Target Indicator FCS=Fire Control Set

avg•,=average of the latitude of two fd,=doppler shift due to target radial
radar targets velocity
BIT=Built In Test FL,=focal length of the collimator
(folded path length from target to
B.=noise band width mirror)
B. 4.g=angular width of the B scan FLIR=Forward Looking Infrared Radar
display in degrees
FM=Frequency Modulation
Bsi,,=linear width of the B scan display
in inches Fn=noise figure
CAD=Cartridge Activated Device F 0=transmitted carrier frequency
CAP=Combat Air Patrol FRL=Fuselage Reference Line

CPA=Closest Point of Approach ft=feet

C=speed of light g=acceleration due to Gravity

CRT=Cathode Ray Tube G=directive gain of the antenna

db=decibel GDOP=Geometric Dilution Of Precision
DBS=Doppler Beam Sharpening GHZ=Gigahertz

DDL=Dispersive Delay Line GPS=Global Positioning System

deg=degree h=horizontal measurement of FLIR IFOV
projected onto wall
DEP=Design Eye Position
H=altitude above the terrain in feet
DLC=Delay Line Canceler
HF=High Frequency
Equipment
DME=Distance Measuring
HOTAS=Hands On Throttle And Stick
DOD=Department of Defense
DR=Dead Reckoning hc=calibrated pressure altitude

drift•=measured angular horizontal HPD=Probability of Detection

drift
hp =indicated pressure altitude
drifter=measured angular vertical drift 1

hp,=observed pressure altitude

xxi
HUD=Head Up Display M,=actual magnetic bearing from the
flyover point to the radar target
HZ=hertz
MHz=megahertz
IFF=Interrogator Friend or Foe
MIN=MINutes
IFOV=Instantaneous Field Of View
MRAT=Minimum Resolvable differential
IFOVh=Instantaneous Field Of View Temperature
horizontal dimension
MSL=Mean Sea Level
IFOV,=Instantaneous Field of View
vertical dimension M
1 =true Mach number

IFR=Instrument Flight Rules NFOV=Narrow Field Of View

IMC=Instrument Meteorological Conditions nm=nautical mile

in=inch NOTCH&,=angular width of the DBS notch

INS=Inertial Navigation System NOTCHm=linear width of the DBS notch on

the B-scan display
IR=InfraRed
OATi=indicated Outside Air Temperature
k=Boltzman' s constant

KHZ=Kilohertz OAT 0=observed Outside Air Temperature

P=transmitted power of the radar
KIAS=Knots Indicated AirSpeed
PAL=Positive Arm Latch
KOAS=Knots Observed AirSpeed
KW=Kilowatt PCA=Polar Cap Attenuation

l=distance from FLIR aperture to PD=Probability of Detection

crosshair intersection mark PMA=Program Manager for Aviation

l=distance to initial crosshair position PIREP=Pilot REPort of the weather

for line of sight drift rate testing
PPI=Planned Position Indicator
L=receiver loss factor
PPS=Pulses Per Second
LASER=Light Amplification through
Stimulated Emission of Radiation P, ,=the
1 TACAN derived range
from the
LED=Light Emitting Diode beginning of the peak of the sawtooth

LF=Low Frequency PRF=Pulse Repetition Frequency

LORAN=Long Range Navigation PRI=Pulse Repetition Interval

PW=Pulse Width
LAT=the numerical average of the
latitude of the two surveyed points R=gas constant for air, 53.35
lbf=pounds force (ft) (lbf)/(lb.) (R)
rad=radians
lbm=pounds mass

m=meter Radar=Radio Detection and Ranging

M=Mach number Rb=target range at breakout

MC=Mission Computer RF=Radio Frequency

MF=Medium Frequency Rh..,=radar horizon

r=angular resolution of the FLIR

xxii
rms=root meas square TEMP=Test and Evaluation Master Plan

R.=maximum radar range TPC=Tactical Pilotage Chart

R11 _,=theoretical unambiguous maximum TWS=Track While Scan

range
UHF=Ultra High Frequency
Rm•=theoretical minimum range v=vertical dimension of
IFOV projected
Rm• .,=theoretical minimum range onto wall
resolution
V=magnetic variation
R.=the TACAN derived range from the
beginning of the peak of the sawtooth V&V=Validation and Verification

P•f=response of scanning FLIR V,=calibrated airspeed

R1=Range from the target Vi=indicated airspeed

R.,=radar derived range to the targets VHF=Very High Frequency

R,, b=minimum range between test VID=Visual Identification

airplane and target for azimuth VMC=Visual Meteorological Conditions
resolution testing

RAT=Resolvable differential Temperature VLF=Very Low Frequency

S=across azimuth target Separation Vo=observed airspeed

SA=Selective Availability VS=Velocity Search

SA=Situational Awareness V,=true airspeed

SEP=Spherical Error Probable W=Watt

SF.=cutoff Spatial Frequency WP=WayPoint

SF.=SF. airborne W1,=Width of one bar and one space in

target template
SF.=SF, ground WFOV=Wide Field Of View

SF,=Spatial Frequency of the Target i.=measured angular resolution of the

SHF=Super High Frequency radar

SID=Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance Ahpi,=pressure altitude instrument

correction
SMP=Stores Management Processor MAh=pressure altitude position error
SMS=Stores Management Set correction

S/N=Signal to Noise ratio AL=the difference between the latitude

of the surveyed points in degrees
(S/N)i=minimum signal to noise ratio
ALu=the difference between the longitude
STT=Single Target Track of the surveyed points in degrees

T=absolute temperature Anm=the difference in nautical miles

between the surveyed points along the
t,=ambient temperature true north-south or east-west axis
TACAN=Tactical Air Navigation AOATi,=Outside Air Temperature instrument
correction
Tb,ý=actual true bearing from the
flyover point to the radar target Ares=measured angular resolution

XXIII
AT=temperature differential

AVi,=airspeed instrument error correction

AVe=airspeed position error correction

7=ratio of specific heats, 1.4

7=aircraft flight path angle

X=wavelength

M=microns

psec=microsecond
a=radar cross section

adesired=desired radar cross section

otest=test target radar cross section

O=test radar advertised antenna beam

width

* =degrees

* R=degrees Rankine

xxiv
1.0 INTRODUCTION Figure 1 provides
categories one definition
of systems of the
included in the
field of avionics. Unfortunately, space
The purpose of this document is to constraints do not allow discussion of
provide a basic introduction to the all of these categories in one AGARD
topic of developmental' avionics flight publication and thus three are singled
test. The target reader is the novice, out: radar, electro-optical and
just being introduced to the subject, navigation. As at the test pilot
such as a student at one of the test schools, the teaching technique chosen
pilot schools, or a person just here is demonstration. The intent is
beginning in the field. The paradigm that if the student can be made to
used in constructing the book was the understand the development of the sample
curriculum at the test pilot schools, test techniques shown in this book, he
particularly, the United States Naval or she can then extrapolate to different
Test Pilot School, which has an avionics systems and platforms. A thorough
flight test specialization. There are understanding of the test development
many similarities between the flight process has an added benefit. It is
test techniques that follow and those plausible that the tester may some day
taught at the schools.

SAvionc

I Sesr (4)
Monitoring Communications ntuetto

(1) Ref 5O is a description of air-to-air radar test techniques.

(2) At the time of this writing, an AGARDograph was chartered providing a detailed description ofradio
navigation testing. Ref52 is an excellent treatment ofstand-alone Global Positioning System (GPS), hybrid
GPS and fully coupled Inertial/GPS testing
(3) At the time ofthis writing, an AGARDograph was being chartered covering the subject of Electronic Warfare
testing.
(4) The volumes ofAGARDograph 16 and 300 relating to instrumentation are included as references.

Figure 1: Categories of Avionics

1Developmental testing is performed as part of the iterative design process. Data derived from developmental testing is primarily intended to measure
whether the system has met its intended functional requirements, and if not, to provide data useful to the designer for improving the design. Note
that this type of testing is distinctly different from operational testing. Operational testing is performed by the intended users (vice professional testers
and engineers) in the intended operational environment as a final "dress rehearsal" for the system. It is important for the developmental tester to
remember that when he or she has determined that the system has completed the developmental phase of testing that it must then pass operational
testing. This operational requirement will necessarily influence the type of testing performed in the developmental phases of the iterative design
process.
 2

be presented with a completely new class highlight the basic concepts on which
of system, for which there are no the tests were designed. Typically,
previous techniques developed. If the this implies that little or no
logic of the development of the existing instrumentation, test ranges or outside
techniques described here is understood, test assets are used in the tests which
then the tester will be able to invent are developed. In many practical
the new ones as required. applications, more accuracy,
documentation and numerical rigor are
The three classes of systems were chosen required. The reader must then refer to
for several reasons. First, these are the more advanced flight test documents
the same systems emphasized at the or in their absence, to experienced
schools, providing a history of testers. It is noteworthy that in most
successful test pilot training. Next, cases, the basic concepts of the test do
it is possible to develop a totally not change when more test assets are
unclassified discussion within the three used and thus the utility of using the
chosen areas that is releasable in open most rudimentary form of the tests for
literature. Electronic Warfare was not this introductory book. 2
considered due to security issues.
Computers and software were not In addition to the teaching benefits,
discussed because even a basic primer on the very simple, rudimentary methods
this subject would require a chapter often have practical utility and should
larger than this document. Aircraft be documented. Often, these techniques
monitoring and control systems testing are sufficient for the task at hand,
cannot be fully discussed without when less accuracy and documentation are
considering their effects in terms of adequate. Money and time can thus be
airframe handling qualities and saved. Next, complete instrumentation
performance. These topics were beyond also implies very complex, time
the scope of this document. In the consuming and expensive data reduction.
final analysis, length precluded a There is often real pressure to
discussion of even some of the remaining constrict the time limits that test
nine subjects and the three emphasized assets are available for a particular
at the schools were selected for test. The rudimentary data collection
treatment. A fourth, Stores Management can be taken concurrent with the more
Set Testing, was added at the suggestion rigorous and the less accurate
that the addition of a single electro- information used to adjust the next test
mechanical-electronic system would add event while data reduction occurs
depth to the document. concurrently. The less accurate numbers
can also be used to highlight problem
Since this book will only provide an areas and areas where requirements are
introduction to the avionics test easily met. This allows data reduction
subject, it is envisioned that assets to be used where they are most
eventually, more advanced volumes will needed.
be written for each of the avionics
categories. AGARD documents are Another important topic which was not
included as references or are in work documented in this book is the
which provide partial documentation of statistical implications of the tests,
radar, navigation and Electronic Warfare including the methods of sample size
(EW) testing as well as an exhaustive prediction, data convergence, etc. A
series on airborne instrumentation. It few comments are made to highlight tests
is highly recommended that AGARD, or which have particularly troublesome
alternative organizations, champion the statistical issues; however, the reader
crafting of documents necessary to treat is cautioned to review any number of
the balance of radar, navigation and texts on statistics and experimental
electronic warfare testing, as well as design prior to performing any rigorous
the other areas not started. These testing. References 43 and 72 provide
documents would then serve as references an introduction to the subject.
for the active practitioner of avionics
flight test. In order to facilitate the unclassified
demonstration of the development and
This book emphasizes the most application of the sample test
rudimentary form of the tests under procedures, fictitious systems were
discussion. This was done primarily to chosen and placed within equally

2
This presumption is highlighted on close comparison of the radar testing techniques outlined in this document and those presented by Scott [Ref. 501.
 3

fictitious platforms. The specific section is included in the first part of

procedures and data cards, which may each section. Knowing the theoretical
include altitudes, airspeeds, target limits allows a more efficient test to
separations etc., are applicable to the be developed. This process is
sample system only and appropriate demonstrated later in the case study of
parameters must be chosen for the actual section 7.
system/airframe combination under test.
The choice of which parameters to test
In applying this document, basic is best (and only) determined by a
knowledge in certain areas is assumed. thorough knowledge of the workings of
The test planner should have a basic the system and its intended
knowledge of avionics, although an functionality. The process can be
electronics background is definitely not divided into two steps. First, the
required. A familiarity with the evaluator must define the required
operation of tactical aircraft is also functionality of the system. The
important. A theory section is provided functional description should be defined
at the beginning of each of the three in operational, vice engineering,
major sections with specific, amplifying terminology. This step requires a
information included in the general knowledge of the intended mission of the
section of each test. The purpose of system. Secondly, the evaluator must
this information is to provide the choose the kernel of parameters which
reader with the knowledge necessary to measure the performance of the required
comprehend the specific example system functionality defined in the first step.
and test procedures that follow rather This task requires a thorough system
than a complete treatise of the entire knowledge. These parameters are then
subject. The intent is to preclude used as a guide for the development of
extensive outside reading to understand the individual test procedures. The
the test development process. When the test procedures are designed to measure
time comes to apply the test development at least one of the critical performance
knowledge presented here to a real parameters. The individual test
evaluation, an extensive understanding procedures listed in the next three
of the workings of the system under test sections are titled according to the
is absolutely essential and the cursory parameter under test.
treatment here will undoubtedly be
insufficient, even if the systems are The first subsection of each test
similar to the sample systems. procedure describes the purpose of the
test, which more precisely defines the
The layout of the individual test parameters under test. In the general
sections was carefully chosen with section, the basic theory outlined in
several goals in mind. Each test is the beginning of the section is
fairly self-contained, exclusive of the expounded upon as necessary to fully
information in the general theory implement and understand the test
sections. This allows the user of the procedure. The instrumentation
manual to extract specific sections, requirements necessary to measure the
reference them easily and quickly and parameters described in the purpose
review individual tests on the occasions statement are then listed followed by
where they are applicable to the system the data required to document the
under test. In addition, the titles and parameter. Next, the procedure for
contents of each section have parallels performing the test is described in
to the accepted test plan and technical detail followed by a discussion of the
report structure. Finally, the layout post-test analysis of the measured data
is similar to that used in the long required to answer the purpose statement
accepted flying qualities and and the recommended format for
performance flight test manuals (see presenting the test results. The last
reference 47 for an example). part of each test procedure is sample
data cards used to perform the test
The test development process is procedure and for recording the data
manifested in the structure of the during actual testing.
sections to follow. As mentioned above,
the procedure is begun by exploring and In summary, the test design process can
fully understanding the design of the be described as outlined below. It may
system under test. This understanding be necessary to change the order in
provides the insight necessary to stress which the tasks are performed as-well as
the system and test it to its limits and the relative importance of the tasks
also allows the calculation of the from test to test, but the list below
theoretical limits of the system. will provide a guide for the general
General theory applicable to each case.
 4

(1) Research and understand the a Radio Frequency (RF) pulse of known
design specifications and characteristics, waits for the waves
operational use of the system reflected off the target to return and
under test. Use this knowledge analyzes the characteristics of the
to define the parameters returned wave to derive information
critical to assessing the about the reflecting target [Ref. 39:p.
performance of the system and 2.1].
also as a means for calculating
the theoretical boundaries of 2.1.2 Pulsed Radars
the system's performance.
(2) Precisely define the purpose of
the test procedure to include The simplest of radars are the pulsed
the parameters to be measured radars. The operating principles of
during the test. pulsed radars are based on the fact that
(3) Define the data necessary to RF energy propagates through space at a
calculate the parameter under constant velocity. This velocity,
test and assess the strictly speaking, is applicable only in
instrumentation requirements a perfect vacuum and is altered slightly
necessary to measure the data. by the atmosphere. Propagation velocity
(4) Outline the detailed procedure is a function of transmission frequency,
necessary to perform the data and atmospheric molecular composition,
collection effort. temperature and pressure. The speed of
(5) Define the analysis necessary to propagation increases slightly at higher
take the measured data and altitudes [Ref. ll:p. 81]. This effect
calculate or assess the is small; however, at the ranges and
parameter under test and then frequencies discussed in this section.
decide upon the proper For airborne test purposes, a "radar
presentation format to document mile" of 12.36 microseconds can be
the parameter. defined, which is the time required for
(6) As a last effort, generate data RF energy to travel out one nautical
cards that provide an outline of mile (nm) and then return [Ref. 27:p. 1-
all information necessary to 4.2).
perform the data collection
effort and record the results. 3 The basic components of a pulsed radar
include a transmitter, receiver, two
2.0 AIR-TO-AIR AND AIR-TO- antennas and a display [Ref. 60:p. 4].
Two antennas are included because the
GROUND RADAR SYSTEMS system requires a transmit antenna and
TESTING receive antenna.
antenna is time
In practice, a single
shared for both
purposes. A duplexer is used to switch
2.1 Introduction to Radar Theory between the transmit and receive sides
of the radar. The transmit side is
connected only when actually firing a
pulse and the receive side is connected
2. 1.1 General to listen for returned pulses. [Ref.
56:p. 4]. This scheme prevents the
Radar (Radio Detection And Ranging) was transmit
the pulse
receive side from being
of the directed to
radar.
first used operationally in 1937. This
rudimentary system included a simple Transmitter antennas are usually
pulsed scheme to determine target designed to concentrate the transmitted
bearing and range. (Ref. 9:p.1]. The pulse in as narrow a beam as possible.
first successful airborne radar was the Similarly, receiver antennas are
Al Mark IV carried on the Bristol designed to receive signals within the
Beaufighter 19 in 1940 which used simple same narrow beam. This phenomenon of
pulsed techniques to determine airborne essentially equal performance of the
target range [Ref. 56:p.2). From these antenna in both transmit and receive
humble beginnings, radar has developed modes is known as reciprocity and can be
to the point that it has become the useful in designing tests [Ref. 36:p.
centerpiece in virtually every modern 2.132).
airborne weapon system. In the very
simplest terms, a radar sends into space

3
Refer to chapter 6 for a discussion of how to combine all the various tests, and their data cards, into an intelligent flight plan.
 5

The antenna beam width is usually been ignored. The effect is called
defined at the 3 decibel (db) power drop sidelobing. When the desired main beam
off points each side of the radar pattern is transmitted, additional
antenna boresight and is usually patterns of similar shape but smaller
measured both horizontally and amplitude are transmitted at intervals
vertically [Ref. 36:p. 2.135a, Ref. around the antenna in a three-
27:p. 3-1.1, Ref. 21:p. 66]. Beam width dimensional pattern. Figure 2 shows the
is critical since it is through this effect in two dimensions. All real
characteristic that the direction to a antennas have this problem to some
target is determined. As the antenna is degree; although, the number of
scanning, or moved in a search pattern, sidelobes and their intensity relative
the antenna pointing angle with respect to the main beam vary with the quality
to the aircraft is measured. The rate of the antenna. The sidelobe pattern
of antenna movement is insignificant also typically changes when the antenna
when compared to the RF propagation is installed on the airframe. Modern
speed. Thus the relative angle at which antennas greatly suppress the sidelobe
the radar antenna is pointing when the problem with a decrease of from 20 to
signal is sent out, reflected and 100 db in the sidelobes from the main
returned, is the angle to the target. beam peak magnitude. A return from a
[Ref. 39:pp. 2.8-2.9]. The angle to the sidelobe cannot be distinguished from a
target is determined both horizontally mainbeam return without special
and vertically. Target angle processing, and the azimuth of the
determination errors can be incurred due sidelobe return appears to be that of
to the beam width of the antenna and to the main beam return. [Ref. 56:p. 138].
inaccuracies in the measurement of the
antenna pointing angle. It must be A number of antenna scan patterns have
noted that some modern radars can been used for air-to-air and air-to-
provide azimuth resolution better than ground radars. Most modern radars use a
the antenna beamwidth. With the gyroscopically or inertially stabilized,
exception of doppler beam sharpening, to gimbal mounted antenna that allows the
be discussed in the air-to-ground radar scan pattern to remain level with the
section, these technologies will not be horizon as the airplane is maneuvered
covered in this document; however, the [Ref. 56:p.24). There is usually some
test techniques are similar. maximum physical limit for displacement
relative to the host aircraft, both
Antenna beam width also determines the horizontally and vertically. Since the
minimum angular resolution of the radar. antennas are normally mounted in the
When two targets are at the same range airplane nose, structural interference
from the radar, they must be separated and RF interference with the airframe
by at least the antenna beam width to be necessitates these limits. A limit of
distinguishable as two targets. Since 60" left and right horizontally
the returned radar pulses from the two (azimuth) and 45' up and down vertically
reflecting targets will arrive at the (elevation) are typical. A raster type
antenna face simultaneously and will antenna scan pattern is usually used.
thus be unresolvable without additional The raster scan moves horizontally left
information (which will be discussed and right between the selected limits.
later). [Ref. 39:pp. 2.9-2.10]. Air-to- Usually two or three angular widths are
air radar antennas generally strive for available for selection within the
small horizontal and vertical beam physical limits described above. Often
widths because this improves both the the operator is also able to select the
vertical and horizontal angle location of the center of the scan
determination of airborne targets. Air- pattern, again within the physical
to-ground radar antennas use small limits described above. An operator
horizontal beam widths and wide vertical would normally select a scan pattern
beam widths, providing accurate less than the maximum limits and
horizontal angle determination with directed towards the target when the
reasonable vertical distribution of target bearing can be estimated. This
energy over a wide range for consistent provides more frequent scanning of the
radar mapping qualities. [Ref. 56:p. 8]. target area to reduce detection time.
An even distribution of energy over the For air-to-air applications, the
ground allows the radar to present a horizontal path is usually stepped up
more map-like display for wide ranges and then down by an incremental angular
with fewer gaps where the radar is not amount. Each horizontal scan is known
illuminating [Ref. 56:p.146]. as a bar and may be selected in number
[Ref. 56:p.5], usually from one to four.
Up to this point, a very important Each bar typically overlaps slightly.
shortcoming of all real antennas has
 6

30 . . .. ... . . . . . . .. .. ... .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . .

20.

10. ...........

-0.
_ 0. A_.Al L_

2--0.
I Al I NIi lulll
A
-30. __ _ _ _ ___ _ _

-40.

-50. LJULL .J .
LJ LLL
.... j.L. L J..L L J.A.L... . L.L.J .L..1
L .l.L.LJ.A...L
-180. -150. -120. -90. -60. -30. 0. 30. 60. 90. 120. 150. 180.
ANTENNA POSITION IRELATIVE TO NOSE)

Figure 2: Two Dimensional Antenna Sidelobe Pattern

As the number of bars and the scan Air-to-ground radars normally operate
azimuth width are increased, the search with a single bar scan pattern, and
volume increases and consequently the therefore the scan rate and scan angular
time between target illuminations width determine the refresh rate of the
increases. Increasing antenna scan rate display. The number of hits per scan is
can be used to counter this problem maximized to maintain a consistent,
somewhat; however, if the scan rate is map-like display and so the tradeoff is
increased, the amount of time the target one of providing a quick scan rate to
is within the antenna beam width, and shorten the refresh period and a long
thus the number of pulses illuminating one to keep the number of pulses over a
the target per scan, is decreased. A given azimuth high enough to provide a
tradeoff is necessary to optimize the consistent, map-like display.
number of hits per scan and to minimize
the time between scans over the target. The ideal, pulsed radar sends out the RF
Usually the search volume is limited to energy in discrete packages (pulses) of
that which can be supported by the radar a specified duration. The pulse
and still be tactically useful. A duration ideally has very rapid rise and
multiple bar scan pattern is necessary fall times. It is assumed here that the
to cover the search volume because a rise and fall times are essentially
narrow vertical beam width is needed to instantaneous since modern radars come
allow altitude of the airborne targets very close to achieving this goal. The
to be determined. Knowing the vertical pulse width defines both the theoretical
angle to the target (calculated in the minimum range and the theoretical
same manner as the horizontal angle to minimum range resolution. The
the target) and the target range, a theoretical minimum range is defined in
simple geometric calculation provides the following equation [Ref. 39:P.
the target altitude relative to the host 2.7B]:
aircraft. This can be added to the host
aircraft altitude to determine the
target altitude.
 7

special techniques applied, the

Rb. (Ctheoretical unambiguous maximum range is
2 defined as [Ref. 39:p. 2.8b]:
or 3 X 10'2
C-The speed of light tr ()PJ

9.7125 X 10' feet 2)

second R.. ,,•=theoretical unambiguous maximum range o)
"161,875 nm p•=_1
second PRF
Rl•-theoretical minimum range
PW=Pulse Width
Frequency can affect the maximum range
Any target closer than this range will of the radar since some frequencies are
not be observed since the duplexer will impacted by molecules and particles
still be switched to the transmit side within the atmosphere more than others.
of the radar. The theoretical range The impact is a function of the
resolution limit (R.., or minimum range wavelength of the radar RF frequency
resolution) is equal to the same value, relative to the diameter of the various
[Ref. 39:p. 2.8a]. Since the return particles and molecules in the
from the farther of two targets, that atmosphere. The effect can be dramatic.
are closer together than the range Wavelength is related to frequency by
resolution limit, will be received at the following expression [Ref. 56:p.
the receiver coincident with that of the 125, Ref. 27:pp. 5-1.1-5-1.3]:
nearer target and will thus be
unresolvable without additional C=sedoffigh0
information (discussed later). From f=frequenq inhertz
these considerations a short pulse width I=Wavelength inmeters, feet, etc.
as appropriate
is desirable; however, a long pulse
width is needed because energy is
transmitted only during the duration of Some frequencies propagate through the
the pulse and the average power atmosphere with less absorption than
illuminating the target increases as the others. At the frequencies most used
pulse width is increased. This for air-to-air and air-to-ground radars,
increases the probability of detection, oxygen and water molecules are the
all else being equal. [Ref. 56:pp. greatest absorbers of RF energy (Ref.
159-160]. 56:p. 125, Ref. 27:pp. 5-1.1-5-1.3].
Lower frequencies can actually propagate
The number of times that the pulsed beyond the horizon by bouncing downward
radar transmits its pulse per second is in the upper atmosphere, bouncing up
known as the Pulse Repetition Frequency from the ground and/or by conforming
(PRF). PRF determines the maximum somewhat to the curvature of the earth
theoretical unambiguous range. The [Ref. 36:p. 2.80]. Air-to-air and al
radar waits between transmissions for to-ground radars are generally w.
return pulses. If the PRF is too high, above this frequency since the lo-
and thus the time between pulses is too frequencies require large antennas (m-;t
short, the return from a previous pulse antennas are optimized at multiples of
will return while the radar is waiting 1/2 the RF wavelength). Virtually all
for the return from a more recent pulse. the radars that fall in the categories
The time interval between pulses is discussed here radiate at between 6
called the Pulse Repetition Interval GigaHertz (GHZ) and 18 GHZ. At these
(PRI). The radar would be unable to frequencies moisture content of the
determine which transmitted pulse the atmosphere has an effect because of the
returns were associated with, and some wavelength relative to the water
returns would be associated with the molecule's size. Also, these
incorrect time slot. [Ref. frequencies propagate essentially on a
56:pp.157-158]. Conversely, the PRF straight line path, that is, along the
must be kept as high as possible to line of sight. [Ref. 36:p. 2.80]. Above
increase the average power out of the the 20 GHZ level, the atmosphere absorbs
radar and thus the probability of virtually all the RF energy at short
detection. There are methods for ranges [Ref. 36:p. 125].
resolving ambiguities between interpulse
periods. The simplest is merely to vary The tools have now been presented to
the transmitted RF frequency from pulse analyze one of the most crucial features
to pulse, correlating a return pulse to be evaluated on a new radar. This
with its associated transmitted pulse by parameter is the maximum detection range
matching frequencies. (Ref. 39:p. 2.8]. of the radar (not the same as the
For a simple pulsed radar without maximum unambiguous range). This
 8

characteristic receives much attention (S/N)m•=The Signal to Noise ratio

during a test program because it is is a measure of the signal
often the performance feature by which strength divided by the noise
radars are compared and measured, received. The minimum signal to
Reference 36 provides a good derivation noise is that S/N that can just
of the radar range equation which is barely be identified as an actual
presented here without proof [Ref. target. The (S/N),,,m, depends on
39:pp. 2.12-2.15]: many factors, most of which can
only be defined poorly. Operator
R. PGoA ]4 experience and the accepted false
(srj
k T-. F4$RS) alarm rate are examples of these
variables.[Ref. 14:p. 2.15].
Modern radars can have an (S/N),.
well below unity using advanced
processing techniques to pull the
P=Transmitted power of the radar. target's returned energy out of
the noise level. Some will be
G=Directive gain of the antenna, a discussed later.
measure of the ability of the antenna
to direct the RF along a straight Note that the entire expression is
line rather than transmit it evenly raised to the 1/4 power. Improving any
around the antenna in a spherical one factor by 16 will only double the
pattern (isotropically). radar range. [Ref. 3 9 :p. 2.15]. a is a
function of the target and not under the
a=The radar cross section of the control of the radar designer.
target. "The radar cross section of (k)(T)(B.)(F.) are only slightly under
a target is that area which, when the control of the designer since some
multiplied by the radar signal power thermal noise must exist in any real
density incident upon the target, if system and most modern systems handle
radiated isotropically by the target, this problem fairly well. L is very
would result in a return back at the close to unity in many modern systems
radar equal to that of the actual and; therefore, cannot affect the order
target" [Ref. 39:p. 2.16]. Simply, of magnitude changes necessary to
the radar cross section is a measure significantly increase the radar range.
of the ability of the target to A is limited by the frontal cross
reflect radar energy. The radar sectional area of the airplane nosecone
cross section varies with the which is where most radar antennas are
specific frequency, and thus housed. [Ref. 56:p. 127]. This leaves
wavelength, and changes, sometimes P,G and (S/N)m,. for the designer to
dramatically, as the angle of manipulate and affect maximum range.
incidence upon the target changes
[Ref. 39:p. 2.17, Ref. 28, Ref. 8, Peak power out is usually limited by the
Ref. 44:pp. 89-127].4 physical weight and size of transmitters
that have to be carried in airplanes.
A=The radar antenna capture area. Lowering peak power reduces airplane
weight. [Ref. 56: p.124 ]. A pulsing
L=A loss factor which accounts for scheme has to be worked out to lower
non-specific losses within the radar peak power while optimizing average
receiver. power over time [Ref. 56:p. 159-160].
Generally, some modulation scheme of
(k) (T) (B.) (F.)=All are related to the either frequency or PRF is used to allow
interference within the system caused increasing the pulse width or PRF to
by thermal noise. Thermal noise is a effect greater average power while at
function of the absolute temperature the same time not sacrificing other
of the system and the band width of radar parametric performance. Some of
the system. Most modern radars have these techniques are described later.
come close to optimizing this set of Increasing average power can cause other
parameters; and, as such, there is problems. As power output is increased,
little room for improvement for the the probability of the signal being
designer. received by the enemy and exploited is

4Knott, Shaeffer and Tuley, reference 28, is the best volume on radar cross section I have read to date. It also includes a truly outstanding discussion
of radar cross section reduction techniques. This is a must reference for all concerned with testing modem air-to-air or air-to-ground radar systems.
 9

increased [Ref. 39:p. 2.12-2.13]. Since also imparted by ownship motion. For
the signal path to the enemy receiver is example, ground clutter directly along
only a one way path, the radar range the flight path of the airplane will
equation dramatically shows the tend to exhibit a doppler shift equal to
importance of keeping the power levels the groundspeed of the airplane [Ref.
within limits. One technique makes use 13:p.2.36, Ref. 27:pp. 2-2.1-2-2.5].
of the ambient noise level to hide the Several techniques are available for
transmitted RF. eliminating doppler shift due to ownship
motion. The simplest technique is
Antenna Gain is improving at a slow but merely to filter out all doppler shifts
steady rate. Most modern radars rely on around the ownship groundspeed motion
slotted array planar antennas which are induced doppler value along the radar
a pattern of slot shaped antennas boresight [Ref. 56:p.9]. This technique
aligned in a flat plane. These planar is often used in air-to-air radars.
arrays achieve a G of as much as 40 db
in current production systems. The A number of techniques have been devised
minimum signal to noise ratio can be for detecting targets that are moving
improved by increasing the sensitivity with respect to ground clutter. These
of the receiver while at the same time systems are known collectively as Moving
improving the capability to reject Target Indicators [Ref. 39:p.2.48] or in
ambient noise. Rejecting noise keeps the case of airborne radars as Airborne
the false alarm rate down. Many Moving Target Indicators (AMTI) [Ref.
techniques involve modulating the 39:p.2.29]. One class of AMTI radars
transmitted signal in a unique fashion uses only the doppler effect to detect
not duplicated in nature to allow the moving targets. These radars use very
receiver to differentiate between the long pulses to increase the average
return signal and noise. The power power and consequently cannot determine
density can be spread out to a lower range to the target. In this situation,
level than the ambient noise and then the only reason pulsing is used is to
pulled back out at the receiver. This allow the same antenna to be employed to
is possible because a pseudo-random code transmit and to receive. Target bearing
known only by the transmitting radar is is found as in pulsed radars. The high
used to modulate the RF. The code must average power and sensitivity to closure
be known to pull the signal out of the rate make these radars ideal for gaining
noise. The signal is almost impossible relatively long range detection on high
to detect without the code since the closure rate targets. The high average
pseudo-random modulation makes it look power output improves small a target
like noise. This technique is finding detection (the increase in P compensates
application in a large number of current for a small a in the radar range
and developing communication and radar equation). The rejection of ground
systems. [Ref. 36:pp. 2.108-2.111]. clutter based upon the ownship motion
doppler shift filtering described above
2.1.3. Doppler Radars also increases the probability of small
target detection in the clutter. All
these effects make the doppler mode of
The operating principles of doppler operation ideal for the detection of
radars are based upon the fact that RF small, low flying cruise missiles
reflections from a target that is closing on the radar.
closing in range radially along the
direction of propagation are shifted up Several doppler radar parameters affect
in frequency, and reflections from a the performance of the system. One
target that is opening in range are parameter is the accuracy with which the
shifted down in frequency. This doppler shift (frequency change between
phenomenon is demonstrated in the audio the transmit and receive signal) can be
spectrum by a train passing with the measured. This accuracy directly
horn sounding. The horn sounds higher relates to the ability of the radar to
in frequency as it is approaching and discern between two targets close
then lower in frequency as it is together in bearing and also close
receding. [Ref. 56:p. 9, Ref. 27:pp. 2- together in closure speeds. As the
2.1-2-2.5]. It must be emphasized that difference in doppler shift approaches a
this measurement is limited to radial value equal to the doppler shift
velocities only [Ref. 56:p. 9, Ref. accuracy, the targets become
27:pp. 2-2.1-2-2.5]. A target could be unresolvable in closure speed. The
moving hypersonically, perpendicular to uncertainty in doppler frequency shift
a non-moving doppler radar, and it will is directly convertible to a closure
exhibit a zero doppler shift. Another rate uncertainty. [Ref. 39:p.3.18].
point to note is that a doppler shift is
10

2.1.4. Pulse Doppler Radars due to the doppler shift from ownship
motion along the radar line of sight.
Along with this return is a return which
Pulse doppler radars combine the ranging is much wider in its frequency spectrum
capabilities of the pure pulsed radar and lower in power caused by clutter in
with the closure velocity determination the radar sidelobes. Finally, a narrow
capability of the doppler radar. With frequency spike occurs at the transmit
this technique, doppler shift frequency due to the return from the
measurements are applied within the ground immediately below the aircraft.
pulse width of the transmit and reply This is called the altitude return. The
signal providing the best of both entire spectrum is illustrated in figure
radars, although not without added 3 [Ref. 39:pp. 2.35b-2.36].
complications. All of the performance
limitations of both pulsed radars and Without further processing, the target
doppler radars apply; however, the return would have to be strong enough to
pulsing of the doppler RF adds several break out of the clutter and noise
new limitations. The first is caused by combination. It is very unlikely that a
the effects of frequency folding or small target would be seen within any of
aliasing. (Ref. 39:p. 2.34]. the clutter pedestals described. A
common method of handling this problem
The pulsed radar is essentially a data is simply to filter out all of the main
sampling system and, as in any sampling beam, altitude return and sidelobe
system, "the sampling process creates clutter pedestals, requiring the target
new frequencies, other than the desired to only break out of the noise (Ref.
transmit frequency, which replicates the 39:p. 2.37]. Unfortunately, this
desired spectrum in the frequency eliminates a wide spectrum of closure
domain, at intervals equal to the rates where the target would not be
sampling rate" (Ref. 39:p. 2.34]. The seen, but leaves few false alarms.
sampling rate is equal to the PRF for Other radars leave the sidelobe clutter
radar applications [Ref. 39:p. 2.34]. pedestal. The effect is fewer excluded
The return signal replicates itself at a closure rates but a lot of noise in the
lower power level, at multiples of the sidelobe clutter pedestal for the radar
radar PRF [Ref. 39:p. 2.34b]. As and/or the operator to sift through.
described, this effect occurs for a The target return must be strong enough
simple sinusoidal signal and becomes to be seen inside the pedestal (Ref.
even more complicated if the signal is 39:p. 2.37] and the false alarm rate is
further modulated as are most radar usually increased. Fortunately, other
signals. Since the doppler portion of methods have been devised for dealing
the pulse doppler radar measures the with clutter. One will be discussed
frequency change of the transmitted RF, here as an example. Delay Line
this problem is serious and results in Cancelers (DLCs) allow the radar to save
ambiguous doppler shifts, and thus the return pulse from one PRI to another
ambiguous radial velocities, at each and then to pass the two through a
frequency fold. [Ref. 39:p. 2.35]. The filter. The two are essentially
solution to the problem is to select a subtracted from each other and the
PRF high enough such that the first difference is due to changes over time,
frequency fold occurs at a doppler that is, motion over the ground clutter.
shift, and thus a closure speed, higher
than of interest to the operator. In a When using the simple method of
pulse doppler system this is contrary to subtracting out the clutter pedestals,
the requirement of having a low PRF to there are resultant blind speeds, around
prevent range ambiguities. A tradeoff the speed of ownship, along the radar
occurs in these radars between low/high line of sight. This problem is
PRF and thus range ambiguities/closure complicated when frequency folding
rate ambiguities. The best solution occurs since this leaves one blind
depends upon the intended use of the closure rate for each fold. When using
radar. (Ref. 39:p. 2.42]. DLCs, there is a minimum speed over the
ground clutter that the target must make
Another problem results from the effects for the DLC circuitry to be able to
of ground clutter returns on various discern a minimum resolvable change from
portions of the radar transmission pulse to pulse. This means there is
pattern. Since all real radar antennas also a minimum resolvable closure rate.
have antenna patterns with sidelobes DLCs are also susceptible to frequency
outside the main radar beam, ground folding just as in other pulse doppler
clutter returns are of three different systems and thus these minimum doppler
types. The highest amplitude return is shift closure rates may be repeated at
caused by the main beam itself and is
 11

FIRST LOWER PRIMARY FIRST UPPER

FOLDED SPECTRUM SPECTRUM FOLDED
SPECTRUM

S• CLEAR
G cc REGION
ALTITUDE MAINLOBE
RETURN CLUTTER

SIDELOBE
CLUTTER

CLOSING I
TARGET
NOISE

Fo-PRF F0 Fo-Fdt Fo+ PRF

FREQUENCY

F0 =transmitted carrier frequency

PRF=pulse repetition frequency
Fdt=doppler shift due to target radial velocity
Figure 3: Airborne Pulse Doppler Return Spectrum

intervals over the velocity spectrum. delay. The effect is to stack the
(Ref. 56:pp. 425-426]. return pulse. The result is to provide
better range resolution from the narrow
2.1.5. Advanced Techniques processed pulse width with the benefits
of high average power from the wide
transmit pulse. Typical compression
2.1.5.1. Pulse Compression ratios are around 100/1. (Ref. 56: pp.
217-218):
The first advanced technique to be
discussed is pulse compression. In compression rado=traonmined PW
pulse compression, the transmit pulse is compressed PW
generated with a spread of frequencies PW=pu.w wkith
within a defined band. The pulse is
then passed through a filter, called a
Dispersive Delay Line (DDL). The effect
of the DDL is to arrange the RF within 2.1.5.2. Doppler Beam Sharpening
the pulse such that the lower
frequencies are transmitted at the The next technique to be discussed is
beginning of the pulse width, linearly Doppler Beam Sharpening (DBS). DBS has
increasing to the higher frequencies by found application mostly in air-to-
the end of the pulse width. The return ground radars. As the radar antenna is
pulse is then passed through the same scanning, the antenna boresight moves
filter in the opposite direction, which from side to side. The ground target
slows the lower frequencies in the lead doppler shift is a measure of the
and by the end of the pulse applies no component of the host airplane's
12

velocity along this boresight. All 2.1.5.3. FM Ranging

fixed ground targets have a doppler
shift caused by the geometric component As discussed above, the more continuous
of own aircraft motion along this the transmission pattern, the higher the
boresight. For these reasons, as the average power out and the longer the
antenna scans, the ground return doppler maximum detection range. The drawback
shift will change by a predictable of extremely long pulse widths is that
amount. DBS makes use of this concept ranging of the target becomes
by measuring the doppler shift of the impossible. Frequency Modulation (FM)
ground returns and comparing them to the ranging provides ranging data even with
doppler returns for adjacent returns in very long or continuous pulse trains.
azimuth to determine very precise angles In FM ranging, the pulse train is ramped
off of the aircraft ground track. The linearly up in frequency to a peak from
result is a very precise angular some baseline frequency and then
determination for target returns, much linearly ramped down to the original
better than the antenna beam width. baseline. This pattern is repeated at
Unfortunately, the doppler shifts vary intervals roughly equivalent to
slightly from pulse to pulse around the conventional pulse repetition intervals.
theoretical value and the information The return pulse is then compared to the
must be integrated over time to get the transmitted pulse to find the peak,
true value. A lot of radar information providing a time reference from which to
must be stored to display the entire determine the time of propagation to the
search volume and the display often target and back. Instead of measuring
requires 10 to 15 seconds to build. The the time from transmission to receipt of
data is normally stored in small angular a discrete pulse, the time from transmit
and range bins within the radar computer to receipt of the peak is measured,
and the display usually appears like providing range. [Ref. 39:pp.
small building blocks of varying 2.29-2.32]. In practice, this technique
intensity. A lot of computer memory and is much less accurate (by as much as an
processing time is required for this order of magnitude) than pulse ranging
process. and has poor resolution, but reasonable
ranges can be determined for the long
Since DBS only affects angular range targets that the wide pulse width
resolution, some technique is needed to radars are designed to detect. The
improve range resolution consistent with reduced range resolution and accuracy
the angular improvement. This is are a result of the inherent
usually accomplished merely by inaccuracies associated with determining
decreasing the pulse width of the the precise point of the frequency peak.
transmit signal enough to provide a [Ref. 56:pp. 239-240].
harmonious balance of angular and range
resolution. The reduced pulse width 2.1.6. Displays
also reduces average power and in turn
reduces the maximum DBS range to 40 or
50 nm. Another limitation of DBS is Two types of display formats have found
caused by the geometry of the technique. application in most modern air-to-air
The doppler shift change close to the and air-to-ground radars. The most
radar ground track is very small as the widely used, and most versatile, is the
radar sweeps, increasing by the cosine Plan Position Indicator (PPI) format.
of the angle off of the ground track to In this format, the sweep emanates from
a maximum as the perpendicular position a single point, usually the bottom
is reached. A minimum discernable center of the scope, and describes a
change is required to be resolvable, slice of a circle with radius equal to
causing a small notch, usually 7" to 15' the sweep length. The origin of the
wide, over the nose of the airplane, sweep is the ownship position and the
where the DBS picture is blanked. In target's position relative to ownship is
some radars, this is filled, with measured as the bearing of the sweep and
limited success, with real beam radar range from ownship. [Ref. 56:p. 25, Ref.
video. Most state of the art DBS radars 27:pp. 5-5.3-5-5.6]. Since a pure
can provide a map like display with an bearing/range format from ownship is
order of magnitude improvement in used, the display closely resembles the
resolution within the constraints real world. That is, if a mapping mode
discussed above. [Ref. 56:pp. is being used, the radar display will
2.66-3.29]. resemble the real world. The bearing
and range measurements are made as
direct line of sight measurements and as
such do involve some slant range errors.
These errors account for slight
 13

distortions at short ranges. Another absence of a target is usually easily

short range distortion is caused by the interpreted by the operator. For the
very shape of the display. Since the old analog displays still in use,
display comes to a notch near ownship, display quality, system set up and
targets near the notch of the V are very operator proficiency can greatly affect
cluttered, and as such, resolution nearly every radar parameter.
generally suffers very close into
ownship. Both of these short range 2.1.7. Analog Versus Digital
display problems can affect the minimum
usable range of the radar and can cause Displays
it to be greater than the theoretical
value described earlier.
Almost all new radar system displays are
Some applications require a quick and implemented in a digital format. This
accurate representation of target means that analog to digital conversion
bearing and range more than the map like of the radar return takes place and some
picture described above. One amount of radar processing is used
application is in fighters, where before the information is displayed to
accurate target angle and range the operator. The benefit is a cleaner
information is required to set up and display gleaned from the chaos of the
execute intercepts. For these purposes, analog world with only the necessary
the B scan format display has found information making it to the display.
application. B scan displays are set up Decreasing the unusable information from
with range on the y axis and angle to the display tends to reduce operator
the target on the x axis [Ref. 56:p. 25, workload. This is perhaps the major
Ref. 27:pp. 5-5.3-5-5.6]. This format advantage of the digital format. The
is more a display of information rather displays are clean and target presence
than a picture of the real world. The is easy to determine. The major
effect is to "spread the world out" at disadvantage of the digital format is
short ranges, distorting the picture. that in paring out the clutter, the
The B scan has limited application in system often deletes usable information.
the air-to-ground arena, although some Analog displays leave everything for the
applications exist. Air-to-ground B operator to interpret himself. For this
scan applications are usually limited to reason, a skilled operator with time to
small area displays offset from ownship concentrate on the analog display can
(patch map) [Ref. 56:p. 25]. DBS often almost always out perform a digital
uses a B-scan format to facilitate system. The disadvantage of analog is
conversion from memory storage in the the time and concentration required,
range and azimuth bins to display. which distracts the operator from making
Velocity Search (VS) modes are displayed tactical decisions. [Ref. 27:pp. 5-5.1-5-
with angle to the target on the x axis 5.2]
and closure rate on the y axis (Ref.
39:p. 3.26]. Figure 4 includes samples 2.1.8. Radar Tracking
of several display formats.

Display resolution is important in all Two types of air-to-air radar tracking

display formats. Often the display has modes are common to modern radars. The
less resolution than does the radar first, Single Target Tracking (STT), is
system. As a result, a lot of good implemented by concentrating the radar
radar system design work suffers. on a single, selectable target and using
Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) are used in the output to determine target
most displays today. These displays parameters. For a ranging mode, this
have a fairly well defined resolution includes the target's range, bearing,
based upon the number of raster lines course, groundspeed and altitude. The
per inch, or the number of resolvable antenna is typically pointed at the
points per inch that are displayable. target and a feedback process is used to
This number is applicable to both determine the target parameters. For a
dimensions on the display. Knowing the VS mode, the target's bearing and
selected range scale, the theoretical closure rate are tracked. [Ref. 39:p.
resolution limit can be determined. 2.55]. The advantage of an STT mode is
that the course and groundspeed can be
displayresoludon= (, determined for a pulsed mode and also
(¢o6)marn)
(raster lines
per dfsplay inch) the radar is concentrated on a. single
target, increasing the detection level.
STT is typically selected when a target
For the digitally driven CRT digital is chosen for intercept and intercept
displays in use today, the presence or
14

m m

Bearingn

B ScnBSa

Planned Position Indicator Range &Bearing VelocitySearch

Figure 4: Sample Display Formats

calculations and display formats are is reduced from the STT level. [Ref.
39
usually provided. :pp. 2.61-2.62]. The number of
possible track files varies with the
The second air-to-air tracking mode, individual radar.
Track While Scan (TWS), allows the radar
to continue to detect targets within the For air-to-ground radars, geographically
search volume while determining track stable cursors for designation of ground
parameters (course, speed and altitude) targets are common. The cursors, which
on some number of tracks within the same may take the form of cross-hairs or
search volume. The antenna continues to brackets on the display are placed over
scan and the radar saves the detected the target by the operator. The
target parameters from each scan, using position of the cursors are stabilized
the information to determine a bearing, geographically by the navigation system
range, course, groundspeed and altitude of the airplane [Ref. 39:p. 3.27]. The
on the targets. The advantages of TWS cursors stay stationary relative to the
are increased Situational Awareness (SA) radar video. Unwanted motion in the
outside of the area of the target being cursor is a result of navigational
intercepted, while still calculating drift, causing the cursors to move
target course, groundspeed and altitude. relative to the radar video. The
The disadvantage of TWS is that the cursors are used for designating a
detection level for individual targets target position for use by the fire
 15

control computer, for navigation engineer to be able to see the effects

updates, etc. of extremes of the possible variables;
however, it may tell little about how
2.1.9. Missions the radar will perform in its
environment.
intended
This is the goal of the
techniques presented here. Money and
A radar is designed for a specific time can often limit the number of data
mission and testing procedures have to points per test to one or two. A
be tailored and the results analyzed to mission relatable target in a scenario
reflect emphasis on the parameters that reflects the intended use of the
important to the mission. For military radar is required. The evaluator must
radars, these missions are often understand the mission before designing
explained in a general way in the the test, and must test to the mission.
individual aircraft detailed
specifications, Test and Evaluation 2.1.10. Radar Systems Human
Master Plans (TEMPs), etc. These
documents tend to be vague. For this Factors
reason, when designing tests and in
analyzing the results, it is essential
that the evaluator have an in depth No attempt will be made here to
knowledge of the intended use and completely cover the topic of human
expected environment. Operational factors; however, the introduction of a
experience in a similar platform is not few concepts specifically applied to
essential but extremely helpful. If airborne radar is in order. First,
this experience is not available on the anthropometric data and the concept of
test team, extensive research is called the Design Eye Position (DEP) must be
for. As an exanple, the choice of discussed.
targets for air-tz -air testing should
always reflect the .ntended threat. An In 1964 a study of 1,549 Naval Aviators
interceptor design- 3 to defend against was performed to obtain 96 body
large, long range, strategic bombers measurements (Ref. 661. Items such as
would require a different target than a weight, height, height from the seat to
fighter designed to defend an attack the eyeball position, reach length,
group against other small, agile etc., were collected for a wide group of
fighters. The target should reflect the aviators and then statistically
intended use and in fact many new analyzed. The outcome of the study was
detailed specifications are written with a definition for each parameter of the
this in mind, in that the average measurement and measurements
detection/tracking sections are written below which various percentages of the
in terms of targets that are similar in group would fall. Most aircraft
radar cross section and performance to specifications are written to require
the threat. Many other examples are the 3 to 98 percentile group
possible. The concept is often called (measurements that are at least as great
"mission relation" and is applied to the as the lowest 3 percent and lower than
test design, data analysis and in the the upper 2 percent) to be able to
justification of the final results, manipulate and use all the furnishings,
controls and displays in the cockpit
Mission relatable tests are particularly [Ref. 47:pp. XV3-XV4]. As an example,
important in the test techniques most cockpit seats are designed to be
presented here. Since these techniques adjustable up and down over a certain
are designed to provide a range. The center of this range is
quick/inexpensive assessment vice an almost always optimized to accommodate
in-depth engineering analysis, there is the average, or 50 percentile
not much time to completely cover a individual, described above, and the
plethora of data points. The important upper and lower limits are almost always
data points have to be acquired in a designed to accommodate the 3 and 98
mission relatable scenario and the percentile persons.
analysis has to reflect this mission
relation. As an example,
maximum detection when doing
range tests, the There
cockpit is for
an eye
whichposition
all the within the
cockpit
designing engineer would desire an controls and displays are optimized.
in-depthnig setnofdetecion da erean The range of seat adjustments described
wide variation of environmental above are designed to allow placing the
conditions (i.e.: low/high clutter, eye of the 3 to 98 percentile persons at
visible moisture/clear weather, wide this position. This is called the
closure speed range, etc.) From an Design Eye Position (DEP). [Ref. 47:pp.
engineering standpoint, this allows the XV4-XV5]. This is the
all control and display point from which
tests should be
16

performed. The DEP is usually close to 2.2. AIR-TO-AIR AND AIR-TO-

the midway seat position for the 50
percentile person. The correct seat G RO U N D RAD AR TEST
position to place the evaluator's eye at TECHNIQUES
the DEP can be approximated by placing
the seat at the center of the range of
adjustment and finding the evaluator's
anthropometric sitting eye height and 221 Preflight and Buit-n-
the 50 percentile sitting eye height Tests
from the anthropometric data tables.
The two can then be subtracted and for
the taller person the seat can be moved 2.2.1.1. Purpose
down by the difference to drop the
evaluator's eye to the correct position. The purpose of this test is to assess
For the shorter person the seat is the suitability of the radar preflight
raised by the difference. While wearing and turn on procedure and the Built-In-
a standard flight helmet, the head is Test (BIT) to quickly and easily bring
placed against the head rest. The the radar on line and insure an
evaluator's reach is defined while the operational or "up" system, once
head is placed at this point, airborne.
Controls and displays should be 2.2.1.2. General
evaluated while seated at the DEP and
wearing normal flight clothing. A As airplanes become more expensive,
complete set of anthropometric data fewer and fewer will be available to
should be collected on each evaluator accomplish each mission, amplifying the
and the measurements documented in all loss of individual airplanes to inflight
reported test results. A deficiency failures. Quick, accurate ground
with control reach is meaningless when preflight tests are essential to
the cockpit was designed for a reach determine system status while repairs
range that does not include the can still be performed. A quick
evaluator. The clothing and personal response/alert time is also important
flight equipment worn should also be and so these checks must be expeditious
documented. and must allow the operator to prepare
for the mission with a minimum of
A good discussion of the specifics of distractions. Limited airplane
human factors standards applied to radar availability also implies the need for
displays and controls can be found in quick turn-arounds to send the same
references 13 and 14. aircraft out for successive missions.
This necessitates a very short preflight
2.1.11. The Sample Radar System and turn on procedure that can be
accomplished safely and thoroughly
before a hurried combat mission.
The sample radar used to illustrate the
development of the basic radar test 2.2.1.3. Instrumentation
techniques is a multimode air-to-air and
air-to-ground radar installed on a A stop watch and data cards are required
modern fighter/attack airplane. The for this test. A voice tape recorder is
air-to-ground radar modes include real optional.
beam map as well as DBS modes.
Geostable cursors with digital displays 2.2.1.4. Data Required
are available. The air-to-air radar
modes include pulse compressed, VS and Qualitative comments, time to complete
FM ranging. The radar will operate in the preflight/turn on and time to
either search or TWS air-to-air modes, complete the BIT is required. A record
of BIT indications are required.
 17

2.2.1.5. Procedure
Perform a normal system turn on before
each test flight using the published
system check list. Note the times for
radar time out and the total system
preflight time up to the ready for
operate indications. Perform a
preflight BIT, noting the total BIT time
and indications. Note any correlation
between the BIT indications and the
radar's operation. Perform a complete
system check out of the failure
indications. Make qualitative comments
as appropriate.

2.2.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

The time and complexity of the preflight

procedures listed in the operator's
checklist and radar turn on/timeout
procedure should be related to the
expected alert launch time requirements
and the overall operator workload during
the alert launch. The BIT times and the
amount of operator interface required to
perform the BIT should be assessed in
the same scenario. Clarity of the BIT
indications should be related to the
cockpit environment. The BIT
indications should be related to actual
radar degradation and verified by ground
technicians. Erroneous BIT false alarms
should be noted and related to the
probability of unnecessarily missed
sorties.
2.2.1.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are presented as cards

1 and 2.
18

CARD NUMBER

PREFLIGHT/TURN ON

CLARITY OF CHECKLIST INSTRUCTIONS:

LOGICAL SEQUENCE OF CHECKLIST:

THOROUGHNESS OF CHECKLIST:

SYSTEM STATUS/RADAR TIMEOUT COMPLETE INDICATIONS:

RADAR TIMEOUT TIME

TOTAL PREFLIGHT TIME INCLUDING TIMEOUT

Card 1: Preflight/Turn On Data Card

 19

CARD NUMBER

BUILT IN TESTS

INITIATION PROCEDURES:

RUN/FINISH INDICATIONS:

BIT FAILURES AND QUALITATIVE FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF

RADAR/RESULTS OF GROUND MAINTENANCE CHECKS:

Card 2: Built In Tests Data Card

20

2.2.2. Controls and Displays (which for the most part merely put on
paper the standards of common sense).
The operation of the controls should be
2.2.2.1. Purpose clear, requiring a minimum of operator
concentration and attention. This
The purpose of this test is to assess leaves the operator free to make
the suitability and utility of the radar tactical decisions.
controls and displays for the assigned
mission as an interface between the The controls should also be placed in
operator and the radar system. logical functional groups, reducing the
area of scan required to check the radar
5 set up. The radar controls should be
2.2.2.2. General
integrated well into the cockpit.
As good as many radars are in Correct integration requires that the
determining the parameters of the radar controls should operate
target, they have failed if the operator harmoniously with the other controls
is not presented with a usable display within the cockpit and without hindering
or if the operator is not given adequate the simultaneous operation of other
controls to operate the system. The airplane systems. Integration must be
controls and displays must be usable in evaluated during a mission relatable
every conceivable flight regime, ambient workload and while simultaneously
lighting condition, weather condition, operating all the other airplane
and by aviators with the range of systems, since good radar work is
anthropometric measurements for which usually just a part of the mission.
the system was designed to operate. For
the modern fighter or attack airplane Lastly, the controls should provide good
this is usually all weather, day or tactile feedback. For example, detents
night, around +9 to -4 g's, for the 3 to should provide the proper amount of
98 percentile groups, and in a realistic "click" and all the knobs shouldn't feel
tactical environment filled with urgent exactly alike when reaching for a
decisions demanding the aviator's control with eyes on the radar scope.
attention. For this reason, the Applying a little common sense and
controls and display should require an manipulating the controls in a mission
absolute minimum of operator input or relatable environment usually uncovers
interpretation and the information most of the control human factors
imparted and required from the operator violations.
should be a minimum and precisely what
the aviator needs to execute the current Many modern aircraft have a large number
phase of flight. of the avionics controls included in the
Hands-On-Throttle-And-Stick (HOTAS)
Controls should be easily manipulated format, allowing manipulation without
wearing the proper flight clothing. The releasing the throttle and stick. These
range of control (both the physical implementations have their own human
range of movement of the knob, dial, factors challenges. Typical problems
lever, etc. and the range of effect that include the mounting of too many
the control has on the radar) and controls in the available area,
sensitivity should be compatible with appropriate control sensitivity across
the expected flight regime. Controls broad flight conditions and tactile
that require manipulation while airborne feedback considerations.
should be reachable from the DEP,
particularly if they must be activated The radar displays should be clearly
in a combat environment. As an example, visible from the DEP in bright daylight
the Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) Mode as well as complete darkness. In bright
controls must be reachable while daylight, the display must be usable
performing high g maneuvers and while under all conditions of glare, including
maintaining a body position ready for sunlight directly over the operator's
safe ejection. The operative sense must shoulder onto the display (a
be correct. The direction of activation particularly serious problem for most
should conform to the standards of displays). In the dark, the display
common sense (turn the knob to the right should not be so bright that it
to turn on the system) and to the distracts the operator or affects his
standards set in references 15 and 16 night vision. A good range of

For an introduction into controls and displays human factors, see references 20, 54 and 73.
 21

brightness control that integrates 2.2.2.3. Instrumentation

harmoniously with the rest of the
cockpit is required. A tape measure and data cards are
required for this test. A voice
The display resolution must be matched recorder is optional.
to the radar resolution. That is, the
raster lines per inch versus the range 2.2.2.4. Data Required
scale relationship presented in equation
6 must not limit the theoretical Qualitative comments. Evaluator's
resolution of the radar presented as anthropometric data and a list of
equation 1. The display must refresh personal flight gear worn must be
itself quick enough so that the recorded. The number of display raster
symbology, alphanumerics and video lines per inch and range scale limits
present an even and continuous display should be obtained from the radar
without noticeable flicker. There technical manual. The usable display
should be no visible delay between the area should be measured. Location of
radar sweep passage and the update of the display from the DEP should be
the symbology, alphanumerics and video, measured if a qualitative problem is
noted. Record the reach length of
Alphanumerics must be clear and legible. controls that are beyond the operator's
The messages should be short and easily reach while seated at the DEP during any
understood without excessive coding or mission relatable scenario.
operator interpretation. The
information displayed to the operator 2.2.2.5. Procedure
including video, symbols and
alphanumerics must be sufficient for the Find the DEP as outlined previously.
current phase of flight while at the All ground and airborne tests should be
same time not overloading the operator performed while at this position and
with information. This usually requires wearing a complete set of flight gear.
tailoring the display to the specific Perform a system turn up on the ground
attack mode/mission/phase of flight, outside of the hangar in a range of
that is currently being used. The ambient lighting conditions (bright
display should be assessed for the daylight to darkness which may be
information load in a mission relatable simulated using a canopy curtain).
scenario to determine its utility as an Manipulate all controls noting the
aid in the combat environment. It is factors discussed above. Measure the
unlikely that a display compatible in display usable area. Evaluate the
size, weight, power and cooling display for the factors discussed above.
requirements with a tactical airplane
will be built in the near future that Measure and note the position and reach
has too large of a usable display face. length to all controls and displays that
Thus, the display should be evaluated pose a visibility or reach problem from
for size in a relatable mission the DEP. During airborne testing,
environment, accounting for this element manipulate the controls and make
of realism. qualitative comments during mission
attacks and intercepts. Take
The display should be positioned in a particular note during extremes of
location suitable for the mission. As ambient lighting for displays and during
an example, a display for a radar that high g maneuvers for controls. Confirm
includes ACM modes should be high on the the results of the ground tests while
front panel, or even on the Head Up airborne. Check the extremes of control
Display (HUD), to allow the pilot to limits and sensitivity. Repeat for each
glance down or look through the HUD and test flight.
gather the radar derived information
while at the same time minimizing the 2.2.2.6. Data Analysis and
time he or she spends with his or her Presentation
eyes in the cockpit and consequently
away from a visual scan for the target. Present a table of the operator's
As with controls, display human factors anthropometric data and the personal
problems typically surface by applying a flight equipment worn during the tests.
little common sense while using the Present the seat position as the number
radar in a mission relatable scenario, of inches from the bottom of the seat
22

travel. Relate the sensitivity of the

controls to the tactical environment in
which they are to be used. For example,
a fighter's brightness potentiometer
knob may be too sensitive to use under
moderate g or turbulence making it
unusable during intercepts and ACM.

Relate the accessibility, placement and

grouping of the controls under mission
relatable conditions. An ACM mode
selector must be readily accessible
while scanning outside the airplane and
maneuvering violently. Relate the
control clarity, operative sense and
tactile feedback to a multiple threat,
combat scenario requiring the operator
to make quick tactical decisions. If
ambient lighting affects the display in
any way, relate this to the limits of
the possible combat environments.
Compare the minimum display resolution
given in equation 6 with the minimum
radar resolution given in equation 1.
The display resolution should not limit
the radar resolution.

Relate the information load presented

the operator to the combat scenario
discussed above and evaluate whether the
needed information is present and
whether too much information is
cluttering the display. This
information can include radar video,
alphanumerics or symbols. This concept
is closely related to the size of the
display face usable area. A large scope
can present more information without
cluttering the display and requires less
concentration to read and evaluate,
especially in the case of radar video.
The refresh rate should be related to
the concentration required to evaluate a
flickering display. The display
position should be evaluated in the
context of the type of information
displayed, the eye position required for
using the display and the display
position's effect upon the scan of other
displays, instruments and the outside
world.
2.2.2.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are presented as cards

3 and 4.
 23

CARD NUMBER

CONTROLS

CLARITY OF OPERATION:

ACCESSIBILITY (MEASURE REQUIRED REACH IF A PROBLEM):

OPERATIVE SENSE:

ADJUSTMENT SENSITIVITY:

RANGE OF ADJUSTMENT:

TACTILE FEEDBACK:

FUNCTIONAL LOCATION/GROUPING (SKETCH IF A PROBLEM):

INTEGRATION:

Card 3: Controls Data Card

24

CARD NUMBER

DISPLAYS

(PERFORM IN BRIGHT DAY TO DARKNESS]

LOCATION QUALITATIVE COMMENTS (MEASURE LOCATION IF A

PROBLEM):

CONTRAST/BRIGHTNESS/GAIN CONTROLS (RANGE OF EFFECTIVENESS):

GLARE (BOTH FROM OUTSIDE AND INSIDE COCKPIT LIGHT SOURCES):

RASTER LINES/INCH

RANGE SCALES

USABLE DISPLAY AREA X

RESOLUTION QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

REFRESH RATE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

LOCATION OF SYMBOLOGY/ALPHANUMERICS:

INTERPRETATION OF SYMBOLOGY/ALPHANUMERICS:

INTEGRATION:

Card 4: Displays Data Card

 25

2.3. AIR-TO-AIR RADAR TEST 2.3.1.5. Procedure

TECHNIQUES While on the ground, use a stop watch to
measure the time for the sweep to move
from one side of the display and back
2.3.1. Scan Rate for ten full sweeps. Perform the test
at all scan angle limit settings and
repeat for one setting while airborne to
2.3.1.1. Purpose confirm the ground test results. If a
discrepancy occurs between the ground
The purpose of this test is to determine and airborne data, repeat for all scan
the average radar scan rate and its angle limits. While performing mission
effect upon the utility of the radar relatable intercepts and attacks
presentation. (preferably at the extremes of target
closure rate and target crossing rate)
2.3.1.2. General qualitatively evaluate the effects of
the average scan rate upon tracking,
As outlined in the radar theory section, detection and the maintenance of SA.
most airborne radars operate in a raster Check for all mission relatable
scan format. The rate at which the combinations of scan angle limit and
antenna moves from side to side scan rate.
determines the scan rate. Since the
antenna must stop at each side and since 2.3.1.6. Data Analysis and
all moving parts have some inertia, the Presentation
actual scan rate varies through the scan
and as the scan angle limits change. The average scan rate should be
The crucial characteristic; however, is calculated using the following
how often the sweep passes through the relationship:
target's bearing and so an average scan
rate over a number of scans is adequate Scan a($CwtAn Lit dgX2) m
for most purposes. 6 Scan rate can (Time for 10 Sweeps)
affect several radar performance
factors. A quick scan rate is best to Relate problems with the target update
provide frequent updates of the target rate to the calculated average scan
position, facilitating target tracking rate. If tracking is not adequate, an
and pointing out trends in target unusually quick scan rate can be
bearing drift and range closure rate. inferred as a possible cause; however, a
Too quick of a scan; however, reduces definitive association will be beyond
the possible number of radar hits per the scope of this test, requiring
scan for a given PRF, reducing pulse to further instrumentation (tracking
pulse integration and thus the computer data extraction, recording and
possibility of detection. analysis).

2.3.1.3. Instrumentation 2.3.1.7. Data Cards

A stop watch and data cards are required A sample data card is presented as card
for this test. A voice recorder is 5.
optional.
2.3.1.4. Data Required

Measure the time for ten complete radar

scans (one side to the other and back)
at each scan angle limit setting.
Record qualitative comments on the
effects of scan rate upon radar
detection, tracking and the maintenance
of target SA.

6 In the context used here, the average scan rate

is very similar tothe update rate.
The use ofa multiple bar scan format can further affect this
distinction.
26

CARD NUMBER __ TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-AIR SCAN RATE

(RECORD TIME FOR 10 COMPLETE SCANS.]

RADAR MODE SCAN ANGLE LIMIT TIME FOR 10 SWEEPS

(RECORD SCAN RATE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS ON

TRACKING/DETECTION/SA.]

TARGET BEARING/RANGE _ /__

TARGET/TEST AIRPLANE COURSE /
TARGET/TEST AIRPLANE SPEEDS /
RADAR MODE

SCAN ANGLE LIMIT

EFFECTS:

Card 5: Air-to-Air Scan Rate Data Card

 27

2.3.2. Scan Angle Limits maximum scan angle limit and the smaller
limit selections.

2.3.2.1. Purpose 2.3.2.5. Procedure

The purpose of this test is to determine Place the target airplane at least 15 nm
the scan angle limits of the radar and ahead of the test airplane heading in
their effects upon the utility of the the same direction and speed as the test
radar search volume, airplane. This arrangement is chosen to
allow the test turn to be completed
2.3.2.2. General without significantly affecting the
geometry to the target. At least 2000
As has been discussed in the radar feet of altitude separation is advisable
theory section, most airborne radars for safety reasons. If the display is
operate in a raster scan format and truncated at the scan angle limit
often have several operator selectable selected, the range must be inside of
antenna scan angle limit selections. the truncated area. Place the target
The largest selection is usually bounded just to the right or left of the nose of
by the physical scan angle limits of the the test airplane with the sweep
antenna. The bounds are often set by centered on the nose. Turn the test
the physical limits of the antenna airplane slowly toward the target
against the nose cone faring covering airplane, marking the test airplane
the antenna or by line of sight heading as the nose crosses the target
interference between the radar beam and bearing and as the target passes off of
airplane structures. When a lower scan the radar display. Repeat to the other
angle limit selection is made in order side and for all scan angle limit
to concentrate the search volume, the selections. Qualitatively evalua'e the
operator is often able to slew around effects of the maximum scan angle limits
the center of the search volume within on the search volume during mission
these limits. For these reasons, the relatable situations where the threat
maximum scan angle limits become sector is wide and with a limited number
critical and should be measured. The of airplanes to cover the sector.
maximum limits should then be evaluated Evaluate the utility of the smaller
while performing a large area target limit selections for concentrating the
search in a mission relatable situation. search volume. Qualitatively evaluate
The critical parameter for evaluating the scan angle limits during mission
the results becomes the maximum threat relatable intercepts and attacks to
axis width and the amount of search ensure that contact with the target is
volume needed to be covered by each not broken.
airplane. During intercepts and
attacks, the maximum angle off of the 2.3.2.6. Data Analysis and
nose to the target expected in mission Presentation
relatable tactics must be used to
evaluate the scan angle limits during Subtract the bearing to the target while
STT and small scan angle limit over the test airplane nose from the
selections. The smaller scan angle bearing as contact is lost during the
limits should be measured and left/right turns at each scan angle
qualitatively evaluated during mission limit setting to determine the measured
relatable searches where the search scan angle limits. Where deficiencies
volume can be partially defined. The are noted during the qualitative
range and number of selections must be evaluation of the scan angle limits, use
suitable for the expected mission the measured limits as supporting data.
scenarios. Relate the scan angle limits to their
effects upon search volume during wide
2.3.2.3. Instrumentation area search, to their effects and
restrictions upon tactics as the angle
Data cards are required for this test to the target exceeds the scan angle
with an optional voice recorder. limit during intercepts and to the range
of selections and their utility during
2.3.2.4. Data Required mission relatable search situations.

Record the heading of the test airplane 2.3.2.7. Data Cards

with the target over the nose and just
at the edge of the display for each scan A sample data card is provided as card
angle setting for both the left and 6.
right limit. Record qualitative
comments concerning the utility of the
28

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-AIR SCAN ANGLE LIMITS

(PLACE THE TARGET JUST TO THE LEFT OR RIGHT OF THE NOSE AT 15 NM AND ON THE SAME

HEADING. MAKE AN EASY TURN TOWARD THE TARGET. RECORD THE TEST AIRCRAFT'S HEADING

AS THE TARGET PASSES THROUGH NOSE AND WHEN LOST FROM THE DISPLAY DURING THE TEST

AIRPLANE'S TURN. REPEAT TO THE OTHER SIDE AND FOR EACH SCAN ANGLE LIMIT SELECTION.]

RADAR MODE AZ LIMIT NOSE L/R LOST TARGET

SELECTION

(RECORD SCAN ANGLE LIMIT QUALITATIVE COMMENTS UPON THE SEARCH VOLUME AND TRACKING

DURING INTERCEPT MANEUVERS.]

SCAN ANGLE LIMIT SELECTION

TARGET RELATIVE BEARING

TYPE OF INTERCEPT

EFFECTS:

Card 6: Air-to-Air Scan Angle Limits Data Card

 29

2.3.3. Elevation Angle Limits prevalent when the target

the sidelobe returns are strong.
is close and
A
visual estimate of the angle to the
2.3.3.1. Purpose target compared to the elevation angle
of the antenna indicated by the radar
The purpose of this test is to determine display will quickly indicate this
the elevation angle limits of the radar problem since the first strong sidelobe
and their effects upon the utility of is often 30" to 40' off of the radar
the radar search volume. mainlobe.

2.3.3.2. General 2.3.3.3. Instrumentation

As with the scan angle limits, the Data cards are required for the test
elevation angle limits of the radar are with an optional voice recorder.
often established by the limits that the
antenna can be slewed up or down. These 2.3.3.4. Data Required
limits can be physical, caused by space
or gimbal constraints within the nose Record the antenna elevation indicated
cone or by interference between the by the radar display as tracking is lost
radar beam and the airplane structure, for both the upper and lower limit.
The latter is less likely for the Note any times the angle to the target
elevation limits than for the azimuth obviously exceeds the displayed angle
limits, with detection or tracking still
present. Record qualitative comments
Elevation limits are important to radar concerning the maximum antenna elevation
performance because they are another limits during ACM maneuvers and
constraint upon the minimum detection simulated or actual tanking.
and tracking range. Under most search
situations, the elevation limits do not 2.3.3.5. Procedure
come into play since at medium and long
range the angle to the target from Place the target on the test airplane
horizontal will be small; however, for nose at 1/2 nm with the target at the
close targets, above or below the same heading and speed as the test
airplane, the maximum angle can airplane and 1,000 feet above the test
significantly effect both detection and airplane. Establish STT. The test
tracking. Two examples of situations airplane should then increase speed and
when elevation angle limits are at issue slowly close on the target, maintaining
are during ACM and airborne tanking. a constant altitude until tracking and
While maneuvering behind the target, the detection is lost. Visually estimate
target must be kept within the upper and the angle up to the target.
lower gimbal limits to prevent the radar Re-establish a 1/2 nm trail and climb
from losing contact and when tracking, the test airplane to 1,000 feet above
from breaking lock. the target, repeating the procedure for
the lower gimbal limit. The test
Generally, most modern radars will airplane will have to roll to either
maintain detection and tracking on side to visually check the angle to the
targets to 60" above and below the target. During ACM tests, qualitatively
centerline. The definition of the evaluate the utility of the gimbal
centerline varies from airplane to limits as the target pulls inside of the
airplane (airplane waterline, weapons test airplane (upper limit) and as the
line etc.); however, they are typically test airplane leads the target (lower
all within a few degrees. Since the limit). As time allows, attempt a
upper and lower limits are critical simulated approach to the target as the
during ACM and air-to-air refueling, the target flies straight and level,
limits should be quantitatively measured simulating a tanker airplane. Use the
to establish the numerical angular recommended tanking procedures for the
limits and then qualitatively evaluated test airplane.
during ACM maneuvers against a mission
relatable target and during actual or 2.3.3.6. Data Analysis and
simulated approaches to the tanker. Presentation

One anomaly of the radar elevation Use the radar display antenna angle at
limits is noteworthy. Often the radar broken lock as a measure of the antenna
will track a target beyond the physical elevation limits. Compare the measured
antenna limits by locking onto the antenna angle to the visual estimate to
target while it is in the radar antenna check for sidelobe detection or
sidelobes. This is particularly tracking. Relate the presence of
30

sidelobe tracking to the false antenna

pointing angle during ACM and tanking,
and the reduced likelihood of visual
detection (the operators will be led to
look in the wrong direction for the
target). Relate any anomalies noted
during ACM or simulated or actual
tanking to the possibility of broken
lock or lost detection during these
scenarios. Use the measured limits to
back up the qualitative comments.

2.3.3.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is provided as card

7.
 31

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-AIR ELEVATION ANGLE LIMITS

[JOIN ON TARGET 1/2 NM IN TRAIL. PLACE THE TARGET AT THE SAME HEADING AND 1,000

FEET ABOVE THE TEST AIRPLANE. ESTABLISH STT. CLOSE ON THE TARGET UNTIL TRACKING

AND DETECTION IS LOST. NOTE THE ANTENNA ELEVATION ANGLE UPON THE RADAR DISPLAY AND

VISUALLY ESTIMATE ANGLE. REPEAT WITH THE TARGET 1,000 FEET BELOW.]

UPPER/LOWER ANTENNA ANGLE VISUAL ESTIMATE

[ELEVATION LIMITS QUALITATIVE COMMENTS DURING ACM AND

TANKING.]

TYPE OF MANEUVER

EFFECTS:

Card 7: Air-to-Air Elevation Angle Limits Data Card

32

2.3.4. Tracking Rate Limits through 45" on the same side of the nose
to reaching 45" on the other side of the
nose and note if tracking is lost during
2.3.4.1. Purpose the turn. If the maximum scan angle
limit is less than 50" off of the nose,
The purpose of this test is to determine smaller angles will have to be used.
the tracking rate limits for radars able Repeat in 1 or 2 g increments, building
to establish an STT and to determine up to the maximum g limit of the
their effects upon intercept and attack airplane. Next, repeat the test with
utility, the test airplane turning at the maximum
g limit while the target turns in the
2.3.4.2. General opposite direction starting at 2 g and
then at 1 or 2 g level increments to the
When an operator establishes an STT for maximum g limits of both airplanes.
the purposes of executing an intercept During mission relatable attack
and maneuvering to an attack position it maneuvers, note any limitations to
can be assumed that the target will tactics caused by the tracking rate
attempt to maneuver out of the attack limits.
envelope quite vigorously. For this
reason, the ability of the radar to 2.3.4.6. Data Analysis and
track a target with various maneuver Presentation
rates is important. The limit can be
caused by a number of factors, including The average tracking rate at lost
the angular rate with which the antenna tracking can be found approximately by
can slew, for radars where the antenna dividing the measured time into the
beam is centered on the STT by pointing number of degrees the target passes
the antenna; the size of the tracking through (90" if the scan angle limits
gate and update rate, which define the allow). The validity of the rate
theoretical probability of achieving depends upon how precisely the g is held
detection and updating the track since transients above the g desired may
parameters during a given maneuver; and leave the average tracking rate low
even by the general quality of the while tracking rate transients might be
tracking system, since a poor tracker high enough to break the track. Making
certainly does not get better when the a brisk roll to the correct angle of
target maneuvers, bank and beginning the time measurement
after the g is captured prevents the
2.3.4.3. Instrumentation initial build up in g from driving the
average tracking rate too low. It is
Data cards and a stop watch are required important to keep the upper g excursions
for the test with an optional voice as low as possible. When both aircraft
recorder. are maneuvering, the start of the turns
must be carefully coordinated.
2.3.4.4. Data Required If tracking is lost during the roll
Note the time for the target to go from itself, before a tracking rate is
45" at one side of the test airplane established, the problem is most likely
nose as displayed on the radar to 45" on an antenna stabilization limit in the
the other side of the test airplane nose roll axis. A test for this parameter
for each g level tested. Note if will be presented later. The tracking
tracking is lost at any g level. Record rate limit will be undefined but will
qualitative comments concerning the probably be satisfactory if tracking is
effects of the tracking rate limits (if achieved within the g limits of both
any are found) during mission relatable airplanes. If tracking is successfully
maneuvers while positioning for an broken during the test, the limit should
attack. be related to the restrictions this
upper limit places on tactics. For
example, the pilot may have to rely on a
2.3.4.5. Procedure visual attack for violently maneuvering
targets without the aid of radar derived
Place the target at 50" to one side of information. More importantly, without
the nose at 1/2 nm with the target at radar illumination of the target, some
the same heading and speed as the test weapons become unusable.
airplane. Establish an STT. Roll the
test airplane briskly but smoothly to 2.3.4.7. Data Cards
obtain a 2g level turn toward the
target, noting the g level, time from A sample data card is provided as card
the point where the target passes 8.
 33

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

TRACKING RATE LIMITS

(JOIN THE TARGET 1/2 NM IN TRAIL WITH THE TARGET 50" TO ONE SIDE OF THE NOSE. PLACE

THE TARGET AT THE SAME HEADING AND 1,000 FEET ABOVE THE TEST AIRPLANE. ESTABLISH

STT. ROLL TO INTERCEPT A 2 G, LEVEL TURN. REPEAT AT AN INCREASING G. NOTE THE G

AND TIME FOR THE TARGET TO GO FROM 45" ON ONE SIDE OF THE NOSE TO THE OTHER. REPEAT

WITH THE TARGET MAKING A 2 G TURN IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION, AND AGAIN REPEAT AT

INCREASING G.]

G TEST TIME BROKEN Y/N G TEST TIME BROKEN Y/N

/TARGET /TARGET

AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT

(TRACKING RATE LIMITS QUALITATIVE COMMENTS DURING ACM.]

TYPE OF MANEUVER

EFFECTS:

Card 8: Tracking Rate Limits Data Card

34

2.3.5. Antenna Stabilization Limits qualitative comments concerning

effects of the antenna stabilization
the
limits (if any are found) during mission
2.3.5.1. Purpose relatable maneuvers and while
positioning for an attack. Record
The purpose of this test is to assess whether in STT or search mode for all
the ability of the radar antenna to tests.
maintain stabilization during
maneuvering flight and to determine its 2.3.5.5. Procedure
effect upon intercept and attack
utility. Position the target 10 to 15 nm ahead of
the test airplane at the same heading
2.3.5.2. General and speed and 1,000 feet above the test
airplane. Establish a normal search
As discussed earlier, many radar mode, single bar pattern and a medium to
antennas are gyroscopically or narrow scan angle limit to allow a
inertially stabilized in relation to the frequent update of the scan volume
horizon within the scan and elevation during the maneuvers. Establish radar
limits. Realistically; however, there contact with the target. Maneuver to
are limits to which the airplane can be 50" nose low and establish a 2g pull-up
maneuvered before this stabilization is to 50" nose high at a constant 2g rate.
degraded. Ideally, the radar is Mark the time while passing from 40"
designed such that these constraints are nose low to 40" nose high. Note any
beyond the maneuvering limits of the degradation in detection of the target
host airplane for all three maneuvering during the maneuver and any degradation
axes (roll, pitch and yaw). Measuring of the display. If the elevation angle
yaw rates in flight without limits are less than 50', then a smaller
instrumentation is quite difficult, thus maneuver will have to be performed to
step inputs up to the maximum allowable maintain contact with the target.
at a mission relatable maneuvering speed Repeat the test at increasing g levels
will be used instead of an actual yaw until degradation is noted or the g
rate measurement. The loss of limit of the airplane is reached.
stabilization usually manifests itself
as a degradation of detection, tracking Turn to place the target 20" off of the
and the radar display in general. In a nose. Roll the airplane 360" at 1/4
search mode this usually means target stick deflection, noting the time to
misses or strobing and false alarms on complete the roll and any degradation in
the display. It is important to detection or the display. Repeat at
evaluate whether the display is still 1/2, 3/4 and full stick deflection if
usable for detection and tracking of the airplane limits allow. With the target
target airplane during mission relatable again on the nose, perform a step input
maneuvers. Combined roll, pitch and yaw of the rudder at 1/4 deflection. Note
maneuvers can have their own effects any degradation of detection or the
upon the display and as such should also display. Repeat at 1/2, 3/4 and full
be evaluated. rudder deflection if the airplane's
limits allow.
2.3.5.3. Instrumentation
If no degradation is noted while
Data cards and a stop watch are required performing the tests above, perform a
for the test with an optional voice series of rolling push-overs and
recorder. pull-ups at increasing g rates until the
limits of the airplane are reached.
2.3.5.4. Data Required Again, look for degradation in detection
or the radar display. Repeat all three
Record the time to go from 40" nose low portions of the test while tracking the
to 40" nose high at a constant g rate, target in STT mode. During mission
up to the g limit of the airplane. relatable intercepts and attack
Record the time to roll 360" at maneuvers, note the effects upon tactics
increasing stick deflections. Estimate of the limits found above.
the percent of rudder pedal throw used
to achieve increasing yaw rates. During 2.3.5.6. Data Analysis and
all maneuvers, make qualitative comments Presentation
on the effects that the maneuvers have
upon the radar display and detection Divide the time to perform the pitch up
performance. Record the same maneuvers into the 80' covered to obtain
qualitative comments during rolling the pitch rate. Divide the time to roll
push-overs and pull-ups. Record into 360" to get the average roll rate.
 35

If no degradation is noted within the

maneuvering limits of the airplane
during the single axis or the multiple
axis maneuvers, then the stabilization
limits are probably satisfactory. If
degradation is noted they should be
related to the limits that this
degradation imposes upon tactics. The
amount of limitation depends upon the
axis involved (a pitch axis limit of 2g
on an 8g airplane would obviously be
more serious than a yaw axis limit of
1/4 rudder deflection) and the level at
which the degradation is noted. These
limitations should be verified during
mission relatable intercepts and
attacks.

2.3.5.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are provided as card
9.
36

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-AIR ANTENNA STABILIZATION LIMITS

[JOIN THE TARGET 10-15 NM IN TRAIL WITH THE TARGET AT THE SAME SPEED AND HEADING AND

1,000 FEET ABOVE. ESTABLISH RADAR CONTACT IN SEARCH, SINGLE BAR AND A MEDIUM SCAN

ANGLE LIMIT. PITCH DOWN TO 50" LOW AND PULL-UP AT 2G TO 50" NOSE HIGH. TIME 40"

LOW TO 40" HIGH. NOTE ANY DEGRADATION. REPEAT AT INCREASING G RATES.]

MODE TIME TO PITCH IGG DEGRADATION

[TURN TO PLACE THE TARGET 20" OFF OF THE NOSE. ROLL AT 1/4 STICK DEFLECTION. NOTE

THE TIME TO ROLL 360" AND ANY DEGRADATION. REPEAT AT 1/2, 3/4, FULL DEFLECTION.]

MODE TIME TO ROLL G DEGRADATION

Card 9: Air-to-Air Antenna Stabilization Limits Data Cards

 37

AIR-TO-AIR ANTENNA STABILIZATION LIMITS

(TURN TO PLACE THE TARGET ON THE NOSE. PROVIDE A STEP INPUT OF RUDDER AT 1/4

DEFLECTION. NOTE ANY DEGRADATION AND REPEAT AT 1/2, 3/4 AND FULL DEFLECTION.]

MODE I RUDDER INPUT DEGRADATION

[PERFORM EASY ROLLING PUSH-OVERS AND PULL-UPS NOTING ANY DEGRADATION. REPEAT AT

INCREASING G LEVELS UNTIL DEGRADATION IS NOTED OR THE AIRPLANE LIMITS ARE REACHED.]

DESCRIBE THE MANEUVER (CONTROL DEFLECTIONS, G LEVELS ETC.):

MODE:

DEGRADATION:

(REPEAT WHILE TRACKING THE TARGET IN STT.]

(EVALUATE THE ANTENNA STABILIZATION LIMITS DURING MISSION RELATABLE INTERCEPTS AND

ATTACK MANEUVERS.]

MODE:

TYPE OF MANEUVERS:

DEGRADATION:

Card 9: Air-to-Air Antenna Stabilization Limits Data Cards (Continued)

38

2.3.6. Minimum Range 2.3.6.4. Data Required

Record the radar derived range at which

2.3.6.1. Purpose the radar loses tracking on the target
and the range at which detection is no
The purpose of this test is to determine longer held on the target. During
the minimum radar detection and tracking mission relatable ACM, intercepts and
ranges and to determine the effect of simulated or actual tanking,
this range upon ACM tactics and airborne qualitatively evaluate the effects of
tanking procedures. the minimum detection and tracking
ranges upon the utility of the radar.
2.3.6.2. General
2.3.6.5. Procedure
The theoretical minimum radar range was
discussed in the radar theory section. Position the target 1/2 nm ahead of the
The theoretical minimum range is the test airplane at the same heading and
absolute best the radar can achieve, speed and 1,000 feet above the test
Realistically, there are other factors airplane. Establish radar contact and
that often cause this number to grow an STT. Slowly close on the target.
beyond the theoretical minimum. The When visual contact is achieved, climb
display can play an important part, to the target's altitude and continue to
particularly in the case of a PPI close on the target until tracking is
display. As the detection video closes dropped or a minimum of 300 feet
into the notch of the PPI display, separation. The 300 feet "bubble" may
videos can become unusable to the be broken and the test airplane may
operator since all the noise is also close to a lesser range if both pilots
compressed into this small area of the and airplanes are formation qualified,
display. For a B scan format, the and the pilot in the test airplane is
problem is relieved somewhat since the not the operator concentrating on the
azimuth is spread out at the bottom of radar. If weather is such that visual
the display but display distortion can contact cannot be maintained, the test
still be a factor. airplane should immediately descend to
1,000 feet below the target airplane.
Minimum tracking range is limited first After completing the test in STT mode,
by the minimum theoretical detection establish the shortest range scale
range and will not be less than this search mode and reduce airspeed slightly
range. A number of other factors also to open the range slowly until detection
come into play, including the quality of of the target is achieved. During
the tracker and its ability to handle mission relatable ACM, intercepts and
the rapid changes in target azimuth that simulated or actual tanking, note the
can occur at close ranges. The minimum effects of the limitations above upon
detection range is almost always better mission tactics.
than the minimum tracking range;
however, for a non-maneuvering target, 2.3.6.6. Data Analysis and
modern trackers are becoming good at Presentation
close target tracking and the minimum
detection and tracking ranges are Use the radar derived ranges at broken
usually close to each other. Since the STT lock and at initial search mode
tracking range is usually the limiting detection as the minimum tracking and
factor, time can be saved by checking detection ranges. Relate the minimum
this limit and if it is adequate, ranges to their effects upon Instrument
assuming the detection will also be Meteorological Conditions (IMC)
adequate. Minimum detection and intercepts for VID, the minimum range
tracking ranges can be mission related for the shortest range weapon system
to the requirement to close on a that the airplane can carry (will
possible hostile target to gain a Visual probably be guns), and to IMC tanking
Identification (VID) in poor visibility, procedures.
the most restrictive minimum weapons
release range (usually a gun limit), and 2.3.6.7. Data Cards
the requirement to close on a tanker
aircraft in poor visibility. A sample data card is provided as card
10.
2.3.6.3. Instrumentation

Data cards are required for this test

with an optional voice recorder.
 39

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-AIR MINIMUM DETECTION AND TRACKING RANGE

(JOIN THE TARGET 1/2 NM IN TRAIL WITH THE TARGET AT THE SAME SPEED AND HEADING AND

1,000 FEET ABOVE. ESTABLISH STT AND SLOWLY CLOSE. CLIMB TO THE TARGET'S ALTITUDE

WITH A VISUAL. CONTINUE TO CLOSE TO A BROKEN LOCK OR A FEET MINIMUM. ESTABLISH

A MINIMUM SCALE SEARCH MODE. OPEN UNTIL DETECTION.)

MODE RANGE LOST/GAIN DEGRADATION

(EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF THE MIN RANGES ON ACM, INTERCEPT AND TANKING TACTICS.]

MINIMUM WEAPONS RANGE

EFFECTS:

ACM EFFECTS:

TANKING EFFECTS:

Card 10: Air-to-Air Minimum Detection And Tracking Range Data Card
40

2.3.7. Range and Bearing Accuracy STT the radar often provides a digital
display of the range and bearing which
eliminates the errors associated with
2.3.7.1. Purpose reading the radar display's graphical
scales. Often the range and bearing to
The purpose of this test is to determine a cursor is available in the search
how accurately the radar can determine mode. If a cursor is available in the
the target's range and bearing and to search mode it should be used for the
qualitatively evaluate the effects this test since it will increase the range
accuracy has upon mission relatable and bearing display accuracy over an
intercepts and attacks, estimate using the display scale.
2.3.7.2. General The accuracy should be tested in both
the search and STT modes. The results
An accurate measurement of radar range are often different. The smallest range
and bearing accuracy requires an outside scale that still displays the target
source of space positioning information should be used when reading bearing and
for both the target and the test ranges from the scales without the aid
airplane. Additionally, a precise of digital readouts since the smaller
determination of range and bearing scale will allow for more accurate
accuracy can be important for two reading. The range and bearing
reasons. First, the radar derived range accuracies should be qualitatively
is used in several of the other test evaluated during mission relatable
techniques. Any errors in radar range intercepts and attacks to assess the
can thus contribute to errors in other utility of the information supplied to
test data. Second, when used for poor the operator for the accomplishment of
weather join-ups for VID and for the mission.
tanking, the pilot needs to know radar
ranges accurately in order to execute a 2.3.7.3. Instrumentation
safe intercept. For these reasons,
strong consideration should be given to Data cards with an optional voice
the use of accurate space positioning recorder will be required for this test.
truth data in this test. If a target with a previously tested
radar is available, it should be used.
A rough check of range and bearing
accuracy without space positioning data 2.3.7.4 Data Required
is available in cases where the more
accurate test is not required. As with Record the TACAN position of both the
all the other tests, the critical factor target and test airplane and the radar
is the utility of the parameters in a derived range and bearing to the target.
mission relatable scenario. If the If the target is radar equipped, record
range and bearing accuracy is the target and test airplane derived
qualitatively evaluated to be sufficient bearing and ranges to each other.
in this environment, the rough numbers During mission relatable intercepts and
that this procedure will obtain are attacks, record qualitative comments
sometimes sufficient. If it fails, a concerning the effects of the accuracy
more expensive test will be required; of the range and bearing information
however, this test can still be used to supplied to the operator.
gain some insight to support the
qualitative assessment. All that is 2.3.7.5. Procedure
required for the test is that both the
test and target aircraft be Tactical Air For a target airplane without a radar,
Navigation (TACAN) equipped. However, place the target and test airplanes on
if the target is equipped with a radar the same radial from a prebriefed TACAN
of known good range and bearing accuracy station at 30 to 40 nm separation. Fly
it can be used to refine the the target and test airplanes on
measurements. Care should be taken such headings necessary to maintain the same
that the test and target aircraft radars radial from the TACAN station with the
are sufficiently separated in frequency target 1,000 feet above the test
to prevent casual interference with the airplane. The airplanes should be
test system. heading towards each other. Establish
radar contact with the target in search
Since we are concerned with the range mode. On a mark given by the test
and bearing information available to the airplane, the test airplane should
operator, the format and quality of the record the radar derived bearing and
radar display can have a significant range to the target and the TACAN
influence upon the accuracies. During bearing and range. Simultaneously, the
 41

target should record its TACAN bearing

and range. Establish an STT and repeat
the procedure. If the target has a
radar, have the target establish an STT
on the test airplane and also record the
range and bearing to the test airplane
at the same time that the TACAN position
is recorded.
2.3.7.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

Since both airplanes are on the same

TACAN radial, the bearing to the target
is the radial or its reciprocal. This
bearing should be compared to the radar
derived bearing. The TACAN derived
radial within the two aircraft is
designed to have an accuracy of 3" to 4'
and so the truth data will have the same
accuracy given that both pilots fly the
same indicated radial. (Ref. 38:p,
2.74].
The TACAN derived Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME) mileages can be
subtracted to gain the range to the
target and then compared to the radar
derived range. The TACAN derived range
truth data will have approximately 0.5
nm of accuracy [Ref. 38:p. 2.74]. If a
radar equipped target is used that has
had full radar range and bearing
accuracy tests performed, the reciprocal
bearing and the radar derived range can
be used as the truth data with an
accuracy equal to the tested accuracy of
the target airplane's radar.
During mission relatable intercepts and
attacks, the radar derived range and
bearing information should be evaluated
for their utility in affecting the
intercept and for the effects that the
largest measured error will have upon
weapons acquisition and accuracy. The
effects upon tactics should then be
related.

2.3.7.6. Data Cards

A sample data card is provided as card

11.
42

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-AIR RANGE AND BEARING ACCURACY

(POSITION THE TARGET AND THE TEST AIRPLANE ON THE RADIAL OF THE CHANNEL TACAN

HEADING TOWARDS EACH OTHER. VARY THE HEADINGS SLIGHTLY TO MAINTAIN THE RADIAL WITH

THE TARGET 1,000 FEET ABOVE THE TEST AIRPLANE. ESTABLISH RADAR CONTACT IN SEARCH

MODE IN THE TEST AIRPLANE AND WITH STT IN THE TARGET AIRPLANE. ON THE TEST

AIRPLANE'S CALL, BOTH AIRCRAFT RECORD TACAN BEARING/RANGE AND RADAR DERIVED

BEARING/RANGE TO EACH OTHER. REPEAT WITH THE TEST AIRPLANE IN STT.]

TARGET TACAN TEST TACAN TARGET RADAR TEST RADAR

BEARING/RANGE BEARING/RANGE BEARING/RANGE BEARING/RANGE

[EVALUATE RADAR BEARING AND RANGE QUALITATIVELY DURING MISSION RELATABLE INTERCEPTS

AND ATTACKS.]

TACTIC:

EFFECTS:

Card 11: Air-to-Air Range And Bearing Accuracy Data Card

 43

2.3.8. Range and Bearing Resolution track the test and two target airplanes
and to record time correlated space
positioning data on all three.
2.3.8.1. Purpose Typically, the ground based tracker
requires an electronic beacon to be
The purpose of this test is to determine installed on the test airplane and
how well the radar can resolve two targets.
targets closely spaced in azimuth and
range, and to determine the effect these 2.3.8.4. Data Required
resolution limits have upon mission
relatable intercepts and attacks. The ground based tracker is required to
provide a recording of the precise, time
2.3.8.2. General tagged, geographic location of the test
airplane and both targets. Typically,
Theoretical range and azimuth resolution the positions are recorded at greater
are discussed in the radar theory than several times per second to an
section. The radar display can have a accuracy of less than 20 feet. The
pronounced affect upon resolution. evaluator, within the test airplane,
Resolution is important for an air-to- must record the precise time when the
air radar because it allows the operator targets are broken out in azimuth and
to determine the number of aircraft range for each radar mode tested.
flying in formation or in the case of a
doppler VS mode, closely spaced in 2.3.8.5. Procedure
azimuth alone. This function is known
as "raid count". The raid count in turn Immediately prior to the test, have the
affects the tactics used during an ground tracking station perform a
intercept and the number of fighters precise time synchronization of the time
committed to each "cell" of incoming source within the ground station and
aircraft. within the test airplane. Place the
target airplanes 10 to 30 nm ahead of
Range and bearing resolution the test airplane on the same or a
measurements require external space reciprocal heading and 1,000 feet above
positioning data. Space positioning the test airplane. Have the targets
data is required because precise time join in a 50 feet trail or the minimum
histories are needed for the location of allowed considering the qualifications
three different aircraft simultaneously, of the airplanes and crew for formation
allowing accurate determination of the flying and the visibility/cloud layers.
difference in azimuth and range of two Establish radar contact in search mode,
different radar targets. The dependency narrowing the search scan angle limits
of the test procedure upon extensive after initial detection and use a single
space positioning data violates the bar scan pattern. On the test
basic assumptions for the development of airplane's call, the trail target should
these test procedures; however, the test reduce speed slightly to slowly open on
is described here for completeness. the lead target, ensuring the lead
target is still directly on the nose to
Most radars inherently have better range maintain azimuth alignment between the
resolution than azimuth resolution. For test airplane and the targets. The
this reason, during the azimuth evaluator must record the precise time
resolution test, target placement is when two distinct radar targets are
crucial. If either target gets closer first noticed. If visual contact is
in range than the other, it is possible lost between the targets, the trail
for the targets to break out in range. should climb 1,000 feet (without gaining
The appearance is that the target broke airspeed) and the test discontinued.
out in azimuth when it, in fact, broke Repeat the test for all radar modes that
out in range. This makes the azimuth affect the radar pulse width.
resolution appear to be better than it
actually is. Space positioning ranges When breakout occurs and the data is
typically allow for close control of the taken, the test airplanes should
test aircraft and targets. Close maneuver to a side by side (abeam)
control can be used to ease the correct position with approximately 500 feet of
placement of the targets for the test. separation. The targets and test
airplane should be heading towards each
2.3.8.3. Instrumentation other for this portion of the test. The
targets should be at the same altitude
Data cards and an optional voice as long as visual contact is maintained.
recorder are required for this test. If visual contact is lost between the
Instrumentation is required to precisely targets, one target should climb 1,000
44

feet and the test discontinued. The Relate the range and azimuth resolution
beginning range for the test should be to the expected tactics of the threat
at least as great as the range required and from this assess the radar's ability
to ensure breakout will not occur using to perform a raid count. Qualitatively
the theoretical resolution limit assess the effect of the expected raid
discussed in the radar theory section. count capability upon intercept and
The following relationship applies: attack tactics, particularly on the
assignment of fighters to inbound cells
RII kO.=(O.Inm)•) and the optimization of attack tactics.
R.. b,-rangefor the beginning of the test
e=tst radaradertised antenna b 2.3.8.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is provided as card

The targets should continue inbound 12.
until the second target is broken out on
the test radar display. The precise
time at which two distinct radar targets
are noticed should be recorded by the
evaluator.

2.3.8.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

The space positioning data is typically

provided in the form of precise latitude
and longitude. The range to each target
and the angle between the two targets
can be derived from a knowledge of the
test airplane and target airplane
latitude and longitude at any given time
using equation (9). The calculations
must be performed for each target at the
times of range and azimuth breakout.
The difference between the target ranges
at breakout during the range resolution
tests is then the measured range
resolution and the difference in azimuth
between the two targets at breakout
during the azimuth resolution tests is
then the azimuth resolution.
A =Ilatitude of test
airplane-latitude of target airplane I
A1=longitude of test airplane-longitudeof target airplaneI
.4 (latitude of test airplane+latitudeof target airplane)]

R,,,,=range ro either target as applicable

Rw..t=range to target 1
R..,,=range to target 2
AW,,,.2=latitude target 1-latitude target 21
A 21 =longitude target I-longitude target 21
a._4•(l•uiude target I1+latitude target 2)]

Rw,..-2 -4(A
5,,)6O76
2 +[(AkSMI- 1-~~
2 #y6076)f

i 2
R,,, _=range between target I and target 2
A,. -measured angular resolution of the radar
all AW and Ak,,in minutes
all avg1 , in degrees
(9)
 45

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-AIR RANGE AND BEARING RESOLUTION

(SYNCHRONIZE TIME TO THE GROUND STATION TIME SOURCE. POSITION THE TARGETS ON THE

NOSE AT 10 TO 30 NM HEADING TOWARDS OR AWAY AND 1,000 FEET ABOVE THE TEST AIRPLANE.

PLACE THE TEST RADAR IN SEARCH MODE, NARROWEST SCAN ANGLE PATTERN AND SINGLE BAR

SCAN. THE TRAIL OPENS SLOWLY UNTIL THE TEST RADAR BREAKS OUT TWO TARGETS. RECORD

DATA. REPEAT FOR ALL MODES AFFECTING PULSE WIDTH.]

MODE TIME

(PLACE THE TARGETS IN A 500 FEET LINE ABREAST WHILE HEADING TO CLOSE. USE A NM

SEPARATION TO START. CONTINUE INBOUND UNTIL BREAKOUT OCCURS. RECORD TIME.]

TIME AT BREAKOUT

Card 12: Air-to-Air Range And Bearing Resolution Data Card

46

2.3.9. Maximum Detection Range 2.3.9.3. Instrumentation

Data cards and an optional voice
2.3.9.1. Purpose recorder are required for this test.

The purpose of this test is to determine 2.3.9.4. Data Required

the maximum detection range for a target
with a radar cross section similar to a Record the meteorological conditions for
mission relatable target and to evaluate the test (including the altitude of all
the impact of this detection range upon visible moisture layers). Record the
intercept tactics. target type and external configuration.
Record the radar mode and the range at
2.3.9.2. General which a blip/scan ratio of 0.5 is
estimated. During mission relatable
Maximum detection range is a major intercepts, record the effects that the
yardstick of radar performance since one maximum detection range have upon
of the uses of air-to-air radar is to intercept tactics.
extend the surveillance envelope of the
airplane beyond the visible range. As 2.3.9.5. Procedure
outlined in the radar theory section,
the maximum radar detection range is Place the target airplane on the nose at
influenced by a large number of factors, a range beyond the maximum displayable
including the radar cross section of the range of the radar (it is often possible
target. Since exhaustive tests of a to use a shorter range in cases where
number of targets is beyond the scope of the radar has been flown before and
this test technique, it is very rough maximum range data is available).
important to choose a target similar in The target should be on a reciprocal
radar cross section to the threat heading and 1,000 feet above the test
aircraft. This allows us to make a airplane. Use a search mode, a medium
qualitative assessment of the maximum to narrow azimuth scan limit and a
detection range in a mission relatable single bar pattern. Perform the test
environment and then to support that with the TACAN in the air-to-air mode to
assessment with mission relatable determine target range. Compare the
empirical data. radar display with the TACAN range to
the target, estimating when the
For the purposes of this test, the blip/scan ratio is approximately 0.5.
maximum detection point will be defined Record the range when the blip/scan
as the range at which the radar declares ratio reaches 0.5. Repeat for any other
a hit on the target (or the operator can long range search modes (usually
resolve a target hit in the case of an includes a pulse or pulse doppler and a
analog system display) for 50% of the pure doppler VS mode). Descend the
antenna scans. The 50%, 0.5 "blip/scan" target to a low altitude, usually 500
or Probability of Detection (PD) 0.5 feet Above Ground Level (AGL) is low
requirement eliminates the possibility enough while not compromising safety and
of the maximum detection range being repeat the test to determine the effects
defined at a point where a few spurious of clutter. For pulse doppler modes,
hits at long range are achieved. These choose the target and test airplane
spurious hits can occur for a number of airspeeds to stay well clear of closure
reasons including test day atmospherics rates that place the target in radar
(ducting) and multi-path reinforcements blind speeds. Blind speed are discussed
of the long range return signal. in detail in section 2.3.15. Closure
Maximum detection range is often rates can be converted to indicated
different for targets above than below airspeeds using the set of equations in
the test airplane altitude due to the section 2.3.13. During mission
effects of clutter. In most cases both relatable intercepts, note the effects
situations are important and mission that the detection ranges have upon
relatable and should be measured. In intercept tactics.
addition, more than one long range mode
is sometimes available on the same radar
such as when a long range, pulsed TWS
mode is available with a long range, VS
doppler mode. Both modes should be
tested.
 47

2.3.9.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

Using the test radar frequency, target
configuration and aspect (essentially
nose-on with this technique) derive the
radar cross section of the target.
Cross section versus aspect plots for
various frequency bands exist for
virtually every military target. If the
target cross section is not the same as
the value to which the radar is being
tested, adjust the maximum detection
range using equation 10. In most cases
this is not necessary since the radar
performance specifications are often
written to match the general cross
section of the threat as well as the
available target fleet.

Care should be taken in applying

equation (10) to situations where the
cross sections differ by much greater
than an order of magnitude. Is should
also be noted that the maximum detection
range can sometimes vary greatly from
one data point to the next. Usually, a
statistically significant set of data
points are required. Sample size
selection depends mainly upon the
variance of the measurements from one
test to the next and is discussed in
detail in references 43 and 72.
Relate the maximum detection ranges to
the amount of time and airspace
available to maneuver to optimize attack
tactics and compare the maximum
detection range to the maximum range of
the weapons carried. Finally, compare
the maximum detection range to the
capabilities of the threat and the
expected advantages in tactics for the
aircraft with the longest radar
detection range. Compare the ranges of
the different modes in both the heavy
clutter and non-clutter environment to
ensure the modes designed for each
environment are compatible with the
mission of the airplane (VS will usually
do much better in clutter than a pulse
or even pulse doppler mode).

2.3.9.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is provided as card

13.
48

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-AIR MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE

(POSITION THE TARGET ON THE NOSE AT NM HEADING INBOUND AND 1,000 FEET ABOVE THE

TEST AIRPLANE. SET UP IN SEARCH MODE, A MEDIUM OR NARROW SCAN ANGLE LIMIT, RANGE

SCALE ADEQUATE TO COVER THE TARGET RANGE AND SINGLE BAR. SET UP THE AIR-TO-AIR

TACAN. NOTE THE RANGE AT PD=0.5. REPEAT IN THE VS MODE. REPEAT WITH THE TARGET

AT __ FEET AGL.]

TARGET TYPE AND CONFIGURATION

VISIBLE MOISTURE LAYERS, ALTITUDE AND TYPE

MODE TARGET ALT RANGE PD=0.5 TACAN RANGE

[EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF THE MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGES DURING MISSION RELATABLE

INTERCEPTS.]

EFFECTS:

Card 13: Air-to-Air Maximum Detection Range Data Card

 49

2.3.10. Maximum Unambiguous and test airplane pass or "fly through".

Record qualitative comments of the
Range effects of ambiguous ranges (if any are
found) during mission relatable
Purpose intercepts.
2.3.10.1.
2.3.10.5. Procedure
The purpose of this test is to determine
the maximum unambiguous range of the Following a maximum detection range data
radar and its effects upon intercept point, obtain an STT. If a range
tactics. ambiguity is present, use the target
bearing and altitude, as well as aid
2.3.10.2. General from the test area controlling agency to
confirm the correct target is acquired.
The radar theory section outlines the If a range difference of greater than 3
relationship between range ambiguities nm between the air-to-air TACAN and the
and radar PRF. Although the PRF is radar is noted, begin recording the
easily checked on the ground, it is radar and TACAN derived ranges every 2
worthwhile to perform a quick check for nm of closure. Continue taking data
range ambiguities within the maximum until fly through. Repeat for all long
detection envelope of the airplane while range, ranging modes.
airborne, particularly for airplanes
with multiple or staggered PRFs. Since 2.3.10.6. Data Analysis and
range ambiguities tend to come into play Presentation
at longer ranges, the test should be
performed using the long range modes. Plot the radar derived range versus the
Check the pulse, pulse doppler, and FM air-to-air TACAN derived target range.
ranging modes only since the VS mode If an ambiguity is present, a sawtooth
does not determine range. If no pattern will be evident. The pattern
irregularities are found in the longer will be repetitive and symmetrical if
range modes, then the validity of the the PRF is constant. The approximate
ground PRF checks for the other modes PRF can be derived from the plot using
can be assumed. the following relationship:

Since the target must be acquired to PRF= (C)

check the range validity, a little (R,) 01
creativity may be required to confirm R =the TACAN derived range from
contact with the correct radar target if the beginning of the peak of the awtoth
range ambiguities actually exist. If an
STT can be established, the target If the PRF is staggered or random, a
bearing and altitude can be used to symmetrical, repeatable pattern may not
identify the target. Heading and speed be evident but the sawtooth shape should
may be incorrect depending upon the still be seen. If an ambiguity is
method used for tracking. Altitude will found, relate the poor range information
also be affected since a simple to its effect upon intercept and attack
geometrical relationship between antenna tactics. If target heading, speed or
pointing angle and range is usually used altitude are affected, relate the
to determine altitude; however, the quality of this data to the same mission
altitude error should be small if the relatable intercept tactics.
difference between the target and test
altitudes is small. A quick call to the 2.3.10.7. Data Cards
agency controlling the test area can be
used to confirm that no other aircraft A sample data card is provided as card
are along the same line of bearing and 14.
if they are, their altitude.
2.3.10.3. Instrumentation

Data cards and an optional voice

recorder are required for this test.

2.3.10.4. Data Required

If a discrepancy of greater than 3 nm
between radar range and air-to-air TACAN
range is noted, record the radar and
air-to-air TACAN derived target ranges
every 2 nm of closure until the target
50

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE

(FOLLOWING THE MAX DETECTION RANGE TEST, ESTABLISH STT. USE THE TARGET'S BEARING,

ALTITUDE AND ADVISORY CALLS TO CONFIRM THE CORRECT TARGET IS ACQUIRED. IF THE TACAN

AND RADAR RANGES ARE DIFFERENT BY GREATER THAN 3 NM, TAKE BOTH RANGES EVERY 2 NM.

NOTE THE QUALITY OF THE RADAR DERIVED COURSES, SPEEDS AND ALTITUDES.]

TACAN RADAR TACAN RADAR TACAN J RADAR TACAN RADAR

[IF AMBIGUITIES ARE FOUND, QUALITATIVELY EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF ERRONEOUS RADAR

RANGES AND TARGET DERIVED COURSE, SPEED AND ALTITUDE ON TACTICS DURING MISSION

RELATABLE INTERCEPTS.)

EFFECTS:

Card 14: Maximum Unambiguous Range Data Card

 51

2.3.11. Maximum Acquisition Range required.

"mainly upon
Sample size selection depends
the variance of the
measurements from one test to the next
2.3.11.1. Purpose and is discussed in detail in references
43 and 72.
The purpose of this test is to determine
the maximum range at which the radar, if For a non-TWS radar, relate the
equipped with an STT mode, can acquire a availability of an STT at long range to
track and to assess the effect that this the requirement for course and speed
parameter has upon intercept tactics, information to optimize intercept
geometry and even to evaluate the level
2.3.11.2. General of threat that the target poses (a high
speed inbound target usually is more
Radar tracking is discussed in the radar urgent than one heading away). For TWS
theory section. Even with a TWS mode, radars, relate the accuracy of the
once a target is chosen for intercept, tracking parameters and the probability
it is often appropriate to establish an of continuous detection all the way to
STT to increase the detection level and intercept, to the optimization of
quality of the course, speed and intercept tactics. If the detection and
altitude calculations. In addition, acquisition ranges are near equal, the
many radars will optimize the PRF and STT range is optimized.
range scales automatically once an STT
is acquired and tracking begins. It is 2.3.11.7. Data Cards
desirable to be able to establish an STT
immediately upon detection to allow the A sample data card is provided as card
greatest intercept flexibility. 15.

2.3.11.3. Instrumentation

Data cards and an optional voice

recorder are required for this test.

2.3.11.4. Data Required

Following a maximum detection range data
point, record the radar and air-to-air
TACAN derived ranges at which an STT can
be established. During mission
relatable intercepts, record qualitative
comments concerning the effects that the
maximum acquisition range has upon
intercept tactics.

2.3.11.5. Procedure
Perform a maximum detection range test.
After the PD=0.5 point, attempt to
designate the track for STT. If
unsuccessful, allow the detection level
and antenna scan pattern to stabilize
for a couple of scans and then attempt
again. Continue until an STT is
acquired. Record the acquisition range
as displayed on the radar and the air-
to-air TACAN.

2.3.11.6. Data Analysis and

Presentation
Adjust the maximum acquisition range for
the target radar cross section as per
the maximum detection range section
2.3.9. It should be noted that the
maximum acquisition range can sometimes
vary greatly from one data point to the
next. Usually, a statistically
significant set of data points are
52

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

MAXIMUM ACQUISITION RANGE

[PERFORM A MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE TEST. AFTER THE PD=0.5 POINT IS TAKEN, ATTEMPT

STT. REPEAT UNTIL THE STT IS ESTABLISHED. RECORD THE RADAR AND AIR-TO-AIR TACAN

RANGES.]

RADAR STT RANGE J TACAN STT RANGE

(EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF THE MAXIMUM ACQUISITION RANGE DURING MISSION RELATABLE

INTERCEPTS.]

EFFECTS:

Card 15: Maximum Acquisition Range Data Card

 53

2.3.12. Blind Ranges lost and then, the range where it is

regained. Repeat this test as many
times as possible during the course of
2.3.12.1. Purpose the flight. During mission relatable
intercepts, note any detection drop-outs
The purpose of this test is to find any and their effects upon intercept
blind ranges within the detection tactics.
envelope of the radar and then to
evaluate the effect that these blind 2.3.12.6. Data Analysis and
ranges have upon intercept tactics. Presentation

2.3.12.2. General Detection drop-outs are not uncommon and

will probably never be completely
In some pulsed radars, the PRF is eliminated. For this reason, more than
increased beyond the limit where the one run will be required to establish a
maximum unambiguous range is less than pattern of blind ranges. Two problems
the maximum detection range. This is should be looked for. Qualitatively,
done to increase the average power of the detection level should be adequate
the radar. The ambiguity can be to provide good SA to the operator
resolved in a number of ways, as throughout the intercept. Relate the
discussed in the radar theory section. width and number of drop-outs to their
A side effect of these techniques is the effects upon intercept tactics.
generation of range blocks where Staggered PRFs and/or PWs will cause the
detection is lost. These blind range drop-outs to occur randomly and can only
blocks are usually small and sometimes be assessed quantitatively with
unnoticeable. It is still worthwhile to extensive instrumentation. An analysis
check for them. The problem is of the manufacturer's technical material
compounded for VS modes since the will tell whether a staggered PRF and/or
transmit pulses, and thus blind range PW scheme is used. When the radar
blocks, tend to be very long. The parameters are constant, the blind
effect is minimized through techniques ranges will be fairly repeatable and
like staggering the PRF on a pulse to even with other random drop-outs, will
pulse basis to move the blind range in a be seen by plotting the detection
correspondingly staggered fashion and dropouts on a detection versus range
prevent long, multiple scan drop-outs. plot. Consistent misses will occur at
If the blind ranges are wide, they can the same beginning and end points with
cause the pilot to commit on an the random dropouts scattered over the
intercept and then to lose contact at rest of the detection volume. The
critical ranges, allowing the target to random drop-outs will be more prevalent
optimize his own intercept while the at the longer ranges, where detection is
test radar is without detection or "in more difficult. Relate the width and
the blind", ranges of the blind ranges to their
effects upon intercept tactics. Try to
2.3.12.3. Instrumentation relate them to specific critical weapon
ranges such as maximum launch and
Data cards and an optional voice optimum launch ranges and also to the
recorder are required for this test. weapons parameters of the threat.

2.3.12.4. Data Required 2.3.12.7. Data Cards

Following the maximum detection range A sample data card is provided as card
data point, note whenever the target is 16.
lost and then reacquired.

2.3.12.5. Procedure
Perform a maximum detection range test.
After the initial PD=0.5 data point,
maintain a search mode with a medium to
narrow scan pattern, single bar and the
minimum range scale able to maintain
radar contact. Ensure that the antenna
elevation is centered on the target
altitude at the target range. Monitor
the detection from scan to scan and
note, using the radar and air-to-air
TACAN, the ranges where detection is
54

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

BLIND RANGES

(PERFORM A MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE TEST. USE A SEARCH MODE, MEDIUM TO NARROW SCAN

PATTERN, SINGLE BAR, AND THE LOWEST RANGE SCALE TO COVER THE TARGET. AFTER THE

PD=0.5 POINT IS TAKEN, CONTINUE INBOUND TO FLY-THROUGH. NOTE RADAR AND AIR-TO-AIR

TACAN RANGES WHEN THE RADAR DETECTION IS LOST AND THEN WHEN REGAINED.]

RADAR MODE LOST/REGAINED RADAR RANGE (L/R) TACAN RANGE

(L/R) (L/R)

(EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF DETECTION DROP-OUTS DURING MISSION RELATABLE INTERCEPTS.]

EFFECTS:

Card 16: Blind Ranges Data Card

 55

2.3.13. Groundspeed/Course/ Pilot Reports (PIREPs) and will probably

be the greatest source of error.
Altitude Accuracy
2.3.13.3. Instrumentation
2.3.13.1. Purpose Data cards and an optional voice
recorder will be required for this test.
to determine
The purpose of this test is
the accuracy with which the radar can 2.3.13.4. Data Required
determine the target's groundspeed,
course and altitude in radar modes that For the VS mode, closure rate accuracy
provide these parameters and to assess portion of the test; heading, observed
the effect these accuracies have upon pressure altitude (h,), observed
intercept tactics. airspeed (V0 ), observed outside air
temperature (OAT.) and winds aloft are
2.3.13.2. General required for both the target and test
airplanes. If an INS derived course and
For radars with STT or TWS modes, the groundspeed are available in either
radar can usually provide target airplane, substitute INS derived course
velocity over the ground (groundspeed), and speed for heading, V,, OAT. and winds
course over the ground (will be referred aloft. Record radar mode, bearing to
to as course) and altitude. The the target and closure rate. For an STT
altitude is usually measured relative to or TWS mode, record heading, VF, OATn, hT
ownship and then added to ownship and winds aloft for the target airplane.
altitude to get target altitude. The Record the radar mode and radar derived
target's barometric altitude should be course, groundspeed and altitude of the
approximately the same (exactly the same target. If an INS is available in the
given standard conditions) as the radar target ifpan suis Ilablerin e
derived altitude as long as both the target airplane, substitute INS derived
target and the test airplane have the course and groundspeed for heading, Vo,
same numbers in the Kohlsman window of OAT0 and winds aloft.
their altimeters. For VS modes, only 2.3.13.6. Procedure
radial closure rate, is provided. This
is due to the nature of the doppler rate
measurement used to determine the rate. Following a maximum detection and
No altitude, groundspeed or course is maximum acquisition range test, record
available because range is not available the target, test airplane and radar
to calculate the course and groundspeed derived parameters listed above. The
or to solve the third side of the only radar derived parameters available
altitude triangle, during VS mode testing will be closure
rate and bearing to the target. The
Most airplanes with modern radars are test airplane parameters will not be
also equipped with Inertial Navigation needed during TWS or STT mode testing.
Systems (INSs)that provide a direct Record the same parameters during
display of course and groundspeed. When mission relatable intercepts performed
the target airplane and/or the test during the mission utility and
airplane are INS equipped, the INS integration tests (to be described).
derived course and groundspeed will be Record the data at both the low
used. The barometric altitude of the airspeeds flown in the maximum range
target and test airplane will still have tests (used to conserve fuel as per the
to be used. These altitudes will have flight planning section, 6.0.) and the
to be corrected for the instrument error high airspeeds flown during mission
(a laboratory calibration) and position relatable intercepts. In addition,
error (derived from flight test). The record the target altitude data during
availability of this data will be the low altitude (clutter environment)
assumed for both the test and target portion of the maximum detection range
airplanes. For a test airplane or tests. Perform the test in the TWS, STT
target without an INS installed, the and VS modes.
observed airspeed, altitude, outside air
temperature and externally derived winds 2.3.13.7. Data Reduction and
aloft will be used to get groundspeed Presentation
and course over the ground. The Given the observed values for pressure
instrument and position error altitude, airspeed and temperature; hm,
corrections for the test and target
airplanes will also be required. V0 and OAT0 , obtain the same parameters
Approximate winds aloft can be obtained corrected for instrument errors, Ahpic,
from the local weather office or from AVk and AOAT 11 from empirically derived
charts such as figure 5.
56

Compare the closure rates, groundspeeds,

course and altitudes derived above to
the radar derived values. The
difference between the values will be
the radar derived course, speed and
V=V.+AVk ( altitude error. Relate the magnitude of
the error to the utility of the radar as
an aid for determining intercept
OAT,-OAT.+AOAT, 04) parameters and tactics.
2.3.13.8. Data Cards
Obtain the aircraft position error Sample data cards are provided as card
corrections, Ahp and AVe, from flight 17.
test data charts such as figure 6.
hF.=hp) +Ahp. 05)

(16)
V,=V,+AV,.

Use h. and V,, to obtain K, the true mach

number, from figure 7 and combine with
OAT1 to obtain the true outside air
temperature, t,.
OAT, (in absolute scale)

y=rado of specific heat., 1.4

Use t. to calculate, the local speed of

sound, and combine with Mw to get the
true airspeed, V,.

y =ratio of specific heats, 1.4

R=gas constant for air, 53.35 ( o,)

V,=(M,ya)

Vectorially add the wind and heading/V,

vector to obtain the groundtrack for
both airplanes. Vectorially resolve the
test airplane groundtrack speed
component along the bearing to the
target and the target's groundtrack
speed along the reciprocal bearing. Add
the two to get the actual closure rate.

If INS values are available for either

target, use the groundspeed and course
as above to vectorially solve for the
closure rate.
For TWS or STT modes, use the same
procedures above to solve for the
target's ground track. Use the h., for
the target to compare to the radar
derived data.
 57

INSTRUMENT CORRECTION PLOT

2-+

1.5

S0.5-

-0.

0-

-1.5 ......
...

io0 -90 100 110 120 13'0 1140 150 160 170 180

airspeed (KOAS)

Figure 5: Sample AV1 . Instrument Correction Plot

58

POSITION ERROR PLOT

.... ......
0 ... . ...........

-7 .. . . . . .

80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

airspeed (KIAS)

Figure 6: Sample AV. Position Error Plot

 59

TRUE MACH NUMBER

I
50 45 40 135130/2-5 20 5 10 5
55
0.9 - .pressure 60
.......... ....
.........

0.7 - ... . . ..

0.6-

0.5
U

0.4-

0.3 -....

0.2-

0.1

0 __ _ _ j__ _ _ _ _ _ _ L__ _ _ _ _ _ _
0 10 200 300 400 500 600 700

calibrated airspeed (knots)

Figure 7: True Mach Number M4,From V. and ,

60

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

GROUNDSPEED/COURSE/ALTITUDE ACCURACY

[FOLLOWING A MAXIMUM ACQUISITION RANGE DATA POINT, RECORD THE DATA BELOW FOR BOTH

THE TEST AND TARGET AIRCRAFT. REPEAT FOR LOW AND HIGH ALTITUDE MAXIMUM RANGE

TESTING. REPEAT DURING MISSION RELATABLE INTERCEPTS AND MISSION RELATABLE

AIRSPEEDS. REPEAT FOR TWS, STT AND VS MODES.]

RUN # TEST [ TARGET i TEST2 TARGET 2

MODE

HEADING

V.

OAT.

WINDS ALOFT

Card 17: Groundspeed/Course/Altitude Data Cards

 61

GROUNDSPEED/COURSE/ALTITUDE ACCURACY

RUN # T IT1 TARGET 1 TEST 2 TARGET 2

RADAR COURSE/BEARING

RADAR GROUNDSPEED/

CLOSURE RATE

RADAR ALTITUDE

[DURING MISSION RELATABLE INTERCEPTS, NOTE THE EFFECTS OF THE TARGET'S COURSE,

GROUNDSPEED AND ALTITUDE ACCURACY UPON INTERCEPT TACTICS.)

EFFECTS:

Card 17: Groundspeed/Course/Altitude Data Cards (Continued)

62

2.3.14. Velocity Resolution on the display, the test

call a mark on the radioairplane
and theshould
data
either passed to the test airplane or
2.3.14.1. Purpose recorded internal to the target
airplane. If radio calls are used,
The purpose of this test is to determine record the trail airplane's data first
the minimum resolvable velocity since his or her airspeed may not be
difference between two targets in the VS completely stabilized and may change
radar mode and to assess the effects before it can be recorded. The winds
that this resolution has upon tactics. aloft can be obtained by the methods
outlined in the groundspeed/course/
2.3.14.2. General altitude accuracy tests.
The VS modes determine target bearing 2.3.14.6. Data Analysis and
and closure rate, therefore, to resolve Presentation
two targets, the radar must be able to
detect the difference between the Use the procedure outlined in the
targets' azimuths or the targets' groundspeed/course/altitude accuracy
closure rates. The azimuth resolution tests to determine the groundspeed
was determined during the range and components along the line of bearing
azimuth resolution tests. In a VS mode, between the targets and test airplane
while the targets are closer in azimuth for both the targets at the time they
than the azimuth resolution limit, they are resolved. The difference between
will only become distinct as two targets the two groundspeeds is the minimum
if they differ in speed by the velocity resolvable closure rate difference.
resolution limit. As with the Relate this resolution to the effect it
previously discussed resolution tests, will have upon raid count and the
velocity resolution is important as a optimum assignment of fighters to
tool for raid counting and assigning the inbound cells.
correct number of assets to the
appropriate groups of targets or 2.3.14.7. Data Cards
"cells".
A sample data card is presented as card
2.3.14.3. Instrumentation 18.

Data cards and an optional voice

recorder are required for this test.
2.3.14.4. Data Required
Record both targets' heading, h,., V.,
OAT. and winds aloft as well as the radar
bearing to the target when the two
targets just become resolvable as two
separate targets on the VS display.

2.3.14.5. Procedure
Perform the out of clutter (high/medium
altitude) maximum detection range test
using the VS mode with both targets
aligned along the same bearing from the
test airplane and in a 300 feet trail
formation at the same airspeed. After
solid detection, call for the trail
airplane to decelerate at approximately
1 knot per second while the lead
airplane maintains a constant airspeed
and both airplanes remain aligned along
the bearing to the test airplane. The
alignment can be set up and easily
maintained by flying the same TACAN
radial. If the trail target loses
visual contact with the lead, have him
climb 1,000 feet above the lead for
safety purposes. When the test airplane
is able to break the trail airplane out
 63

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

VELOCITY RESOLUTION

[PERFORM A MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE TEST IN THE VS MODE WITH THE TARGETS LINED "P ON

THE SAME TACAN RADIAL THAT THE TEST AIRPLANE IS FLYING. AFTER OBTAINING SOLID

DETECTION, HAVE THE TRAIL AIRPLANE SLOW AT 1 KNOT PER SECOND. IF VISUAL CONTACT IS

LOST BETWEEN THE TARGETS HAVE THE TRAIL TARGET CLIMB 1,000 FEET. CALL A MARK AT THE

TARGET BREAK OUT AND RECORD DATA CALLS FIRST FROM THE TRAIL, THEN THE LEAD

AIRPLANES.]

BEARING TO THE TARGET:

HEADING h V. OAT. WINDS

ALOFT

LEAD

TRAIL

[EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF THE VELOCITY RESOLUTION UPON TACTICS DURING MISSION

RELATABLE INTERCEPTS.]

EFFECTS:

Card 18: Velocity Resolution Data Card

 64

2.3.15. Blind Speeds rate with the test airplane's component

of closure rate subtracted, the target
will disappear as the target passes the
2.3.15.1. Purpose heading perpendicular to the test
airplane's flight path and then should
The purpose of this test is to determine regain detection after another 180" of
at which closure rates that the radar is turn.
blind and to assess the effects that
these blind closure rates have upon During the turn, the target should call
intercept tactics. headings passed every 10. (5" if
possible) over the radio. The test
2.3.15.2. General airplane should monitor the VS display
for target misses, recording the called
As described in the radar theory section headings and radar derived bearings at
the radar must be pulsed, even in the VS which detection is lost and then
mode, to allow the same antenna to be regained, particularly in times of
used for both transmit and receive. A detection holes of several sweeps.
side effect of the pulsing process is These areas should be qualitatively
that the velocity spectrum repeats evaluated for their duration and
itself at intervals related to the PRF severity. If problems are noted during
and so the doppler shift becomes this test, a second run should be
ambiguous at some regular interval. The performed to confirm the results and to
radial velocity at which the radar is ensure that the holes were not caused by
blinded by clutter is repeated at some transient detection losses. During
regular interval. Several techniques, mission relatable intercepts in the VS
such as PRF stagger and choosing the mode, the blind closure rates should be
correct PRF can ease the problem qualitatively assessed for their effects
considerably, however a check should be upon tactics.
made to see if the blind closure rates
encountered are tactically significant. Repeat the test in each PD search mode.
The technique is very similar to the The target may be lost at any time in
blind range test described earlier, the turn during the PD test. If blind
speeds are noted, the test should be
2.3.15.3. Instrumentation repeated to ensure the drop-outs are due
to blind speeds and not to other
Data cards and an optional voice detection drops.
recorder are required for this test. 2.3.15.6. Data Analysis and
2.3.15.4. Data Required Presentation

Record the test airplane and the The procedure used in the target
target's heading, h1 ., V., OAT. and winds groundspeed accuracy test should be used
aloft before the test begins. During to determine the test airplane and
the turn, record the target headings and target's groundspeed before the turns
radar derived bearing when detection is began. At the headings where detection
lost or regained, was lost or gained, the closure rate
should be calculated as outlined in the
2.3.15.5. Procedure groundspeed accuracy test. If problems
were noted on the first test and the
Perform a maximum detection range test test was repeated, the results should be
using the VS mode. After solid compared by plotting detection presence
detection is obtained, record the (1 or 0) versus the closure rates for
parameters listed above and then call the different runs. A consistent
for the target to begin a level constant overlap indicates a true blind closure
speed turn. The turn should begin rate vice spurious misses. If a poor
before the target closes to inside 40 nm detection level occurs at a repeatable
as shown on the air-to-air TACAN. The closure rate band or if the detection
turn should be at 15" angle of bank. level is generally poor during the
For radars that display pure closure maneuvers compared to the constant
rate, as the turn continues, the VS closure rate inbound run, this should be
closure rate should reduce to 0, take noted. Relate the number and size of
misses as the closure rate changes to an the empty and poor detection bands that
opening rate, and then regain detection are repeatable over more than one run to
as the closure rate returns on the other the possibility of a target using these
side of the turn. The angle to the blind closure rates to perform its own
*target will vary through the target turn intercept upon the test airplane while
radius. For radars that display closure being undetected. Relate the presence
 65

of generally poor detection levels for a

target passing through a number of
closure rates to the poor detection
level that will occur as a target closes
on the defended point while the test
airplane is off the direct threat axis.

2.3.15.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are provided as card
19.
66

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY

L/M/H

BLIND SPEEDS

(PERFORM A MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE TEST.

RECORD THE WINGS LEVEL DATA.]

RADAR MODE

hV. OAT. WINDS BEARING

ALOFT

TEST

TARGET

[BEFORE 40 NM SEPARATION ON THE AIR-TO-AIR TACAN, HAVE THE TARGET BEGIN A 15" ANGLE

OF BANK, CONSTANT SPEED TURN. HAVE THE TARGET CALL ITS HEADING PASSED EVERY 10%.

RECORD THE CALLED HEADINGS AND RADAR BEARINGS FOR LOSS/REGAIN OF DETECTION OR

BEGINNING/END OF THE POOR DETECTION LEVEL AREAS. IF PROBLEMS ARE NOTED, REPEAT THE

TEST ON ANOTHER CARD. REPEAT THE ENTIRE TEST FOR EACH VS AND PD SEARCH MODE.]

Card 19: Blind Speeds Data Cards

 67

BLIND SPEEDS

LOST/GAINED (L/G) HEADING CALLED RADAR BEARING

(DURING MISSION RELATABLE INTERCEPTS, RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE

EFFECTS OF THE BLIND SPEEDS UPON INTERCEPT TACTICS.)

EFFECTS:

Card 19: Blind Speeds Data Cards (Continued)

68

2.3.16. Air Combat Modes 2.3.16.5. Procedure

Place the target on the nose of the test
2.3.16.1. Purpose airplane, flying in the same direction,
straight and level and 1,000 feet above
The purpose of this test is to evaluate the test airplane until visual contact
the utility of the radar ACM modes as an is established. Choose a speed for the
aid to acquire and track close range target that allows the test airplane to
maneuvering targets. maneuver moderately behind the target
and still maintain separation. The
2.3.16.2. General range to the target should be 1/2 to 5
miles, consistent with the type of ACM
The nature of the ACM modes requires mode being tested. Perform a series of
that they perform in situations where rolling push-overs and pull-ups, keeping
both the target and test airplanes are the target within the radar search
maneuvering at their absolute limit and volume. Attempt a radar acquisition in
in every conceivable range of g, each of the ACM modes once while looking
crossing rate, extreme clutter etc., above the horizon in a non-clutter
since it will be the goal of the target environment and once while looking down
to use these limits to prevent an ACM on the target into the clutter
acquisition. These absolute limits are environment. Use a stop watch to time
beyond the scope of our test since they how long it takes from the time the ACM
require extensive instrumentation to mode is selected until lock up occurs
document problems, telemetry to ensure and target data is available.
safety limits are not exceeded and more Qualitatively assess the location,
fuel and time than we can spare for our display format, the type of target
quick qualitative assessment. We will information, the accuracy of the
look at a few mission relatable information provided and the location
situations and qualitatively assess the and utility of the controls for
results, gathering data to support the selecting the ACM mode. Place the
assessment. The target will fly target in a level, constant airspeed, 3g
straight and level and then in a turn and repeat the test. If visual
constant, moderate g turn, while the contact is lost at any time during the
test airplane maintains visual contact test, both airplanes should level off
and maneuvers behind the target using and maintain steady flight until visual
rolling push-overs and pull-ups to contact is regained.
generate moderate crossing rates, g
rates and varying clutter environments 2.3.16.6. Data Analysis and
to check each ACM mode. Integration is Presentation
particularly important for ACM modes. A
qualitative assessment of the Relate the overall utility of the ACM
interaction of the radar, weapons modes as an aid for acquiring the target
controls, airplane instruments, visual in an ACM scenario and as a source of
scan etc. that will be used in an ACM weapons targeting data. Pay particular
environment is essential, attention to the time required to
acquire the target and relate the time
2.3.16.3. Instrumentation to the ACM environment. Relate the
integration of the ACM modes with the
Data cards, a stop watch and an optional rest of the weapons system in the
voice recorder are required for this context of the intense ACM environment.
test. Confirm that the required information is
available in a timely manner and in a
2.3.16.4. Data Required format usable in a combat situation.

Record the ACM mode used, target and 2.3.16.7. Data Cards
test airplane g, type of maneuver
performed, and time from selection to A sample data card is provided as card
lock-up of the ACM mode selected. 20.
Qualitatively describe the clutter
environment to include whether the radar
is looking into water, and its
associated sea state, or into land, with
a description of the terrain and
cultural features. Record qualitative
comments concerning the utility of the
ACM modes for acquiring maneuvering
targets.
 69

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING MODES

[PLACE THE TARGET ON THE NOSE, ON THE SAME HEADING, FLYING STRAIGHT AND LEVEL, 1,000

FEET ABOVE THE TEST AIRPLANE AND AT KIAS. PERFORM ROLLING PUSH-OVERS AND

PULL-UPS, LOCKING THE TARGET UP IN EACH MODE, ONCE LOOKING DOWN AND ONCE LOOKING UP.

NOTE THE TIME FROM SELECTION TO DATA DISPLAY.]

ACM MODE RANGE LOOK UP/DOWN TIME

(LU/LD)

[QUALITATIVELY ASSESS THE UTILITY OF THE ACM MODES TO ACQUIRE MANEUVERING TARGETS.]

LOCATION OF DISPLAYS AND CONTROLS:

DISPLAY FORMAT:

TYPE OF TARGET INFORMATION:

ACCURACY OF TARGET INFORMATION:

GENERAL CONTROL UTILITY:

Card 20: Air Combat Maneuvering Modes Data Card

70

2.3.17. False Alarm Rate The false alarm rate can vary greatly
over the course of a flight and from
flight to flight. Due to this
2.3.17.1. Purpose statistical nature of the false alarm
rate, a rigorous test not only requires
The purpose of this test is to extensive instrumentation, as mentioned
qualitatively assess the false alarm above, but also repeated tests, to
rate of the radar and to determine the establish statistical significance.
effect these false alarms have upon
detecting real targets. 2.3.17.3. Instrumentation

2.3.17.2. General Data cards and an optional voice

recorder are required for this test.
Even Restricted airspace has corridors
and minimum levels where both 2.3.17.4. Data Required
Interrogator Friend or Foe (IFF) (also
called transponder) and non-IFF equipped Record the estimated false alarm rate
traffic transit. For this reason, the (number of false alarms on any given
procedure presented here will involve a scan) in both the look-up and look-down
qualitative evaluation only. False (clutter and non-clutter) environment
alarms are generally of short duration, for each radar mode. Record qualitative
often just one hit, and as such a rough comments concerning the difficulty of
count or level can be approximated by detecting a legitimate target airplane
closely evaluating the coherency of the in the presence of the false alarms.
tracks from scan to scan. If doubt
exists on a particular track, a few can 2.3.17.5. Procedure
be resolved by contacting the test area
controlling agency and asking them if During slack periods between runs at
they hold traffic at the bearing and medium altitude, set up the radar for a
range in question. This is not a wide scan angle limit setting and long
perfect check since ATC often is unable range scale. Elevate the antenna first
to detect low flying non-transponder to look for long range, high flying
equipped traffic. The test should be targets. Qualitatively assess the
performed in and out of the clutter number of false alarms over a number of
environment (look-up and look-down), scans. If doubt occurs on any
The false alarm rate is less in most particular target, call the controlling
radars for look-up and if the look-up agency for the test airspace and request
test is performed above 18,000 feet than a check of the questionable area for
all airplanes will be transponder targets. Lower the elevation angle to a
equipped and ATC will be able to resolve selection that allows for detection of
any of the false alarms noted. Clutter medium range low flyers. Care should be
generally causes the false alarm rate to taken not to tilt the antenna below an
be greater in the look-down case than angle that would be used for medium
the look-up situation, range detection. Repeat the qualitative
assessment over a number of scans.
A rigorous, quantitative evaluation of Repeat the series for all radar modes.
the false alarm rate requires a large
range, where the location of all 2.3.17.6. Data Analysis and
airborne targets can be recorded. Presentation
Additionally, significant recording of
the radar output is usually needed in Relate the false alarm rate to the
the form of digital data and display difficulty of picking a real target out
video. Without the availability of the of the spurious radar hits and the
complete instrumentation suite, video probability of beginning an intercept on
recording of the radar display alone, a false target. The life of the false
can greatly enhance this test. Since alarms relative to the coherency of real
the false alarms tend to appear and targets on a scan to scan basis will
disappear rapidly, viewing a recorded affect the evaluation. The evaluation
display repeatedly allows a better should be performed taking into account
accounting of the number of false the expected workload and stress during
alarms. The value of the airborne, a mission relatable scenario. The
qualitative assessment cannot be effects upon target detection should be
discounted; however, since the assessed during mission relatable
evaluation is greatly influenced by the intercepts.
airborne environment.
 71

2.3.17.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is presented as card

21.
72

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

FALSE ALARM RATE

(PLACE THE RADAR IN A LONG RANGE SCALE AND WIDE SCAN ANGLE PATTERN. TILT THE

ANTENNA UP SO THAT THE MINIMUM DETECTION HEIGHT IS JUST ABOVE THE CLUTTER ALTITUDE.

ESTIMATE THE FALSE ALARMS PRESENT AT ANY GIVEN TIME. USE ATC TO RESOLVE CONFLICTS.

TILT THE ANTENNA DOWN FOR LOW FLYER MEDIUM RANGE DETECTION AND REPEAT. ENSURE THE

ANGLE IS NOT TOO LOW. REPEAT THE TEST FOR ALL MODES.)

RADAR MODE NON-CLUTTER FALSE CLUTTER FALSE ALARMS

ALARMS

(QUALITATIVELY ASSESS THE EFFECTS THAT THE CLUTTER HAS UPON DETECTION DURING MISSION

RELATABLE INTERCEPTS.]

EFFECTS:

Card 21: False Alarm Rate Data Card

 73

2.3.18. Track File Capacity maintenance of air picture SA within the

test area.

2.3.18.1. Purpose 2.3.18.6. Data Analysis and

Presentation
The purpose of this test is to determine
the TWS mode track file capacity and to Relate the maximum number of TWS tracks
assess the utility of the radar as an seen at one time to the utility of the
aid for SA in a combat environment. TWS mode for maintenance of battlefield
SA.
2.3.18.2. General
2.3.18.7. Data Cards
Most TWS radars have a track file
capacity between five and thirty. This A sample data card is presented as card
number can be found in the contractor 22.
documentation and then should be
verified while airborne. The only truth
data required is to ensure that an
adequate number of targets are present
within the search volume to saturate the
track file. Busy airfields and airways
can usually be used to fulfill this
requirement. The presence of the right
target load can be verified by a radio
call to the test area controlling
agency. A phone call before the flight
can also be used to cut down on radio
transmissions and to alleviate confusion
as to the desired track density. Often
this data point can be obtained while
returning to base using the home
airfield overhead traffic.

2.3.18.3. Instrumentation

Data cards and an optional voice

recorder will be required for this test.
2.3.18.4. Data Required
While in the TWS mode, record the
maximum number of tracks displayed
during the flight. Record qualitative
comments concerning the effect the
maximum number of TWS tracks has upon
the utility of the radar as an aid to SA
in a mission relatable multiple target
environment.

2.3.18.5. Procedure
Place the radar in a TWS mode, wide scan
angle limit and long range scale. Turn
the airplane to look over a large
airport or busy airway. Check to see if
the TWS mode establishes the maximum
number of tracks designed to be
available. If a lesser number of tracks
are established, call the test area
controlling agency and request a count
of airplanes over the field or along the
airway within the radar search volume.
If enough tracks are not present,
request a vector to an area with enough
tracks to saturate the TWS. Throughout
the flight, qualitatively evaluate the
utility of the track file capacity for
 74

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

TRACK FILE CAPACITY

[TURN THE AIRPLANE TOWARDS A LARGE AIRPORT OR AIRWAY WITHIN THE SEARCH VOLUME.

ESTABLISH THE TWS MODE, WIDE AZIMUTH SCAN LIMIT AND LONG RANGE SCALE. COUNT THE

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF TRACKS. IF THE NUMBER OF TRACKS IS LESS THAN DESIGNED, CONTACT

ATC FOR A COUNT OVER THE AIRPORT OR AIRWAY. IF NOT ENOUGH TRACKS ARE AIRBORNE,

REQUEST A VECTOR TO A HIGH DENSITY AIR TRAFFIC AREA.]

DESIGNED MAXIMUM TRACK FILE CAPACITY

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF TRACK FILES SEEN WHILE AIRBORNE

[QUALITATIVELY ASSESS THE EFFECT THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF TRACK FILES SEEN WHILE

AIRBORNE HAS UPON THE OPERATOR'S SA IN A HIGH STRESS/TARGET RICH, MISSION RELATABLE

ENVIRONMENT.)

EFFECTS:

Card 22: Track File Capacity Data Card

 75

2.3.19. Mission Utility and and others

first allows.
time performed as flight
Integration
2.3.19.3. Instrumentation
2.13.9.1. Purpose Data cards are required for this test.
The purpose of this test is to A voice recorder is highly recommended.
qualitatively assess the overall utility 2.3.19.4. Data Required
of the radar for the assigned mission
and the integration and compatibility of Record qualitative comments concerning
the radar performance parameters, the utility and integration of the
controls and display within the radar. Record the effects of the
airplane. parameters determined in previous tests
during the intercepts and attacks as
2.3.19.2. General called for at the end of each test
and integration test procedure.
The mission utility
is the most important test of the 2.3.19.5. Procedure
series. During this test, mission
relatable intercepts and attacks are Place the target beyond the ranges found
performed to qualitatively assess the during the maximum detection range tests
radar. The quantitative and qualitative for the mode being used. Place the
assessments of the previous tests are target 1,000 feet above the test
used to support and justify the airplane for the first run. Use the
qualitative determinations made during most likely long range intercept mode
the intercepts and attacks. for the first run and the rest in order
of priority as time allows. Use a
Utility refers to the overall usefulness medium to wide scan angle limit and a
of the radar as it is implemented, as an long range scale with a two to four bar
aid to the mission. The radar pattern to simulate a search for an
parameters must match the expected inbound threat. Call for the target to
operational needs. Integration refers turn inbound and turn the test airplane
to the way the radar has been blended towards the target. Use a mission
into the entire airborne system. From relatable subsonic intercept speed for
the evaluator's standpoint this the first run (usually Mach (M) 0.85 to
characteristic is intimately tied into 0.9 for both the target and test
the area of human factors, airplane is adequate). It is important
to use enough speed, since the closure
The qualitative assessments in mission rate will affect the evaluation of the
relatable scenarios specifically called detection range and update rate.
for in the previous tests are also Perform a normal intercept, optimizing
performed during these intercepts and the range scale, scan angle limits,
attacks. Care should be taken; however, antenna elevation angle etc. until the
to ensure that the evaluator does not target is confirmed and an STT is
get too involved in recording acquired. Continue inbound and convert
qualitative comments to the detriment of the intercept to an astern attack of the
watching the progress of the intercept target as the target continues to fly
and evaluating the radar. A conscious straight and level. Use the ACM modes
effort should be made not to get too during the conversion and simulate the
involved in looking for specifics on at selection and firing of weapons, paying
least the first intercept and attack to particular attention to the effects of
ensure that an overall qualitative the radar parameters and human factors
assessment can be made. A voice upon the tactics used for each weapon.
recorder can be used to make comments
without distracting the evaluator from On later intercepts, try the other long
the display or the outbound run can be range detection modes for the initial
used to record results. detection and other possible
combinations of modes while closing. In
Multiple runs should be performed using addition, perform some of the intercepts
different radar modes and mode with the target at as low an altitude as
combinations in as many different types safety permits, to assess the effects of
of attacks as possible (including the clutter environment. If two targets
supersonic runs, if applicable, to are available, use them both on at least
assess the utility of the radar in high one intercept and then split them onto
closure rate intercepts). The most two stations, switching from one to the
likely scenarios should be performed other (three in a barrel) to maximize
76

the number of intercepts during the

flight. If time, fuel and airspace
permit, perform one supersonic intercept
using a VS mode for initial detection,
paying particular attention to the
effects of high closure rates. If time
permits, allow the target to maneuver up
to 30" and 5,000 feet (excluding 1,000
feet above or below the test airplane
altitude) off of the planned track
without informing the evaluator of the
maneuver beforehand, to simulate a
moderately "jinking" target. Record
qualitative comments concerning the
utility of the radar for the assigned
mission, including the effects of the
parameters determined during previous
tests and the overall integration of the
radar into the airplane.

2.3.19.6. Data Analysis and

Presentation

Relate the qualitative deficiencies

noted to their effects upon the
performance of the intercepts and astern
conversions. Note any limitations upon
tactics imposed by the radar parameters,
utility or integration. As an example,
the radar may not be able to detect a
target at a range that allows the
operator to set up and fire the weapons
carried at their maximum range. The
radar should not be driving tactics.
Use the applicable results from the
previous tests to support the
qualitative results.

2.3.19.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is presented as card

23.
 77

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

MISSION UTILITY AND INTEGRATION

(POSITION THE TARGET ON THE NOSE AT __ NM AND 1,000 FEET ABOVE THE TEST AIRPLANE.

TURN THE TARGET AND TEST AIRPLANE TOWARDS EACH OTHER, ACCELERATING TO M=_. USE THE

MODE, WIDE SCAN ANGLE LIMIT, BAR PATTERN, AND NM RANGE SCALE. GAIN

AN STT AND CONTINUE INBOUND. SIMULATE A LONG RANGE MISSILE LAUNCH, THEN A MEDIUM

RANGE HEAD-ON SHOT. OFFSET THE TARGET AT 10 NM AND PERFORM AN ASTERN CONVERSION.

USE THE ACM MODES DURING THE CONVERSION. SIMULATE ASTERN MISSILE AND GUN ATTACKS.

MAKE NOTES CONCERNING THE MISSION UTILITY, INTEGRATION AND THE EFFECTS OF RADAR

PARAMETERS. REPEAT WITH THE TARGET AT FEET AGL. REPEAT THE TEST WITH THE

TARGET AND TEST AIRPLANE AT M= AND IN THE VS MODE FOR INITIAL DETECTION.]

NOTES:

Card 23: Air-to-Air Mission Utility And Integration Data Card

78

2.3.20. Introduction to Advanced tests. The purpose of this table is

merely to emphasize the existence of
Air-to-Air Radar Test Techniques these advanced techniques. Further,
this list is not exhaustive. Many
As mentioned in Chapter 1, only the most innovative uses of assets and
rudimentary form of the air-to-air radar instrumentation exist. It is hoped that
test techniques are presented in this the examples provided leave the reader
book. Chapter 1 details the reasons for with a taste of how the test can be made
this format; however, in many more rigorous through the judicious use
applications, more rigor, accuracy and of instrumentation. In application; the
documentation of results are required. user must refer to the more advanced
Table I outlines additional documents referenced in Chapter 1 or
instrumentation and assets which are solicit help from more experienced
typically applied in these more advanced testers.

Table I: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced Air-to-Air

Radar Tests

Instrumentation

Preflight and Digital Recorder. Typically records data from data bus
Built-in- on which radar passes the BIT
Tests. results. Allows precise
documentation of test results.
Usually used in conjunction with
fault insertion tests.
Video recording of Provides automatic recording of what
display. the operator sees as a fault status
is displayed.
Controls and Video recording of Allows automatic documentation of
Displays. display. display problems as well as post-
flight analysis and evaluation.
Cockpit mock-ups, Typically used for in-depth ground
reconfigurable tests of human factors and in
cockpits and iterative cockpit design.
virtual cockpits.

Digital recording Can be used as a means of precisely

of operator recording operator selections to
actions, document noted problems and as a
means of performing operator tasking
analysis.
Scan Rate. Digital recording In some systems the sweep position
of radar data. can be digitally recorded as output
of a scan converter. In this case
the instantaneous as well as the
average scan rate can be calculated
as required.
Time stamped video Even in the absence of digital data,
recording of the instantaneous and average scan
display. rates can be derived using
appropriately time stamped video.
 Table I: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced 79
Air-to-Air Radar Tests (Continued)

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation II
Scan Angle Digital Recording The test can be made more accurate by
Limits. of aircraft heading recording the precise target and test
and position for aircraft location, precise test
both the target and aircraft heading (these parameters
test aircraft, time are either derived and recorded on-
stamped video board or using a space positioning
recording of range as appropriate) as well as
display. precise time. The radar display is
video recorded and time stamped and
as the target disappears, the exact
angle off boresight can be calculated
based upon geometric calculations.
Elevation Similar to scan Similar to scan angle limits except
Angle Limits. angle limits except the vertical angles to the target are
vertical angles are calculated vice the horizontal
recorded vice angles.
headings.
Tracking Rate Digital recording The test and target airplane
limits, of test and target positions and the test airplane
airplane positions, turning rate (may be derived using
test airplane onboard or range space positioning
heading and turning data) are geometrically reduced to
rate, radar data derive the crossing rate of the
including STT target at the time that the radar
positions and track data indicates that the radar has
files and time lost track.
stamp.
Antenna Digital recording The direct measurement of the roll,
Stabilization of test aircraft pitch and yaw rates are correlated to
Limits. time stamped roll, degradation on the time stamped
pitch and yaw rates display.
and time stamped
video recording of
the display.

Range and Digital recording Target and test aircraft location

Bearing of time stamped from either onboard instrumentation
Accuracy. test and target or range space positioning data are
aircraft position used to calculate the actual range
and time stamped and bearing to the target at the time
radar display video a range and bearing is derived using
or digital radar the radar. The video recorded range
track files with and bearing are compared directly and
radar derived may in turn be compared to the range
bearing and range and bearing within the radar track
to target. file.
Range and Precise control of Precise control of the targets can
Bearing target locations is help prevent range contamination of
Resolution. provided by an the bearing resolution data point.
instrumented range. The resolutions can be directly
Digital recording determined by geometrically comparing
of time stamped the positions of the targets and the
target and test test airplane at the time breakout
aircraft location, occurs.
Video recording of
the radar display.
80 Table I: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced
Air-to-Air Radar Tests (Continued)

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation II
Maximum Digital recording The test and target aircraft
Detection of time stamped locations are geometrically reduced
Range. radar detections. to provide actual, time stamped
Video recording of locations of the target in radar
time stamped radar space. This information is used to
display. Time validate hits and misses at
stamped test and corresponding bearings and ranges on
target aircraft the target as recorded on the radar
locations, display and digitally recorded radar
Propagation detection data. Often, the real time
prediction assets. propagation performance is predicted
Real time on instrumented ranges for the
measurement of frequency of the test radar and
casual casual interference is recorded on
interference, the aircraft using special
instrumentation. Sometimes this
information is already designed into
the test radar and needs only to be
recorded.

Maximum Video recording of The geometrically reduced test and

Unambiguous time stamped radar target locations are used to verify
Range. display. Time the displayed range to the target
stamped test and after detection.
target aircraft
locations.
Maximum Same as Maximum Range to the target is geometrically
Acquisition Detection Range derived from the time stamped space
Range. with the addition positioning data when the recorded
of track file data video shows that the operator has
and operator successfully been able to acquire the
selection of STT. target.

Blind Ranges. Same as Maximum Reduction similar to Maximum

Detection Range Detection Range Test with data plots
test. the same as in the test described in
this book. Emphasis is placed upon
the statistical significance and
repeatability of the blind ranges.

Groundspeed Digital recording Internally recorded or range derived

/Course of time stamped target parameters are time correlated
/Altitude target aircraft to the displayed radar information.
Accuracy. location,
groundspeed, course
and altitude.
Video recording of
the time stamped
radar display.
Velocity Digital recording Internally recorded or range derived
Resolution. of time stamped target groundspeeds are time
target aircraft correlated to the displayed radar
groundspeed. Video information at breakout.
recording of the
time stamped radar
display.
 Table I: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced 81
Air-to-Air Radar Tests (Continued)

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

In strumentation

Blind Speeds. Digital recording High accuracy as well as high update

of precise time and recording rates are necessary to
stamped target and get accurate target closure rates
test aircraft during maneuvers. Can be derived
heading and onboard or on a space positioning
groundspeed. Video range. Time correlated target and
recording of the test aircraft parameters are compared
time stamped radar to the geometrically derived closure
display. rate. This is compared to drop-outs
in the radar display. Emphasis is
placed upon the statistical
significance and repeatability of the
blind speeds.

Air Combat Digital recording For complete documentation, this test

Modes. of precise, time requires precise documentation of all
stamped test and target and test aircraft dynamics and
target aircraft locations, which are then time
positions, rates correlated with radar data and the
and accelerations; operator displays.
digital recording
of time stamped
radar data, time
stamped video
recording of the
radar and head up
display.
False Alarm Ground radar Radar detection data are time
Rate. coverage and time correlated with the ground radar
stamped recording detection data to verify or disprove
of the entire radar the existence of actual radar
search volume. Time targets.
stamped video
recording of the
radar display.
Digital recording
of time stamped
radar detection
data.
Track File Video recording of Since the test simply verifies the
Capacity. the radar display. maximum track file number, the
recording of the radar display
provides some added documentation.
Mission Digital recording This test requires the largest amount
Utility and of precise, time of data to completely document the
Integration. stamped test and results. It is during this test that
target aircraft most of the unexpected problems are
positions, rates found. In anticipation of having to
and accelerations; document these deficiencies, maximum
digital recording instrumentation and range support are
of time stamped sometimes brought to bear in case
radar data; time unforseen data are required in post-
stamped video flight analysis.
recording of radar
and head up
display.
82

2.4. AIR-TO-GROUND RADAR TEST highest possible rate to update the

display as frequently as possible.
TECHNIQUES Mapping quality and consistency tests
will be discussed later.

2.4.1. Scan Rate 2.4.1.3. Instrumentation

A stop watch and data cards are required

2.4.1.1. Purpose for this test. A voice recorder is
optional.
The purpose of this test is to determine
the average radar scan rate and its 2.4.1.4. Data Required
effect upon the utility of the radar
presentation. Measure the time for ten complete radar
scans (one side to the other and back)
2.4.1.2. General at each scan angle limit setting.
Record qualitative comments concerning
Most air-to-ground radars operate in a the effects of the display update rate
single bar, raster scan format. The upon the mapping display utility and the
rate at which the antenna moves from target display during mission relatable
side to side determines the scan rate. attacks.
Since the antenna must stop at each side
and since the moving parts have some 2.4.1.5. Procedure
inertia, the actual scan rate varies
through the scan and as the scan angle While on the ground, use a stop watch to
limits are changed. The important measure the time for the sweep to move
characteristic for the air-to-ground from one side of the display and back
radar is how often the target and the for ten full sweeps. Perform the test
map display is updated and so an average at all scan angle limit settings and
scan rate over a number of scans in each repeat for one setting while airborne to
scan angle limit setting will be used. 7 confirm the ground test. If a
discrepancy occurs between the ground
Scan rate can affect several radar and airborne data, repeat for all scan
performance factors. A quick scan rate angle limits. While performing attacks
is desired to provide a rapid update of at mission relatable speeds, evaluate
the target position and the radar the effect the update rate has upon the
navigation display. If the update is utility of the display for radar
too slow, the airplane's position on the navigation. During the final phases of
radar map presentation will change the attack, note the effect the update
between scans requiring mental rate has upon the operator's ability to
integration. In addition, during very accurately maintain the designator or
low level flying, the radar presentation cursors over the target position.
may change drastically between scans. A
very rapid display update alleviates 2.4.1.6. Data Analysis and
these problems. The update rate must Presentation
also be rapid enough to provide quick
and accurate position updates of the The scan rate is calculated using the
target during the final seconds of the following relationship:
attack. This requirement will vary
depending upon the accuracy of the ScaPat_(ScanAn Lmiin deg0
navigation system used (drift), the (Time for 10 Sweeps)
accuracy requirements of the weapons
used, and the accuracy with which the The mapping quality and consistency test
radar can designate a target at longer to be discussed later will evaluate
ranges. Unfortunately, there are limits whether the scan rate is slow enough to
to the scan rate that can be used. The provide a consistent mapping display.
limiting factor is usually the number of The test discussed in this section is
radar hits required to build a designed to evaluate whether the rate is
consistent radar display. Too few hits quick enough to provide an update rate
results in an inconsistent and washed of the display adequate for all mission
out display. Once the requirement for relatable scan angle limit selections
adequate mapping quality is obtained, and attack profiles. Relate the update
the scan rate should be left at the rate to the necessity for near real-time

In the context used here, the scan rate and update rate are the same.
 83

navigation and target positioning data

during high speed, low level ingress to
the target when the radar horizon is
very short and to the necessity to
perform terminal target updates before
delivering ordnance.

2.4.1.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is presented as card

24.
84

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND SCAN RATE

[RECORD TIME FOR 10 COMPLETE SCANS.]

RADAR MODE SCAN ANGLE LIMIT TIME FOR 10 SWEEPS

[RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS ON THE MAP UPDATE RATE AND TARGET POSITION UPDATE

RATE.]

TEST AIRPLANE SPEED

TEST AIRPLANE ALTITUDE

SCAN ANGLE LIMIT

RADAR MODE

TYPE ATTACK FLOWN

EFFECTS:

Card 24: Air-to-Ground Scan Rate Data Card

 85

2.4.2. Scan Angle Limits 2.4.2.4. Data Required

Record the heading of the test airplane

2.4.2.1. Purpose with a target of opportunity over the
nose and just at the edge of the display
The purpose of this test is to determine for each scan angle setting for both the
the scan angle limits of the radar and left and right limit. Record
their effects upon the utility of the qualitative comments concerning the
radar search volume, utility of the maximum scan angle limit
and the smaller angle selections.
2.4.2.2. General
2.4.2.5. Procedure
Most air-to-ground radars operate in a
single bar, raster scan format and often Choose a target of opportunity at least
have several operator selectable antenna 15 nm ahead of the test airplane to
scan angle limits. The largest allow the test turn to be completed
selection is usually bounded by the without significantly affecting the
physical scan angle limits of the geometry of the target. If the display
antenna. The bounds are often set by is truncated at the scan angle limit
the physical limits of the antenna selected, the range must be inside of
against the nose cone faring covering the truncated area. Place the target
the antenna or even by line of sight just to the right or left of the nose of
interference between the radar beam and the test airplane with the sweep
airplane structures. In addition, when centered on the nose. Turn the test
extremely wide limits are used, the time airplane slowly toward the target,
that the antenna can spend at any marking the test airplane heading as the
specific bearing within the search nose crosses the target bearing and as
volume is reduced for a given display the target passes off of the radar
update rate. When a lower scan angle display. Repeat to the other side and
limit selection is made in order to for all scan angle limit selections.
concentrate the search volume, the Qualitatively evaluate the effect of the
operator is often able to slew the maximum scan angle limit upon the
center of the search volume within these utility of the radar map display for
maximum left and right limits. For orientation on a tactical map, for the
these reasons, the maximum scan angle radar's utility in finding targets of
limits become critical and should be opportunity over a wide area and for any
measured. constraints that the limit may pose upon
attack tactics by restricting the
The maximum limits should be evaluated maximum angle off of the nose during
while performing radar navigation to ingress to the target. Assess the
ensure enough area is displayed to allow utility of the smaller angle limits for
orientation on a tactical chart and concentrating the radar on a narrower
during searches for targets of area as the target position and the
opportunity to ensure enough volume is flight path to it are narrowed.
searched such that the radar does not
limit the airplane in its area of 2.4.2.6. Data Analysis and
attack. During attacks, the maximum Presentation
angle off the nose to the target
expected in mission relatable tactics Subtract the test airplane heading while
must be used to evaluate the scan angle the target is over the test airplane
limits while using the smaller angle nose from the heading as contact is lost
selections. The smaller selections are for the left/right at each scan angle
used after the initial position of the limit setting to determine the measured
target is determined to allow scan angle limits. Use the measured
concentrating the radar on the target limits as supporting data where
area and the intended flight path. The deficiencies are noted in the
range and number of selections must be qualitative evaluation of the scan angle
suitable for the expected scenarios for limits. Relate problems noted with the
which the airplane is designed to maximum scan angle limits to the utility
operate. of the map display for area orientation,
finding targets of opportunity and to
2.4.2.3. Instrumentation the limitations imposed upon inbound
tactics by the maximum angle off the
Data cards are required for this test nose to the target that can be used
with an optional voice recorder. while still illuminating the target.
Relate the number and limits of the
smaller angle selections to the
86

desirability of narrowing the scan

volume as the target position is
refined.

2.4.2.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is presented as card

25.
 87

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND SCAN ANGLE LIMITS

[CHOOSE A TARGET OF OPPORTUNITY JUST TO THE LEFT OR RIGHT OF THE NOSE AT 15 NM.

TURN TOWARDS THE TARGET.. RECORD THE TEST A/C HEADING AS THE TARGET PASSES THROUGH

THE NOSE AND WHEN IT IS LOST FROM THE DISPLAY DURING THE TEST AIRPLANE TURN. REPEAT

TO THE OTHER SIDE AND FOR EACH SCAN ANGLE LIMIT SELECTION.]

RADAR MODE AZ LIMIT NOSE LEFT/RIGHT LOST TARGET

SELECTION (L/R)

[RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE MAXIMUM SCAN ANGLE FOR

RADAR MAPPING AND ORIENTATION, ITS EFFECT UPON TACTICS (MAXIMUM ANGLE OFF OF TARGET)

AND FINDING TARGETS OF OPPORTUNITY. RECORD COMMENTS ON THE UTILITY OF THE RANGE AND

NUMBER OF THE SMALLER SELECTIONS.]

SCAN ANGLE LIMIT SELECTION

TARGET RELATIVE BEARING

TYPE OF ATTACK

EFFECTS:

Card 25: Air-to-Ground Scan Angle Limits Data Card

88

2.4.3. Elevation Angle Limits 2.4.3.5. Procedure

Begin the test at a medium altitude,

2.4.3.1. Purpose 15,000 feet AGL or above is typical,
with enough airspeed to perform a slow
The purpose of this test is to determine pitch up to the expected theoretical
the elevation angle limits of the radar elevation angle limits and to perform a
antenna and their effects upon the recovery to level flight. Choose a
utility of the radar search volume, target of opportunity on the nose of the
airplane at least 20 nm away. Designate
2.4.3.2. General the target for geostable tracking using
the cursor designator, if the radar is
As with scan angle limits, the elevation capable, narrowing the scan angle limits
angle limits of the radar are often to a narrow selection. If the radar
established by the physical limits that does not automatically select the range
the antenna can be slewed up or down. scale, select a scale that just includes
These limits can be physical, caused by the target. Perform a slow pitch up
space or gimbal constraints within the until the radar display disappears over
nose cone or by interference between the the target area or until tracking breaks
radar beam and the airplane structure, lock. Record the antenna elevation at
although the latter is less likely for the time. Re-establish target tracking
the elevation limits than for the and slow the test airplane. Begin a
azimuth limits. Elevation angle limits pitch over, looking for the same
are important to air-to-ground radars indications as above. Discontinue the
since they limit the maximum pitch test if any aircraft limits are reached
maneuvers the test airplane can perform and insure enough altitude is available
and still maintain radar contact with for the test aircraft to perform a safe
the target. The airplane must be able recovery from the nose-down attitude.
to maneuver as much as possible in the Consult all available aircraft
terminal attack phase to defeat surface performance data before attempting the
defenses while at the same time maneuver. Record the antenna elevation
prosecuting the attack. In addition, as above. During mission relatable
many weapon deliveries require pitching attacks, record the effects the above
maneuvers. Finally, the lower limit antenna elevation limits have upon
will affect the minimum range that the ingress and weapon delivery tactics.
airplane can close on the target without
losing radar contact. Most modern radar 2.4.3.6. Data Analysis and
antennas have a gimbal limit of Presentation
approximately 60" above and below the
airplane centerline (the exact Use the displayed antenna elevaticu, at
centerline used varies from airplane to the time that radar detection is loit on
airplane as with the air-to-air the target of opportunity as the
platforms). The limits should be elevation limits. Relate the elevation
measured and then the effects of these limits to the restrictions that they
limits should be evaluated during place upon jinking and upon delivery
mission relatable simulated or actual tactics while maintaining target radar
weapons deliveries, choosing the detection.
deliveries with the largest variations
in pitch for the evaluation. Mission 2.4.3.7. Data Cards
relatable evasive maneuvering (jinking)
should also be performed inbound to the A sample data card is presented as card
target. 26.

2.4.3.3. Instrumentation

Data cards are required for this test

with an optional voice recorder.
2.4.3.4. Data Required

Record the antenna elevation angle

displayed on the radar display as radar
video is lost in the vicinity of the
cursors designating the center of the
radar scan volume.
 89

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND ELEVATION ANGLE LIMITS

(CLIMB TO FEET AGL, INCREASE SPEED TO __ KIAS AND CHOOSE A TARGET OF

OPPORTUNITY ON THE NOSE AT 20 NM. DESIGNATE THE TARGET USING GEOSTABLE CURSORS AND

NARROW THE DISPLAY. SELECT THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE RANGE SCALE WHICH STILL DISPLAYS

THE TARGET. PITCH UP UNTIL THE TARGET IS NOT DETECTED AND RECORD THE ANTENNA ANGLE.

SLOW TO KIAS AND REPEAT IN A PUSH OVER.]

LOWER LIMIT UPPER LIMIT

[QUALITATIVELY EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF THE ELEVATION LIMITS UPON INGRESS TACTICS AND

WEAPON DELIVERIES.]

TACTIC OR DELIVERY

MANEUVER

EFFECTS:

Card 26: Air-to-Ground Elevation Angle Limits Data Card

 90

2.4.4 Antenna Stabilization Limits qualitative comments concerning

effects of the antenna stabilization
the
limits (if any are found) during mission
2.4.4.1. Purpose relatable ingress evasive maneuvers and
while performing mission relatable
The purpose of this test is to evaluate weapon deliveries.
the ability of the radar antenna to
maintain stabilization during 2.4.4.6. Procedure
maneuvering flight and to determine its
effects upon ingress and weapon delivery Climb to a medium altitude
tactics. (approximately 15,000 feet AGL is
typical) and set an airspeed that allows
2.4.4.2. General for safe, high g maneuvers (usually 300
to 400 KIAS is adequate). Establish a
As discussed in the radar theory normal search or radar mapping mode.
section, many radar antennas are Select a scan angle limit at
gyroscopically or inertially stabilized approximately 30" to 40" and set the
in relation to the horizon within the antenna elevation to optimize the
boundaries of the scan and elevation display around a point 30 to 40 nm ahead
limits; however, there are rate of the airplane. Center the display on
limitations to which the airplane can be the nose. Maneuver to 50" nose low and
maneuvered before this stabilization is establish a 2g pull-up to 50' nose high
degraded. The radar should be designed at a constant 2g rate. Mark the time
such that these boundaries are beyond while passing from 40' nose low to 40"
the maneuvering limits of the host nose high. Note any degradation in the
airplane for all three maneuvering axes radar display, including any loss of
(roll, pitch and yaw). Measuring yaw detection at any ranges that were
rates in flight without instrumentation present before maneuvering, strobing or
is quite difficult, step inputs to the spoking on the display or any other
maximum allowable at a mission relatable effects. If the elevation angle limits
maneuvering speed will be used instead are less than 50', then a smaller
of an actual yaw rate measurement. The maneuver will have to be performed to
loss of stabilization usually manifests maintain contact with the target.
itself as a degradation of mapping and Repeat the test at increasing g levels
detection, strobing and other until degradation is noted or the g
perturbations of the general radar limit of the airplane is reached.
display. The minimum criteria is
whether the display is still adequate Center the scan volume 20' off of the
for radar navigation and area nose. Roll the airplane 360" at 1/4
orientation, as well as target detection stick deflection, noting the time to
and accurate target designation. complete the roll and any degradation in
Combined roll, pitch and yaw maneuvers detection or the display. Repeat at
can have their own effects upon the 1/2, 3/4 and full stick deflection if
display and as such should also be the airplane limits allow. With the
evaluated. scan volume again centered on the nose,
perform a step input of the rudder at
2.4.4.3. Instrumentation 1/4 deflection. Note any degradation of
detection or the display. Repeat at
Data cards and a stop watch are required 1/2, 3/4 and full rudder deflections if
for the test with an optional voice the aircraft limits allow. If no
recorder. degradation is noted while performing
the tests above, perform a series of
2.4.4.4. Data Required rolling push-overs and pull-ups at
increasing g rates until the limits of
Record the time to go from 40' nose low the airplane are reached. Again, look
to 40o nose high at a constant g rate up for degradation in detection or the
to the g limit of the airplane. Record radar display. During ingress evasive
the time to roll 360' at increasing maneuvers and weapon delivery maneuvers,
stick deflections. Record the percent note the effects upon tactics of the
of rudder throw used to achieve limits found above.
increasing yaw rates. During all
maneuvers, make qualitative comments on 2.4.4.7. Data Analysis and
the effects that the maneuvers have upon Presentation
the radar display and detection
performance. Record the same Divide the time to perform the pitch up
qualitative comments during rolling maneuvers into the 80" covered to obtain
push-overs and pull-ups. Record the average pitch rate. Divide the time
 91

to roll into 360" to get the average

roll rate. If no degradation is noted
within the maneuvering limits of the
airplane during single axis or the
multiple axis maneuvers, then the
stabilization limits are probably
satisfactory. If degradation is noted,
it should be related to the limits that
this degradation imposes upon tactics.
The amount of limitation depends upon
the axis involved (a pitch axis limit of
2g on an 8g airplane would be more
serious than a yaw axis limit of 1/4
rudder deflection) and the level at
which the degradation is noted. These
limitations should be verified during
mission relatable attacks.
2.4.4.8. Data Cards

Sample data cards are provided as card

27.
92

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND ANTENNA STABILIZATION LIMITS

[CLIMB TO FEET AGL, SET ___KIAS AND SELECT A SEARCH OR MAPPING MODE AND A 30"

TO 40" AZIMUTH LIMIT. OPTIMIZE THE ANTENNA ELEVATION FOR A 30 TO 40 NM RANGE MAP

DISPLAY AND SELECT A RANGE SCALE TO COVER ALL THE RADAR VIDEO PROVIDED. PITCH DOWN

TO 50" LOW AND PULL-UP AT 2G TO 50" NOSE HIGH. TIME 40" LOW TO 40" HIGH. NOTE ANY

DEGRADATION. REPEAT AT INCRoEASING G RATES.]

TIME TO PITCH G DEGRADATION

[CENTER THE SCAN VOLUME 20" OFF OF THE NOSE. ROLL THE AIRCRAFT AT 1/4 STICK

DEFLECTION. NOTE THE TIME TO ROLL 360" AND DEGRADATION. REPEAT AT 1/2, 3/4, AND

FULL DEFLECTION.]

TIME TO ROLL G DEGRADATION

Card 27: Air-to-Ground Antenna Stabilization Limits Data Cards

 93

AIR-TO-GROUND ANTENNA STABILIZATION LIMITS

[CENTER THE SCAN VOLUME ON THE NOSE. PROVIDE A STEP INPUT OF RUDDER AT 1/4

DEFLECTION. NOTE DEGRADATION AND REPEAT AT 1/2, 3/4 AND FULL DEFLECTION.]

RUDDER INPUT DEGRADATION

[PERFORM EASY ROLLING PUSH-OVERS AND PULL-UPS, NOTING ANY DEGRADATION. REPEAT AT

INCREASING G LEVELS UNTIL DEGRADATION IS NOTED OR THE AIRPLANE LIMITS ARE REACHED.]

DESCRIBE THE MANEUVER (CONTROL DEFLECTIONS, G LEVELS ETC.):

DEGRADATION:

[EVALUATE THE ANTENNA STABILIZATION LIMITS DURING MISSION RELATABLE EVASIVE

MANEUVERS AND WEAPON DELIVERY MANEUVERS.]

TYPE OF MANEUVERS

DEGRADATION:

Card 27: Air-to-Ground Antenna Stabilization Limits Data Cards (Continued)

94

2.4.5. Minimum Range 2.5.4.4. Data Required

Record the altitude and airspeed of the
2.4.5.1. Purpose test airplane, target elevation,
antenna elevation at the time detection
The purpose of this test is to determine is lost on the radar display and the
the minimum range of the radar and its displayed radar range. Record the time
effects upon weapon delivery tactics, between loss of detection and overflight
of the target. Make qualitative
2.4.5.2. General comments concerning the effects that the
minimum range has upon the final target
The theoretical minimum radar range is position updates.
discussed in the radar theory section.
This is the absolute minimum range 2.4.5.5. Procedure
possible; however, the minimum range is
usually something greater. The display Descend to the test altitude. Choose a
is an important factor, as in the air- target of known altitude and designate
to-air minimum range. For a PPI it using the radar cursors. Use
display, the mapping video becomes very geostable cursors if available. If not,
cluttered and often becomes a block of adjust the antenna elevation angle to
solid video close to the notch of the V optimize the target display. Proceed
from which a target cannot be resolved, inbound to the target at a constant
Minimum range is critical in air-to- altitude. Continue to observe the radar
ground radars since highly accurate and display of the target as it converges to
frequent target position updates are the bottom of the display. Lower the
required to place conventional ordnance range scale to the minimum possible to
on small tactical targets. The final display the target if the radar does not
target update is often the difference downscale automatically. Just as radar
between a hit and a wide miss. contact is lost, start the stop watch,
record the displayed range to the
Note should be taken as to exactly what target, altitude, airspeed and antenna
range is being measured while performing pointing angle. Mark the elapsed time
the minimum range test in order to as the target is overflown. During
properly interpret the results. The mission relatable attacks, assess the
radar range is the line of sight from effects that the minimum range has upon
the radar to the target and can be the ability of the radar to provide
envisioned as the hypotenuse of a accurate, final target updates.
triangle. One of the remaining sides of
the triangle is then the altitude of the 2.4.5.6. Data Analysis and
test airplane above the target. This Presentation
implies that the minimum range measured
can never be less than the altitude Check the antenna pointing angle at the
above the target. In addition, the time detection was lost to deterr 'ieif
lower antenna elevation angle fixes one it was at an angle less than th -wer
of the adjacent angles in the line of antenna elevation limit. If it is at
sight, height, minimum range triangle so the limit then assume that the minimum
that the minimum range that can be range is limited by the lower antenna
measured becomes even greater than the elevation angle. If it was not at the
test altitude above the target. For limit, use the displayed radar range as
these reason, the test should be the minimum radar range. Use the
performed at as low an altitude as airspeed and time to overflight to
possible within the limitations of confirm the radar derived range. Relate
safety. 200 to 500 feet AGL are usually the minimum range to the likelihood that
chosen for test purposes. Care must be the target position will change in the
taken to ensure that the effects of the case of a moving target, or that the
lower elevation angle limits discussed last measured position will drift due to
earlier are not confused with the navigational errors for stationary
effects of the radar minimum range. targets, causing a reduction in weapon
delivery accuracy.
2.5.4.3. Instrumentation
2.5.4.7. Data Cards
Data cards and an optional voice
recorder are required for this test. A sample data card is provided as card
28.
 95

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND MINIMUM RANGE

(DESCEND TO _- FEET AGL. SET _ KIAS. DESIGNATE A KNOWN TARGET WITH THE

GEOSTABLE CURSORS AND HEAD TOWARDS IT. WATCH FOR LOST DETECTION. RECORD THE DATA

BELOW.]

TARGET

ALTITUDE OF TARGET (MSL)

ALTITUDE AT LOSS (MSL)

AIRSPEED AT LOSS

RADAR RANGE AT LOSS

ANTENNA ELEVATION

TIME FROM LOSS TO OVERFLIGHT

[QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE EFFECTS OF THE MINIMUM RANGE UPON LAST SECOND

TARGET POSITION UPDATES.]

TYPE DELIVERY

EFFECTS:

Card 28: Air-to-Ground Minimum Range Data Card

96

2.4.6. Doppler Beam Sharpened and right side

relatable
of the notch.
ingresses and
Perform
mission
Notch Width simulated attacks using the DBS mode.
Record qualitative comments concerning
the effects upon tactics of not being
2.4.6.1. Purpose able to fly directly to the target.
The purpose of this test is to determine 2.4.6.6. Data Analysis and
the angular width of the DBS notch over Presentation
the nose of the airplane and the effect
that this notch has upon ingress and Use the ruler to determine the distance
attack tactics. between the two tick marks on the data
card that represent the edges of the DBS
2.4.6.2. General display and the distance between the two
tick marks that represent the edges of
The theory behind the DBS mode and the the notch. Use equation 20 to find the
reason that the notch exists over the DBS notch width.
nose of the airplane is explained in the
radar theory section. The notch is .... (NOTCH n dg)
scan
important since it limits the airplane ( scan in)
from flying directly to the target while NOTCH,=angular width of the DBS notch
using the DBS mode. The effect that NOTCH=mInear width of the DBS notch on the B scan display
this has upon tactics depends on the B scan deg=angular width of the B scan display section
width of the notch. For radars that B scan in=inear width of the B scan dislay
fill the notch with real beam video, the
break between the two is usually
apparent and easily defined. The notch
is still important is this case since Relate the width of the notch to the
the real beam filler does not have the requirement to zigzag to the target to
resolution of the DBS picture and still keep it out of the notch and to the
requires maneuvering away from the requirement to eventually put the target
direct inbound path to use the DBS mode in the notch and rely upon the target
on the target area. Typically, the stored position just before over-flying
notch is narrow enough that the DBS the target.
display can be centered on the nose of
the airplane and the notch will be 2.4.6.7. Data Cards
completely enclosed within the display
with DBS video on either side, A sample data card is provided as card
simplifying the measurement of the notch 29.
width.

2.4.6.3. Instrumentation

Data cards, a ruler and an optional

voice recorder are required for this
test.
2.4.6.4. Data Required

Record the angular width of the B scan

format used for the test and mark on the
edge of the data card both sides of the
DBS display and both sides of the notch.
During mission relatable ingresses and
attacks, record qualitative comments on
the effect that the notch has upon
ingress tactics.

2.4.6.5. Procedure

With the airplane flying straight and

level at a medium altitude, center the
DBS display over the nose at
approximately 20 to 30 nm and allow the
display to build. Hold the data card up
to the display, perpendicular to the DBS
notch. Mark on the card the left and
right side of the display and the left
 97

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

DBS NOTCH WIDTH

[CLIMB TO __ FEET MSL. SELECT DBS AND CENTER THE DBS MAP ON THE NOSE AT 20 TO

30 NM. HOLD THE DATA CARD UP TO THE DBS DISPLAY, PERPENDICULAR TO THE NOTCH, AND

MARK THE EDGES OF THE DISPLAY AND OF THE NOTCH.]

DISPLAY ANGULAR WIDTH SELECTED

[RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE EFFECTS OF THE NOTCH UPON MISSION

RELATABLE INGRESSES AND ATTACKS.]

EFFECTS:

Card 29: Doppler Beam Sharpened Notch Width Data Card

98

2.4.7. Range and Bearing Accuracy airplane altitude

mission relatable
and heading.
ingresses and
During

simulated weapon deliveries, note the

2.4.7.1. Purpose utility that the read out of target
bearing and range provides as an aid for
The purpose of this test is to determine flying to the target and delivering
how accurately the radar can determine weapons.
the bearing and range to a radar target
and the effect that this accuracy has 2.4.7.6. Data Analysis and
upon ingress and attack tactics. Presentation

2.4.7.2. General For radars that provide a relative

bearing to the target, add a riaht:
A precise range and azimuth accuracy target bearing to the test airplane,
test requires external space positioning heading to get the magnetic bearing to
data; however, an approximate check can the target. Subtract a left bearing to
be obtained by visually marking on top the target to get the magnetic bearing
of a surveyed point and taking the radar to the target. Use the difference
derived range and bearing to another between the known latitudes and
surveyed target. The pilot's mark on longitudes of the flyover and target
top technique is critical to this test points to calculate the north-south and
and the test should be flown at as low east-west range differences. Use these
an altitude as safety permits. An ranges to solve for the hypotenuse of a
approximate rule of thumb for mark on right triangle. This is the approximate
top accuracy for an experienced range between the fixes. The internal
evaluator is half of the altitude above angles can then be solved for and added
the mark on top point. Range and or subtracted from 0*, 90", 180", 270"
bearing accuracy is important since it or 360" to obtain the approximate true
affects the utility of the vectors that bearing between the points. Finally,
the pilot gets from the radar as well as variation is added to the true bearing
the target position input to the weapons to obtain magnetic bearing.
delivery computer and to the seekers of
stand-off weapons. Anm=(A •,n

2.4.7.3. Instrumentation Anm-(A.. min ]

Data Cards and an optional voice

recorder are required for this test.
2.4.7.4. Data Required
Anm=the difference
in nautical
Record the test airplane altitude, miles between the surveyed points
heading and radar derived bearing and along the north-south or east-west
range to a surveyed radar target as the axis.
test airplane marks on top of another Aj.=the difference between the
surveyed point. Record qualitative latitude of the surveyed points in
comments concerning the utility of the minutes.
radar derived bearing and range to the AL.,=the difference between the
target during mission relatable longitude of the surveyed points
ingresses and simulated target attacks, in minutes.
Lat=the numerical average of the
2.4.7.5. Procedure latitude of the two surveyed
points in degrees.
Before the test flight, select a visual Mb.d,=actual magnetic bearing from
target in the test area that has a the fly-over point to the radar
surveyed latitude and longitude and a target.
surveyed radar target at 15 to 20 nm Tb,,=actual true bearing from the
away from the visual target. The radar fly-over point to the radar
target does not have to be in the test target.
area. Descend to the test altitude. V=magnetic variation.
Fly a heading to the target that places
the target within the radar search The difference between the actual and
volume and keep the cursors as close to measured bearing and range are the
the target as possible. Perform a bearing and range error. Relate the
fly-over of the visual target. At bearing and range error to the utility
fly-over, mark the bearing and range to of the radar derived target position for
the radar target, and then the test
 99

navigating to the target and for input

to standoff weapons.

2.4.7.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is presented as card
30.
100

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND RANGE AND BEARING ACCURACY

[OVERFLY THE VISUAL POINT AT __ FEET AGL AND __ KIAS. DESIGNATE THE RADAR TARGET

BEFORE FLY-OVER.]

VISUAL FLYOVER POINT

RADAR TARGET

BEARING/RANGE /,
HEADING

ALTITUDE

[QUALITATIVELY EVALUATE THE UTILITY OF THE BEARING/RANGE ACCURACY FOR INGRESS

NAVIGATION AND TARGET DESIGNATION FOR STAND-OFF WEAPONS.)

EFFECTS:

Card 30: Air-to-Ground Range And Bearing Accuracy Data Card

 101

2.4.8. Range and Bearing Resolution the azimuth resolution test, targets
should be chosen that are separated by
enough distance to allow the radar to
2.4.8.1. Purpose break the targets out at around 10 rm
given the minimum azimuth resolution
The purpose of this test is to measure requirement as described above. The
the range and bearing resolution of the desired target separation can be
radar and to assess the effects that the determined by solving a right triangle
radar resolution has upon the utility of using the desired angular resolution as
the radar for discriminating or one internal angle and 10 nm as one of
"breaking out" targets closely spaced in the adjacent sides. Again, the targets
range and bearing, should be isolated to make them easy to
find in the clutter and large enough to
2.4.8.2. General make them easily detectable beyond 10
um.
Theoretical range and azimuth resolution
are discussed in the radar theory Sometimes targets can be found that
section. The radar display can have a allow both tests to be flown in a single
pronounced affect upon resolution. The event. This requires that both sets of
air-to-ground radar resolution is targets be roughly perpendicular in
important because it allows the operator orientation. It is critical to ensure
to break out individual targets in the that the flight path is aligned
target area, increasing the precision perpendicular to the azimuth resolution
with which weapons can be delivered. As targets. This is important since most
an example, high resolution may allow radars are better at resolving targets
the operator to pick out individual in range than in azimuth. If the
airplanes on a ramp next to a hangar. alignment is incorrect, the azimuth
This allows a direct attack of the targets may break out in range and
airplanes rather than the hangar in the contaminate the azimuth resolution data
hope that the airplanes will be housed point. The range resolution target
in the hangar. alignment is conversely not as sensitive
to the flight path. For radars with
Accurate range and bearing resolution modes of differing resolution, the
tests are difficult to perform and azimuth test can be performed in a
require a significant amount of flight single run by checking the best
time to complete. For this reason, a resolution mode first and then the rest
qualitative evaluation will be performed as the range is closed.
first and if problems are noted with
resolution, then the actual measurements As mentioned earlier, if the range and
will be obtained. The requirements for the azimuth targets are resolvable at
the range and bearing resolution are the required range, then the range and
usually outlined in the detailed radar azimuth resolution can be considered to
specification; however, if a be satisfactory and the test is
specification is not available, an complete. If not, then the radar will
analysis of the intended mission and have to be flown against a radar
targets will allow the evaluator to resolution array to measure the actual
choose a reasonable requirement. Once range and azimuth resolution limits.
these are known, mission relatable
targets should be chosen that are near The radar resolution array is a set of
these limits. Normally, a look at the surveyed radar reflectors arranged in a
layout of the evaluator's own airfield "T" shape. The top of the T provides
will provide a number of choices for the the azimuth test and the base provides
test. Isolated buildings with the the range test. Corner reflectors are
appropriate separation make good used for the targets and they generally
targets. Isolation makes these have an optimum beam width of around
buildings easy to find on radar since 15'. The reflectors are optimized at
they are by themselves and are easily some angle above the horizon. Since the
detectable, due to their size. array is aligned along an angle above
the horizon, a constant flight path
For range resolution, the targets should angle must be flown to the array. The
be aligned with the radar line of sight. best way to perform this maneuver is to
The range to the targets is unimportant choose a start range, and knowing the
as long as they are detectable and are desired flight path angle, derive a
not so far away that the grazing angle start altitude. A reasonable descent
causes the front target to mask the back speed should then be chosen and from
target. Usually a range of 10 nm with a that, a descent rate to arrive over the
medium test altitude works well. For top of the target at a chosen minimum
102

altitude. For example, using an angle has upon the utility of the radar for
of 10" above the horizon for the array finding individual targets that are
alignment, a sea level array, and a 35 closely spaced in range and/or azimuth.
ram start range, the initial altitude
would be 37,000 feet MSL. Using a 300 2.4.8.5. Procedure
KIAS descent (disregard
altitude/temperature/ position errors Before the flight, determine the
etc.) requires roughly a 7 minute trip requirements of the radar for range and
to the target. A 200 feet AGL minimum bearing resolution. Obtain a diagram of
altitude and a sea level target requires the home airfield or some other field in
a 36,800 /7 feet/minute rate of descent the vicinity of the test area. Find two
to stay within the array alignment, targets, such as buildings, that are
spaced near the range resolution
The resolution tests are difficult to requirement. Using the required angular
fly because they require a steep descent resolution limit, find two other targets
at the correct flight path angle to stay that are spaced so that they should
within the vertical angular limits of break out at 10 nm of range. If
the array while at the same time possible, choose the two sets of targets
aligning the airplane along the so that they can be flown
centerline of the array and constantly simultaneously, that is, aligned
monitoring the radar display for perpendicularly. Climb to a medium
breakout. The horizontal angular width altitude and fly inbound along a ground
is particularly a problem for testing track aligned with the range targets.
DBS modes since the DBS notch prevents Continue inbound until the targets break
the airplane from flying directly at the out or until overflight. Record if
target. A zigzag pattern is required breakout occurs. Starting at 15 nm, fly
with quick turns to prevent missing the inbound along a heading perpendicularv to
data point as the target passes through the orientation of the azimuth targets.
the nose. Continue inbound to 10 nm, notinr. if
breakout occurs. If two sets of tairets
For the range test, the maximum number were found that were roughly
of targets broken out of the base of the perpendicular so that the tests could be
T at any time during the run is flown in one run, care should be taken
recorded. Theoretically, range will not to be as close to perpendicular to the
affect the number; however, arrays alignment of the azimuth resolution
sometimes are made of more than one size targets as possible. If the range
target and the smaller targets will not targets break out at any time and the
break out until the test airplane is azimuth resolution targets break out by
close to the array. The targets are 10 nm, then flying against the
arranged with differing separations, resolution array is not required.
usually the widest spaced target at the
base and the closer spacing towards the If the resolution array is required, use
top of the array. the technique outlined earlier to
determine the initial altitude, airspeed
2.4.8.3. Instrumentation and rate of descent to the array. For a
non-DBS mode without a notch, start at
Data cards, a radar resolution array and the initial point and head directly to
an optional voice recorder are required the array aligned along the base of the
for this test. T. Care should be taken to remain
within the beam width of the array
2.4.8.4. Data Required corner reflectors. Reduce the rate of
descent early enough to allow a
For the targets chosen at the home comfortable arrival at the minimum
field, record whether the targets altitude at overflight of the array.
aligned along the flight path can be Record the maximum number of range
broken out and for the targets aligned targets broken out, and the range and
perpendicular to the flight path, record number of targets broken out each time a
the range at which they can be broken new target becomes resolvable. For a
out. While using the radar resolution DBS mode, a direct route along the
array, record the total number of center of the beam width to the array
targets found during the run aligned will not be possible since the target
along the base of the T and the range cannot be in the DBS notch. A zlzzag
and total number of targets broken out course is required, turning wheo the
as each new target becomes resolvable at magnetic bearing to the target
the top of the T. During mission approaches the centerline plus or minus
relatable ingresses and attacks, record the beam width. Quick turns are
the effects that the radar resolution required so that it will be unlikely
 103

that a breakout will occur during the

time of the turn. Record the same data
as for the real beam test. During
mission relatable ingresses and attacks,
note the effects that the range and
bearing resolution has upon the ability
of the radar to discriminate targets
spaced closely in range and bearing.
2.4.8.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

If the radar was able to break out the

mission relatable range target at any
range and the azimuth targets by 10 nm
and no problems were noted during the
mission relatable ingresses and attacks,
then the range and azimuth resolution is
satisfactory. If the radar was not able
to break out the targets, relate the
poor resolution to the ability of the
radar to break out mission relatable
targets and the requirement to visually
designate individual targets. Count off
the resolution array range targets from
widest spacing to closest until one
minus the total number seen are
accounted for. The range resolution
will be at least the spacing of the last
target accounted for. For example,
using data card 31, if 4 targets are
seen, the resolution will be at least
100 feet. For the azimuth test, using
the range to the targets and the range
between them, a right triangle can be
solved for the angular resolution at
each target breakout. Again, using the
array depicted on data card 31, if 3
targets are broken out at 10 nm, the
angular resolution is:

Angular deolton= (300 fee*

(10 nm(6076fe)et

Use the data to support the qualitative

evaluation. Relate any additional
problems noted during the ingresses and
attacks.
2.4.8.7. Data Cards
Sample data cards are presented as card
31.
104

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND RANGE AND BEARING RESOLUTION

[CLIMB TO FEET MSL, SET KIAS. FIND THE RANGE AND AZIMUTH TARGETS AND

DESIGNATE THEM WITH THE CURSORS. SET UP TO FLY " MAGNETIC HEADING INBOUND TO THE

TARGET STARTING AT 15 NM. RECORD IF THE RANGE TARGETS BREAK OUT AND IF THE AZIMUTH

TARGETS BREAK OUT BY 10 NM. REPEAT FOR EACH MODE.]

MODE RANGE TARGETS BREAK OUT AZIMUTH TARGETS BREAK OUT

(YES/NO) (YES/NO)

RANGE AND AZIMUTH RESOLUTION QUALITATIVE5 TARGETS:

{ADD A TARGET AREA DIAGRAM HERE TO AID IN TARGET AREA ORIENTATION.}

Card 31: Air-to-Ground Range and Bearing Resolution Data Cards

 105

AIR-TO-GROUND RANGE AND BEARING RESOLUTION

(CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND SET KIAS. PROCEED TO A POINT NM AWAY FROM THE

ARRAY ORIENTED ALONG THE BEARING TO THE TARGET. ACQUIRE THE ARRAY ON RADAR AND

DESIGNATE WITH THE CURSORS. STAY IN THE BEAM WIDTH OF THE ARRAY. USE A

FEET/MINUTE RATE OF DESCENT. REPEAT FOR EACH RADAR MODE.)

MODE MAXIMUM NUMBER RANGE AZIMUTH TARGETS

TARGETS NUMBER/RANGE

[RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE RADAR TO BREAK OUT

TARGETS CLOSE IN AZIMUTH AND RANGE.]

EFFECTS:

Card 31: Air-to-Ground Range and Bearing Resolution Data Cards (Continued)
 106

RESOLUTION ARRAY DIAGRAM

600 ft
A 300 ft A 100 ft A 100 ft 300 ft
A 600 ft
A

50 ft
A
100 ft

200 ft

500 ftA 300 square meter

cross section

A 1500 square meter

cross section
360/180 degrees
magnetic centerline 4

Card 31: Air-to-Ground Range and Bearing Resolution Data Cards (Continued)
 107

RADAR RESOLUTION ARRAY DIAGRAM

015-195 degrees magnetic 345-165 degrees

magnetic

15 degrees beamwidth

360-180 degrees
magnetic centerline

30,000T. upper limit 13 centerline

degrees 10 degrees

"6 20,000
er limit
wu 7 degrees

- 10°000
- I-

10 20 30
RANGE (nautical miles)

Card 31: Air-to-Ground Range and Bearing Resolution Data Cards (Continued)
108

2.4.9. Maximum Detection Range at which small to medium cultural

features (bridges, railways, buildings
etc.) can be resolved from the
2.4.9.1. Purpose background clutter. It is important to
describe the target used for the data
The purpose of this test is to determine point in addition to noting the ranges.
the maximum range at which the radar It should also be noted that the maximum
detects any radar target, the maximum detection range can sometimes vary
range that can be used for rough greatly from one data point to the next.
navigational orientation, the maximum Usually, a statistically significant set
range that the radar can effectively of data points are required. Sample
detect and p .Aent a mission relatable size selection depends mainly upon the
affects that these ranges
target and thl-.c variance of the measurements from one
have upon ingress and attack tactics. test to the next and is discussed in
detail in references 43 and 72.
2.4.9.2. General
2.4.9.3. Instrumentation
As with air-to-air radars, the air-to-
ground maximum range is an important and Data cards and an optional voice
high interest data point. The air-to- recorder are required for this test.
ground maximum range is much more
ambiguous than the air-to-air maximum 2.4.9.4. Data Required
range, and so the exact definition of
the maximum range value desired must be Record the target (if known) and the
provided. For this test, three values range fc-r the maximum range displayed
will be obtained; first, the maximum video, the maximum range at which
range at which any radar returns are targets are displayed that are useful
received; second, the maximum range at for rough navigation and orientation,
which the radar display is usable for a and the maximum range at which mission
rough navigational aid and as an aid in relatable targets are broken out of the
positional SA; third, the maximum range clutter. During mission relatable
at which a mission relatable target can ingresses, note the effects that the
be detected and identified. maximum radar ranges have upon tactics.

The test airplane :'titude above the 2.4.9.5. Procedure

terrain is important for air-to-ground
maximum range tests since the maximum Before the test flight, analyze a
displayed range will typically not be tactical pilotage chart to determine the
beyond the radar horizon. Knowing the targets available within the display
test airplane height above the terrain, volume of the radar while in the test
the radar horizon can be approximately area. Try to find a series of targets
calculated using the following out to the edge of the display range
relationship [Ref. 27:p.4-1.3J: that satisfy the requirements for rough
navigation and for tactically
R,=1.23v/M significant targets. A coastline with
R.,,•=radarhori innn: (3) the associated bays and rivers or a
H=ahiade above the terrain infeet mountain with a series of peaks is
useful to find the maximum range for
rough navigation. A series of bridges
along a river or a series of isolated
A test altitude should be chosen that buildings along a highway can be used as
places the radar horizon beyond the small to medium tactical targets.
maximum display range of the radar to Choose a test altitude that assures that
ensure that the maximum ranges displayed the maximum display range is
are a result of the radar performance unobstructed by the radar horizon using
and not the geometry of the test. The equation 23.
maximum displayed range data point
requires recording the range at which Start the test at one end of the working
any radar video is displayed. The area, heading towards the other end.
maximum range for navigation orientation Set a 30. to 60" scan angle limit and a
is the maximum range at which the range scale that just includes the
display is coherent enough and of maximum range at which radar returns are
sufficient quality to discern large displayed. Mark the maximum range at
geographic features such as specific which radar video is displayed and the
mountain ranges, large peaks, coastlines target if known. Next, record the
and bays. The maximum range against maximum range at which features are just
mission relatable targets is the range usable for rough navigation. Record the
 109

feature that is identified using the

radar. Finally, record the range at
which tactically significant targets
become recognizable along with the
identity of the target. Repeat for each
radar mode. During mission relatable
ingresses, record the effects that the
maximum radar ranges have upon ingress
and attack tactics.
2.4.9.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

Relate the maximum range at which any

radar returns are detected to the
absolute maximum range at which a coast
line or a large mountain range can be
detected. Relate the maximum range at
which the radar can be used for rough
navigation to the requirement for long
range orientation and SA. An example is
finding a river outlet for a coast-in
point. Relate the maximum range that
mission relatable targets become
discernable to the requirement to find
targets of opportunity far enough away
to perform a safe ingress and to
optimize the attack on the target.
During mission relatable ingresses, use
the radar display and a tactical
pilotage chart to orient within the
target area and attempt to acquire the
target at the longest possible range.
Assess the utility of the maximum ranges
of the radar during these runs.
2.4.9.7. Data Cards
A sample data card is presented as card
32.
110

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE

[CLIMB TO __ FEET MSL AND SET __ KIAS. SELECT A SEARCH MODE WITH A SCAN

ANGLE LIMIT AND A NM RANGE SCALE. START IN THE CORNER OF THE WORKING AREA

AND HEAD " . REPEAT FOR EACH MODE.]

MODE MAXIMUM RANGE VIDEO MAXIMUM RANGE ROUGH MAXIMUM RANGE

DISPLAYED NAVIGATION MISSION TARGETS

(TARGET/RANGE) (TARGET/RANGE) (TARGET/RANGE)

(ASSESS THE EFFECTS OF THE MAXIMUM RANGES WHILE NAVIGATING AND DETECTING THE TARGET

DURING MISSION RELATABLE INGRESSES.]

EFFECTS:

Card 32: Air-to-Ground Maximum Detection Range Data Card

 111

2.4.10. Mapping Quality and 2.4.10.6. Data Analysis and

Presentation
Consistency
Relate the mapping quality and
consistency to the utility of the radar
2.4.10.1. Purpose for long range navigation, geographic
orientation and for finding targets at
The purpose of this test is to evaluate long range. Pay particular attention to
the mapping quality and consistency and the change in mapping consistency as the
to assess the effects these parameters antenna elevation angle is changed. If
have upon the utility of the radar for poor consistency is noted close to the
orientation and navigation, test airplane while searching at long
ranges, relate this to the requirement
2.4.10.2. General to obtain navigation updates while still
Ideally, the radar mapping display would searching at maximum ranges for targets.
look like a photograph of the search 2.4.10.7. Data Cards
volume. This ideal display could easily
be correlated to the geographic features A sample data card is presented as card
on a tactical chart and thus used for 33.
navigation updates. The display would
also be perfectly consistent to the edge
of the scope with no variations in the
quality of the display and no blank
areas. Cultural features and targets
would appear just as they do visually
and would be easily discernable. The
purpose of this test is to find how
closely the real radar mapping display
comes to this goal.

2.4.10.3. Instrumentation
Data Cards and an optional voice
recorder are required for this test.
2.4.10.4. Data Required
Record qualitative comments concerning
the consistency of the radar display
from the minimum range to the edge of
the detection area as well as the
fidelity of the display in presenting a
map-like picture of the search volume.
During mission relatable ingresses,
record the utility of the display for
orientation and navigation.

2.4.10.5. Procedure

Climb to the altitude used for the

maximum range test and select a range
scale that includes the maximum range
radar returns. Select the widest
antenna scan angle limits and optimize
the antenna pointing angle for maximum
range detection and then for a display
at 1/2 of the maximum range returns.
Make qualitative comments concerning the
mapping quality and consistency. Repeat
using all the radar mapping modes.
Descend to a moderately low altitude and
repeat the series. During mission
relatable ingresses, assess the utility
of the mapping quality and consistency
for orientation and navigation to the
target.
112

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

MAPPING QUALITY AND CONSISTENCY

[CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND SET KIAS. SELECT A " SCAN ANGLE LIMIT, OPTIMIZE

THE ANTENNA TILT FOR LONG RANGE DETECTION AND, SET THE RANGE SCALE TO JUST INCLUDE

ALL OF THE DISPLAYED VIDEO. MAKE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS. REPEAT FOR ALL MAPPING

MODES. REPEAT WITH THE ANTENNA TILTED TO OPTIMIZE DETECTION AT 1/2 THE MAXIMUM

DETECTION RANGE. REPEAT AT __ FEET AGL.]

MODE SCALE FAR/MID COMMENTS

HIGH

LOW

[RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE EFFECTS OF THE MAPPING QUALITY AND

CONSISTENCY DURING MISSION RELATABLE INGRESSES.]

EFFECTS:

Card 33: Mapping Quality and Consistency Data Card

 113

2.4.11. Mission Utility and 2.4.11.4. Data Required

Integration Record qualitative comments concerning
the utility and integration of the
radar. Record the effects of the
2.4.11.1. Purpose parameters determined in previous tests
during the ingresses and attacks as
The purpose of this test is to called for at the end of each test
qualitatively assess the overall utility procedure.
of the radar for the assigned mission
and the integration and compatibility of 2.4.11.5. Procedure
the radar performance parameters,
controls and displays within the Select a mission relatable target in the
airplane. test area that allows for a 35 to 40 nm
ingress to the target location. Descend
2.4.11.2. General to a low ingress altitude and set an
airspeed which would normally be
The mission utility and integration test selected for an attack of a defended
is the most important test of the target. Head inbound to the target and
series. During this test, mission select a radar mapping mode with at
relatable ingresses and attacks are least a 40 nm scale and a wide scan
performed to qualitatively assess the pattern useful for radar navigation.
radar. The quantitative assessments of Perform radar navigation inbound to the
the previous tests are used to support target (for instance following a river
and justify the qualitative or ridge line that leads to the target)
determinations made during the ingresses and search for the target on the
and attacks. Utility refers to the display. Continue to update the antenna
overall usefulness of the radar as it is elevation angle, display range and
implemented, as an aid to the mission. antenna pointing angle to optimize the
The radar parameters must match the display for navigation and target
expected operational needs. Integration search. When the target breaks out,
refers to the way the radar has been select the DBS modes and continue to
blended into the entire airborne system. update the target position. Execute the
From the evaluator's standpoint, this type weapon delivery most likely for the
characteristic is intimately tied into test airplane and the type of target
the area of human factors. The selected. Turn outbound, selecting a
qualitative assessments in mission mapping mode and navigate outbound from
relatable scenarios specifically called the target area to the start point.
for in the previous tests will also be Repeat the ingress and attack using
performed during these ingresses and different delivery modes and if
attacks. available, different target types.

Care should be taken to ensure that the 2.4.11.6. Data Analysis and
evaluator does not get too involved in Presentation
recording qualitative comments to the
detriment of watching the progress of Relate the qualitative deficiencies
the intercept and evaluating the radar. noted to their effects upon the
A conscious effort should be made not to performance of the ingresses and
get too involved in looking for attacks. Note any limitations on
specifics on at least the first run to tactics imposed by the radar parameters,
ensure that an overall qualitative utility or integration. For instance,
assessment can be made. A voice the radar may not be able to detect the
recorder can be used to make comments target early enough to set up and fire
without distracting the evaluator from stand off weapons (that don't use
the display or the outbound run can be external targeting) at their maximum
used to record results. Multiple runs range. The radar should not be driving
should be performed using different tactics. Use the applicable results
radar modes and mode combinations in as from the previous tests to support the
many different types of attacks as qualitative results.
possible. The most likely scenarios
should be performed first and others 2.4.11.7. Data Cards
performed as flight time allows.
A sample data card is presented as card
2.4.11.3. Instrumentation 34.
Data cards are required for this test.
A voice recorder is highly recommended.
114

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIR-TO-GROUND MISSION UTILITY AND INTEGRATION

[DESCEND TO FEET AGL AND SET MACH= . SELECT THE MAP MODE, __ NM RANGE SCALE

AND THE SCAN ANGLE LIMIT. START AT AND FLY INBOUND TO THE

TARGET AT AN INITIAL HEADING OF . RADAR NAVIGATE TOWARD THE

TARGET AREA AND WHEN IN CONTACT WITH THE TARGET SELECT DBS. PERFORM A SIMULATED

DELIVERY. TURN OUTBOUND AND NAVIGATE BACK TO THE START POINT. REPEAT

WITH DIFFERENT DELIVERIES AND TARGETS.]

NOTES:

Card 34: Air-to-Ground Mission Utility and Integration Data Card

 115

2.4.12. Introduction to Advanced tests. The purpose of this table is

merely to emphasize the existence of
Air-to-Ground Radar Test Techniques these advanced techniques. Further,
this list is not exhaustive. Many
innovative uses of assets and
As mentioned in Chapter 1, only the most instrumentation exist. It is hoped that
rudimentary form of the air-to-ground the examples provided leave the reader
radar test techniques are presented in with a taste of how the test can be made
this book. Chapter 1 details the more rigorous through the judicious use
reasons for this format; however, in of instrumentation. In application; the
many applications, more rigor, accuracy user must refer to the more advanced
and documentation of results are documents referenced in Chapter 1 or
required. Table II outlines additional solicit help from more experienced
instrumentation and assets which are testers.
typically applied in these more advanced

Table II: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced

Air-to-Ground Radar Tests

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation I
Scan Rate. Digital recording In some systems the sweep position
of radar data. can be digitally recorded as output
of a scan converter. In this case
the instantaneous as well as the
average scan rate can be calculated
as required.
Time stamped video Even in the absence of digital data,
recording of the instantaneous and average scan
display. rates can be derived using
appropriately time stamped video.
Scan Angle Digital Recording The test can be made more accurate by
Limits. of time stamped recording the precise time, the
aircraft heading precise test aircraft location and
and position, time heading (these parameters are either
stamped video derived and recorded on-board or
recording of using a space positioning range as
display and a appropriate), and using a target with
geographically a precisely surveyed location. The
surveyed ground radar display is video recorded and
target. time stamped and as the target
disappears, the exact angle off
boresight can be derived based upon
geometric calculations.
Elevation Similar to scan Similar to scan angle limits except
Angle Limits. angle limits except the vertical angles to the target are
vertical angles are calculated vice the horizontal
recorded vice angles.
headings.
Antenna Digital recording The direct measurement of the roll,
Stabilization of test aircraft pitch and yaw rates are correlated to
Limits. time stamped roll, degradation on the time stamped
pitch and yaw rates display.
and time stamped
video recording of
the display.
116 Table II: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced
Air-to-Ground Radar Tests (Continued)

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation I
Minimum Time stamped video The loss of detection on the display
Range. recording of is time correlated with the recorded
display, digital aircraft and known target positions
recording of time to derive the minimum detection
stamped digital range. Range space positioning data
radar data, time or onboard instrumentation may be
stamped recording used to derive the test aircraft
of test aircraft position. Recorded radar data can be
location and correlated with the display output to
surveyed radar isolate any problems as either radar
target. or display related.

Doppler Beam Video recording of The video recording can be used to

Sharpened radar display. make more accurate and liesurely
Notch Width. ground measurements.

Range and Digital recording Test aircraft location from either

Bearing of time stamped onboard instrumentation or range
Accuracy. test aircraft space positioning data are used to
position and time calculate the actual range and
stamped radar bearing to a surveyed target at the
display video or time a range and bearing is derived
digital radar data using the radar. The video recorded
with radar derived range and bearing or the range and
bearing and range bearing from the digitally recorded
to a surveyed cursor position are compared
target. directly.
Range and Digital recording The resolutions can be directly
Bearing of time stamped determined by geometrically comparing
Resolution. test aircraft the positions of the surveyed targets
location. Time and the test airplane at the time
stamped video breakout occurs. Range space
recording of the positioning data or onboard
radar display. instrumentation may be used to derive
Surveyed resolution the test aircraft position.
array.

Maximum Video recording of The test aircraft and surveyed target

Detection time stamped radar locations are geometrically reduced
Range. display. Time to provide actual, time stamped
stamped test locations of the targets in radar
aircraft location, space. This information is used to
Propagation validate hits and misses at
prediction assets, corresponding bearings and ranges on
Real time the targets as recorded on the radar
measurement of display. Often, the real time
casual propagation performance is predicted
interference, on instrumented ranges for the
Surveyed target frequency of the test radar and
locations, casual interference is recorded on
the aircraft using special
instrumentation. Sometimes this
information is already designed into
the test radar and needs only to be
recorded.

Mapping Video recording of Video recording allows repeated

Quality and the radar display. vewing while on the ground.
Consistency.
 Table II: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced 117
Air-to-Ground Radar Tests (Continued)

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation I I
Mission Digital recording This test requires the largest amount
Utility and of precise, time of data to completely document the
Integration. stamped test results. It is during this test that
aircraft position, most of the unexpected problems are
rates and found. In anticipation of having to
accelerations; document these deficiencies, maximum
surveyed targets; instrumentation and range support are
digital recording sometimes brought to bear in case
of time stamped unforseen data are required in post-
radar data; time flight analysis.
stamped video
recording of radar
and head up
display.
118

3.0. AIRBORNE NAVIGATION accurate, compared to DR systems, at the

time the location is measured but will
SYSTEMS TESTING drift in accuracy in the short term as
the host aircraft moves between fixes.
Long term accuracy is good since [he
3.1. INTRODUCTION TO position is updated at intervals. DR
systems continuously estimate position
NAVIGATION THEORY as the host aircraft moves within the
coordinate system by integrating
platform acceleration and/or velocity to
3.1.1. General obtain the change in coordinate values
and then adding them to the initial
position coordinate values. DR systems
The purpose of any airborne navigation tend to have good short term accuzacy
system is to determine aircraft following the initial fix; however, the
position, velocity and orientation long term accuracy degrades as errors
relative to a specified reference point, accumulate since the reference position
using some coordinate system optimized is not updated. [Ref. 38:p. 1.3]. The
for use on the host platform. For most strengths of both systems can be
airborne navigation systems, the exploited by combining a position fixing
preferred reference point is fixed at and DR system into a single integrated
the center of the earth. The earth navigation system. A DR system is used
center reference point is moving around to provide optimum short term accuracy
the sun which is in turn moving fairly while the position fixing system
linearly through space. By fixing the provides periodic position updates for
reference point to the center of the the best long term accuracy. (Ref. 38:p.
earth, these motions can be ignored, 1.2].
leaving only motion of the point on the
earth's surface at which the aircraft is A variety of DR systems are used in
located relative to the earth's center modern aircraft. The most common are
(the only significant factor is earth Inertial Navigation Systems (INSs) and
rotation for the mission durations of Doppler Navigation Systems. A larger
airborne systems) and movement of the number of position fixing systems are
aircraft across the earth's surface. available, including Tactical Air
Navigation (TACAN), VHF Omnidirectional
The coordinate system of most use in Ranging with Distance Measuring
airborne applications is a spherical Equipment (VOR/DME), Long Range
system using latitude, longitude and Navigation (LORAN), OMEGA and the
altitude. Due to system limitations, satellite based Global Positioning
many electronic navigation systems System (GPS). These systems are tested
actually operate referenced to a point in essentially the same manner, using
on the earth (for instance the position the same basic techniques. To
of an electronic navigation aid ground illustrate the DR, position fixing and
station) and using a cylindrical fully integrated position fixing/DR test
coordinate system of bearing, range and techniques, two sample systems will be
altitude centered at the point. [Ref. used. The first system is a semi-
38:p. 1.1]. In some cases, such as in analytic, north seeking INS, augmented
long range, great circle navigation, the with a visual, radar, OMEGA and TACAN
pilot is best able to orient in update mode. The combining and coupling
spherical coordinates (latitude, of the position fixing and DR systems is
longitude and altitude). In other minimal, and so the test techniques are
cases, for instance during an ingress developed as essentially stand-alone DR
and attack of a surface target, the and position fixing routines. The
pilot is best able to orient in a second system is a fully integrated
cylindrical format (bearing, range and GPS/INS. It will be seen that the test
altitude) referenced to the position of procedure is an adaptation of the tests
the target. Often a conversion can be developed for the stand-alone DR and
made, which may be transparent to the position fixing systems.
operator, between the two coordinate
systems. In order to limit confusion between the
discussion of the two sample systems,
Navigation systems can be divided into treatment of the second system will be
the broad categories of position fixing delayed until after the presentation of
and Dead Reckoning (DR) navigation the OMEGA tests. This will be a minor
systems. In position fixing, the system departure from the format of the radar
determines the location of the host and electro-optical sections, where all
aircraft at a discrete point in time. the system theory is provided at the
Position fixing systems tend to be very
 119

beginning of the chapter, but it will and due to changes in altitude above the
enhance readability. A single exception earth. This process is extremely
is the Preflight and Built in Tests complicated and computer intensive and
procedures. so most INSs use a semi-analytic system
in which the gyroscopes are used to
3.1.2. Inertial Navigation Systems orient the accelerometer array, and thus
the local horizontal reference plane,
perpendicular to local vertical for the
3.1.2.1. Components host platform's position on the earth.
This leaves one reference plane
INSs are composed of two basic perpendicular to local vertical and the
components, gyroscopes and linear altitude axis coincident to local
accelerometers. Linear accelerometers vertical. The plane perpendicular to
are used to measure acceleration along the local vertical is known as the
the axis in which the device is platform. Continuous correction of the
oriented. [Ref. 38:p. 2.10]. If the platform orientation as the earth
linear accelerometer is accelerated in a rotates and the host aircraft moves over
direction not aligned along the axis of the surface of the earth is required but
orientation, it will measure the vector this method allows for mathematical
component of the acceleration along the corrections for the gravitational vector
axis of orientation. In airborne INS to be added in a single axis and for
systems, at least three orthogonally measurements of movement across the face
aligned accelerometers are used and the of the globe to be made directly in two
measured acceleration of the three are dimensions. (Ref. 38:p. 2.17].
vectorially added to gain the actual
acceleration vector value. There are In the case of a north pointing,
two types of gyroscopes. Position semi-analytic system, not only is the
gyroscopes measure rotational platform maintained relative to local
displacement of the gyroscope case vertical but one of the two axes
(which is usually attached to the defining the plane is always oriented to
airborne host platform) around the input true north, allowing for direct
axis as measured from some initial measurement of displacement in latitude,
position. Rate gyroscopes measure the longitude and altitude. Wander azimuth
rotational rate of the gyroscope case systems do not physically maintain the
around the input axis. Both types of alignment of the platform with the true
gyroscopes rely on "the fact that a north reference but use the output of
rotating (spinning) element tends to the gyroscopes to maintain track of
maintain its spin axis in a direction where true north is located. The output
fixed with respect to inertial space". of the accelerometers located in the
[Ref. 38:p.2.12]. Inertial space is reference plane are then vectorially
referenced to a fictional point that is resolved into north-south (latitude) and
not moving relative to all matter in the east-west (longitude) components. This
universe, process uses more computer computations
but does not require continuous
3.1.2.2. Analytic/Semi-Analytic and alignment of the platform accelerometers
North Pointing/Wander Azimuth Systems with true north. A semi-analytic,
wander azimuth type INS will be used as
In most INSs the gyroscopes (whether the sample system for development of the
displacement or rate gyroscopes) are test techniques to be presented later.
used for one of two purposes. In the
analytic system, the frame of reference 3.1.2.3. Vertical Tracker
is stabilized in inertial space. [Ref.
38:p.2.6]. In this case, the three- The vertical tracker portion of the
dimensional coordinate system remains semi-analytic INS is designed to
fixed in space and as the earth rotates, maintain the INS platform orientation
the earth revolves around the sun, and orthogonal to the local vertical. The
the host platform moves across the clearest way to envision this is to
earth, the three reference planes appear imagine a cable stretched from the
to rotate when compared to local center of the earth to the host aircraft
vertical and the true north direction. INS. By aligning the INS platform
The gyroscopes measure the host airplane relative to the cable as the host
orientation in inertial space, the aircraft moves across the face of the
accelerometers measure all acceleration earth, the correct orientation can be
relative to inertial space and the maintained. This is equivalent to
results are manipulated mathematically attaching the host aircraft to the end
to determine accelerations actually due of a pendulum of length equal to the
to movements across the earth's surface radius of the earth. This is known as a
120

Schuler pendulum, which has a period of periodic updates to correct the

84.4 minutes. [Ref. 38:pp. 2.19-2.21]. resultant inaccuracies. Local
An equivalent Schuler pendulum can be gravitational anomalies can cause as
mathematically modeled within the INS much as a one nm/hour error in INS
computer and combined with a derived velocities. [Ref. 38:pp.
mathematical model of the earth's 2.9,2.26].
rotation rate and host aircraft latitude
and altitude to calculate the direction 3.1.2.4. The Vertical Channel
of the local gravity vector. The
platform is then physically aligned The vertical channel of the INS is
perpendicular to this calculated gravity unstable. This results from the fact
vector, that the local gravity vector decreies
in magnitude as the altitude above the
Two additional platform corrections are center of the earth increases. When the
required for an INS moving across the second derivative of the vertical
earth's surface. As the INS moves in an acceleration is taken to determine the
east-west direction, the effective vertical axis positional change
rotation rate of the local vertical due (altitude change) a negative value of
to the earth's rotation must be the zero derivative gravitational change
decreased for a westerly velocity and correction for altitude must be added.
increased for an easterly velocity. In The resulting second order relationship
addition, as the INS is moved in a is unstable. Methods exist for
north-south direction, the distance to providing the feedback necessary to damp
the earth's center of rotation changes. this phenomenon and to provide better
The Coriolis force then causes an altitude and vertical velocity
easterly acceleration for north determination; however, sufficient
velocities and a westerly acceleration altitude accuracy is achievable by much
for a southern velocity. These cheaper and simpler methods and so most
corrections must be calculated within tactical aircraft INSs do not use the
the INS computer and the corrections vertical INS channel. [Ref. 38:p.
accounted for, or the local gravity 2.27-2.28). The sample system to be
vector, and thus the platform alignment used for the development of the test
and the north-south and east-west techniques to follow will not use a
accelerations, will be incorrect. (Ref. vertical channel.
38:pp. 2.21-2.22].
3.1.2.5. The Horizontal Channel
The Schuler pendulum has an interesting
effect upon the output of the INS as Understanding the vertical seeker and
errors are induced on the vertical the vertical channel, the horizontal
tracker. As the orientation of the channel can now be described. Starting
platform is tilted from the exact local with a level platform, the INS
vertical, the gravity vector will be accelerometers measure acceleration
sensed in the horizontal channel. The perpendicular to the local vertical.
acceleration error due to gravity is The INS calculates and adds corrections
cyclic and has a period of 84.4 minutes for the coriolis effects, centrifugal
and is known as a Schuler cycle. The acceleration (due to earth rotation) and
Schuler cycle is characteristically local acceleration due to gravity
undamped and so many INSs will use an including aberrations/altitude
independent input (often a velocity corrections. The sum is then integrated
input from a source such as a doppler to get rates. The rates are then sent
navigation system) to damp out the back as input to the vertical seeker
Schuler oscillations and to correct the feedback loop and then integrated again
vertical axis error. [Ref. to get the change in position. The
38:pp.2.24-2.25]. change is added to the original position
to get the new position. [Ref. 38:p.
Much has been said about the local 2.26a].
gravity vector without actually defining
its value. The local acceleration due 3.1.2.6. Initialization and Alignment
to gravity can vary in magnitude due to of the INS
both host aircraft altitude and local
anomalies and in direction due to the Since the INS is a DR type navigation
fact that the earth is not exactly round system, it must have an initial position
but a non-homogeneous, oblate spheroid. and orientation from which to navigate.
The actual value can be modeled by a For the semi-analytic, north seeking
complicated expression including as much INS, the level platform and initial true
as thirty-two terms; however, most INSs north reference must be established
use a much simpler model and rely upon before navigating from the iniuial
 121

latitude-longitude position. The started and before aircraft taxi. If

process is performed in two stages, the aircraft must be moved before the
platform leveling and gyrocompassing, alignment and initialization is
which may be performed concurrently for complete, the process must be suspended
at least a part of the process. and then re-initiated when the aircraft
Platform leveling is the process by is no longer moving. Using this
which the platform is physically technique fixes the local vertical
oriented perpendicular to the local vector relative to the aircraft
vertical. Gyrocompassing is the process (assuming the aircraft is on a level
by which the semi-analytic platform surface) and provides a steady true
reference is aligned with true north. north reference between aircraft moves.
[Ref. 38:p. 2.36-2.37]. This is by far, the simplest and most
accurate method.
After the present latitude and longitude
of the INS is entered into the INS Ship-based aircraft pose a particularly
computer, the process begins with coarse difficult problem since their position
leveling, where the platform gimbals are changes, as does aircraft attitude
aligned with preset angles with respect relative to local vertical, as the ship
to the host aircraft. Next, the north pitches, rolls, yaws and moves across
azimuth of the platform axis is rotated the earth. These aircraft INSs require
to an alignment with north as provided a complicated, continuous input of the
by the aircraft magnetic compass. At ship position and orientation parameters
this point, the coarse leveling and while the alignment is performed. This
alignment process is complete and a method requires special hardware and
feedback process is begun to refine the more alignment and initialization time
leveling and alignment process. than shore based methods.
In the fine leveling process the gravity Although much less accurate and much
vector is used as the feedback input, more time consuming, an alignment and
With the platform out of level, a initialization can usually be performed
component of gravity is sensed in the while airborne. An airborne alignment
platform plane. The platform is torqued may be required due to an airborne
to null out this acceleration. The system failure or following a rapid
errors tend to be very small; however, alert type launch where ground
and usually a few minutes are required initialization and alignment may not be
to sufficiently null out the error. allowed due to time constraints.
[Ref. 38:p. 2.37-2.38]. For fine Airborne alignment and initialization
gyrocompassing, as the earth rotates, usually requires an outside source of
the platform is torqued to maintain the reference velocity (such as a doppler
orientation perpendicular to local radar system), a source of precise
gravity (as explained earlier). This aircraft position and long periods of
torquing is performed based upon straight and level flight. The results
knowledge of the orientation of true of airborne alignments are almost always
north. An error in the true north much less accurate than the shore or
reference will cause the platform to be ship based alignments.
torqued around the incorrect axis, will
result in the acceleration due to While the alignment is taking place, the
gravity being sensed in the platform and operator is usually provided with a
can in turn be used as an error signal status indicator of the alignment stage
similar to the fine leveling process and thus a feel for how much longer the
described above. [Ref. 33:p. 35-36]. alignment will take. This status
The process can take up to 10 minutes in indicator and subsequent alignment
many systems. complete indicator is essential since
the long period required for INS
As is obvious from the description of alignment is often the limiting factor
the leveling process, the direction of in aircraft alert response. A typical
local vertical must be known precisely method is to provide a countdown of
to perform the procedure. In addition, numbers with alignment complete
the direction of true north relative to indicated by a zero. In addition, fault
the erroneous axis about which the discretes are provided to indicate
platform is torqued during the various states of INS operation as well
gyrocompassing process must remain as BIT detected faults.
fairly constant over long periods for
the process to be performed. For this
reason, the INS alignment and
initialization process is usually
performed while the aircraft is being
122

3.1.2.7. Inertial Navigation System Drift Rate

Augmentation Output Bias
Torquing Error
An augmented INS uses some outside Scale Factor Error
source to update some number of INS Nonlinearity
parameters following the initial Misalignment
alignment. To completely initialize the
system and null out all errors and drift Gimballed-Platform Error
rates; all position, velocity and Acceleration-Induced Error
platform orientation parameters would Structural Misalignment
have to be updated simultaneously and Mass Unbalance
precisely. A full update is rarely Vehicle Motion Isolation
possible in a tactical system. Most Inadequacies
update only the aircraft position. The
effect is to zero out position errors, Accelerometer Errors
leaving the error drift rate as it was Output Bias
before the update. [Ref. 38:p. 2.40]. Scale Factor Errors
Cross-Acceleration Errors
The sample INS system, to be used for Nonlinearity
the remainder of the discussion, is Misalignment
augmented by visual flyover, radar,
TACAN and OMEGA updates. In flyover Computer and Software
updates, the pilot identifies a visual Gravity Model Errors
point of known latitude and longitude Sensor Compensation Error
(which is entered into the INS computer) Analog to Digital Conversion
such as a surveyed tower. The pilot Errors
then flies over the point, visually Truncation and Round-off Error
marks on top, and commands an update. Computational Algorithm
The INS position then changes to the Approximations
entered latitude and longitude and
navigation begins as before from the new Initialization, Update, Gyro-
latitude and longitude. In the radar compassing and Damping Errors
update method, a radar target of known Position and Velocity Errors
latitude and longitude is identified and Platform Alignment Errors
entered into the INS computer. The
radar cursors are then used to designate All of these errors are statistically
the point on the radar screen and this uncorrelated [Ref. 38:p. 3.5] and when
radar derived position, offset by the enough significant sources of error are
radar bearing and range, is used to present for an individual INS, the
re-initialize the INS position in a sources and their contribution to the
manner similar to the visual flyover, total error cannot easily be determined.
In the TACAN update, the TACAN Sometimes a few sources are dominant and
bearing/range and known TACAN position the individual sources can be identified
are used in a manner similar to the by their characteristic error plots.
radar update to re-initialize the INS Four are of particular importance
position. Finally, in an OMEGA update, because of their magnitude and the
the OMEGA latitude and longitude are frequency with which they occur.
used as a direct replacement for the INS
latitude and longitude. In all of these As was noted earlier, a platform
cases the drift rates that contributed leveling error will excite a cyclic
to the initial errors are typically error that oscillates at the Schuler
still present, requiring further cycle period. For a misalignment about
updates. the east-west axis, a north position
error will be noted (latitude). For a
3.1.2.8. Characteristic INS Errors misalignment about the north-south axis,
an east position error will be noted
A list of INS error sources are provided (longitude). (Ref. 38:p. 3.5a]. For a
below. Some of these errors are constant platform leveling error, the
constant, some increase with time maximum error will remain constant. As
(linearly, exponentially, etc.) and some the leveling errors increase, so pill
oscillate at the Schuler cycle frequency the maximum error excursions in
(84.4 minute cycles) or at the earth position. An initial error in aircr-aft
rate frequency (24 hour cycles). [Ref. latitude position will cause an
38:p. 3.3-3.5]. oscillation in the north-south position
error at the earth rate, with a 24 hour
Gyroscope Errors period. [Ref. 38:p. 3.5b). An initial
Accelerometer Error Output error in the true north reference,
 123

whether in a north seeking or wander (KHZ). Figure 8 depicts the

azimuth system, will cause a combined transmission pattern of the station
effect. An oscillatory error will occur signals. The patterns repeat every 10
at the earth rate with a 24 hour period; seconds. The individual station
however, the oscillation will be about a location is depicted to the left, the
linearly increasing average error. The pulse widths and transmission gap widths
magnitude of the oscillation and the are above the depiction of the trains in
slope of the linearly increasing "zero units of seconds and the frequency of
point" of the oscillation will depend each pulse is beneath the depiction of
upon the magnitude of the north the pulses and are provided in units of
reference error. [Ref. 38:p. 3.5c] KHZ. [Ref. 64:p.7].
Finally, the INS azimuth gyro will tend
to drift from the initial true north The transmission pattern of the
reference resulting in a north position individual stations are very precisely
error. This effect is characterized by synchronized using cesium standard
a non-linear error of increasing slope, clocks. [Ref. 64:p.2]. It is this
[Ref. 38:p. 3.5d]. highly precise, synchronized time that
enables OMEGA to operate. In addition
3.1.3. OMEGA to being synchronized in time, the
transmitted signals are also
synchronized in phase. When an OMEGA
3.1.3.1. Theory receiver picks up two OMEGA signals
transmitted at the same frequencies they
OMEGA is a radio navigation, position are saved and compared to determine the
fixing system, that compares the Very phase relationship. The pairs of
Low Frequency (VLF) signals from pairs stations chosen for this comparison are
of ground stations to determine an generally those for which the OMEGA
ambiguous [Ref. 64:p.1] range difference receiver lies as close as possible to a
between pairs. There are eight stations line drawn between the two stations
as described below in table III [Ref. (baseline). Figure 9 shows how position
64:p.1]: is determined for the very simple case
of two stations separated by a baseline
The VLF frequencies used by the OMEGA length of 1/2 wavelength.
system range between 9 and 14 Kilohertz

Table III: OMEGA GROUND STATIONS

Station Letter Designation Coordinates

Norway A 66" 25' 12.62" N

013" 08' 12.52" E

Liberia B 06" 18' 19.11" N

010" 39' 52.40" W

USA: Oahu, Hawaii C 21" 24' 16.78" N

157" 49' 51.51" W

USA: La Moure, D 46" 21' 57.29" N

North Dakota 098" 20' 08.77" W

France: La Reunion E 20" 58' 27.03" S

055" 17' 23.07" E

Argentina F 43" 03' 12.89" S

065" 11' 27.36" W

Australia G 38' 28' 52.53" S

146" 56' 06.51" E

Japan H 34' 36' 52.93" N

129" 27' 12.57" E
124

SEGMENTS

STATIONS •10 seconds

0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.2 1.0 time

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 In seconds

NORWY• • • •• •frequency
NORWAY
.. o
10.2 13.6 11.333 12.1 12.1 11.05 12.1 12.1 In
KHZ
LIBERIA MMNA

12.0 10.2 13.6 11.333 12.0 12.0 11.05 12.0

HAWAII

11i.8 11.8 10.2 13.6 11.333 11.8 11.8 11.05

NORTH
DAKOTA
11.05 13.1 13.1 10.2 13.6 11.333 13.1 13.1
LA REUINM A MU& A UJMfM
12.3 11.05 12.3 12.3 10.2 13.6 11.333 12.3

ARGENTINANANAMMfM
U N

12.9 12.9 11.05 12.9 12.9 10.2 13.6 11.333

N~ AJNN
AUSTRALIA~JJf
11.333 13.0 13.0
J
11.05 13.0
MaN
13.0 10.2 13.6

JAPAN mffi
fi m
13.6 11.333 12.8 12.8 11.05 12.8 12.8 10.2

Figure 8: OMEGA Transmission Format [Ref. 27:p.7]

Since the velocity of propagation is points, describing a hyperbola, are

relatively constant and the wavelength defined where the difference in phase
for a given frequency is known, the between the signals is a constant.
distance between stations, along the OMEGA is thus a hyperbolic navigation
baseline, can be found from the phase of system.
the signal at that point; again, for the
simple case where the transmitters are In reality, the wavelength of the
separated by 1/2 wavelength. If the signals is only 16 nm (at the 10.2 KHZ
difference in phase is found, a locus of frequency) and the stations are actually
 125

SSb
a b
BASELINE

Sa=distance from a to x
Sb=distance from b to x
x=aircraft location
Figure 9: OMEGA Fix [Ref. 27:p.111

separated by thousands of miles. This be used to define a fix. [Ref. 64:p.14].

means that the hyperbolic loci of points Note that it is entirely possible to
are ambiguous at each 1/2 wavelength for have two hyperbolas cross at two
the frequency used. [Ref. 64:p. 11]. distinct points. This ambiguity can be
The area between the zero phase solved by comparing the two positions to
difference (every 180' of phase shift) the approximate position used to keep
hyperbolic curves for each station pair track of lane ambiguities.
are called lanes. The distance between
lanes expands as the loci move away from
the baseline. [Ref. 64:p.13J. The 3.1.3.2. Accuracy
effects of the ambiguity can be
partially mitigated by analyzing the As was mentioned, the lane hyperbolas
*phase difference of several of the are perpendicular to the line connecting
frequencies transmitted by the same pair the stations in use (baseline) and due
of stations. Analysis of the beat to their shape, separate as they move
frequencies allows the use of lanes that away from the baseline. Since the
are ambiguous at approximately every 144 accuracy with which the phase shift can
miles. The exact width depends upon the be measured is the same at the baseline
wavelengths in question. [Ref. 64:p. as away from it, the band of accuracy of
13-17]. the hyperbola upon which the OMEGA can
locate the aircraft expands as the
Since some degree of ambiguity exists in aircraft moves off the baseline. This
either case, some method is required to phenomenon is called Geometric Dilution
determine the correct lane. Commonly, Of Precision (GDOP). Luckily, the
the technique used is to initialize the extremely long baselines used in the
system at a beginning position OMEGA system mitigate the GDOP effects
(generally a latitude and longitude) and greatly as long as the optimum ground
then to simply count the crossings of stations are chosen.
the zero phase difference points that
define the lane edges. [Ref. 64:p. 13]. One reason the VLF frequency range was
This function is automatic in airborne chosen for OMEGA was the extremely long
OMEGAs and is usually accomplished by transmission ranges possible in this
keeping track of the OMEGA derived frequency band. When VLF waves are
position and dead reckoning between transmitted they tend to bounce off the
fixes. In this way, the position of the bottom of the ionosphere and off the
aircraft is known along a unique earth's surface. The effect is to duct
hyperbolic curve that crosses the waves around the earth. Because of
perpendicular to the baseline between this, the characteristics of the two
the stations. By repeating the ducting surfaces can affect the OMEGA RF
procedure for two pairs of stations, the and thus the accuracy of the system.
crossing of the two hyperbolic lines can Generally, the propagation
 126

characteristics are fairly predictable; minimized by deselecting stations at

however, several perturbations can very long ranges. [Ref. 32:p. 1-62].
affect the transmission and must be
accounted for. First, the altitude of The next two phenomenon to be discussed
the ionosphere is quite different are Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances
between day and night. The night (SIDs) which are caused by X-rays
altitude is somewhat less predictable emitted during solar flares, and Polar
than the day altitude, accounting for a Cap Anomalies (PCAs) which are present
slight degradation in the night time only at high latitudes and result from
OMEGA accuracy; however, both altitudes high energy protons emitted from the sun
can be approximately accounted for in that are drawn to the poles by the
the programming of an automated OMEGA earth's magnetic field. These two
system. This phenomenon is known as the phenomenon cannot be accurately
diurnal effect. Second, the transition predicted and thus cannot be accounted
line between night and day causes for within the OMEGA system. These
instabilities in the propagation pattern errors can amount to as much as 8nm at
due to the changes between the day and the 10.2 KHZ frequency. [Ref. 64:p. 19].
night ionospheres. This effect can be These two effects are of short duration
mitigated through preference to station and rarely are a significant factor.
pairs that do not have a baseline
currently intersecting the transition The final effect to be discussed here is
line and when still needed, by partial caused by the relatively long
correction within the OMEGA software. integration period of the OMEGA system,
(Ref. 64:pp. 17-18]. Third, variations that is, the time required for the OMEGA
in the transmission over different to update the position. The airborne
surfaces can affect propagation. Smooth OMEGA can require as much as two minutes
water is a near perfect ducting surface to update the displayed position and as
while large ice masses at the polar caps such usually requires dead reckoning
can make the signal nearly unusable. between fixes. The OMEGA is then prone
The solution is to compensate for the to the errors inherent in any DR system.
propagation effects knowing the point of [Ref. 38: p. 2.81]. Excluding the
origin of the RF, the position of the unpredictable SID, PCA and DR errors,
aircraft and the ttrrain between. Since the day time accuracy of the modern
polar cap attenuio _on is so pervasive, OMEGA system with automatic latitude and
stations providing directions of arrival longitude determination/display and
over the poles are usually deselected. automatically applied correction tables
[Ref. 32:p. 1-30]. is around 1 nm in the daytime and 2 nm
at night [Ref. 38:2.82].
When the RF is radiated from the large
OMEGA groundsite antennas, three paths, 3.1.4. Tactical Air Navigation
or modes, are possible. The first is
the direct path between the station and
the aircraft, the second immediately 3.1.4.1. Theory
bounces off the ionosphere and then
propagates to the aircraft and the third TACAN provides relative, magnetic
bounces off the ground and then bearing and slant range in nm to a known
propagates to the aircraft. The three ground station. The systems used for
modes can then interfere with each bearing and range are separate. TACAN
other. Fortunately, the skywave and bearing is found by comparing the phase
groundwave RF are rapidly attenuated relationship of a rotating antenna
with the net effect that the pattern and omnidirectional reference
interference is only a significant pulses. The antenna pattern is
factor from minimum range to transmitted at the ground site and is in
approximately 200 to 500 nm from the the shape of a cardioid that has a nine
groundsite. The phenomenon is known as lobed pattern superimposed upon it. The
near station modal interference and is entire pattern rotates at 15 HZ and thus
countered by simply deselecting the the rotating maximum of the cardioid
closer stations. [Ref. ll:p. 71. Sincz, will pass a given bearing at a rate of
VLF has excellent long range pr • agatio•. 15 HZ and one of the nine lobes will
characteristics, it is quite possible pass the same bearing at a rate of 135
for the aircraft to receive RF from a HZ. Simultaneously, an omnidirectional
groundstation via the long route around pulse train is transmitted each tir. the
the earth as well as the direct route. maximum of the cardioid passes th.:,ugh
The two signals then interfere with each east. A second pulse train is
other. The interference is rare when transmitted each time any of the nine
the station is within 8,500 nm of the maximums pass through east. The
aircraft; however, and so the problem is envelope of the two superimposed
 127

sinusoidal signals (15 and 125 KHZ) are Since all the reply signals are
resolved by the airborne receiver. The identical, two techniques are used to
phase of the two signals are then prevent the display of ranges based upon
compared to the reference signals replies to other TACAN interrogators.
transmitted at the east position. The First, a range tracker is used within
phase difference will be zero for the 15 the airborne TACAN unit, that rejects
KHZ signal only if the receiver is east replies out of the expected window.
of the groundstation. The phase Since it is still possible to have some
difference will increase from 0 to 3600 number of aircraft at the same
as the receiver is moved around the approximate range from the ground site
ground site clockwise. The 15 KHZ and thus crossing within each other's
signal will provide an unambiguous range gates, the interrogators vary the
bearing; however, the bearing is fairly PRF between 5 and 25 Pulses Per Second
inaccurate. The 135 KHZ signal provides (PPS) to reduce the chance that the
the required accuracy but is ambiguous incorrect replies will fall in the
every 40%. tracked range gates. Establishment of
the initial range tracker gate and
Each time one of the nine maximums subsequently the display of the first
crosses east, the corresponding pulse DME value can take from 1 to 20 seconds.
train reference signal is transmitted. To facilitate the initialization
As the receiver moves around the ground process, the PRF of the interrogation is
station, the phase shift between the 135 increased to 150 PPS until range
KHZ envelope and the reference will tracking is established. For ranging,
shift through 360" every 40" of rotation the TACAN uses line of site propagation
around the ground station. The 15 KHZ of airborne and ground site frequencies
rough bearing is used to resolve the 135 in the band of 1025 to 1150 MHZ, a power
KHZ ambiguity. Occasionally, the of 50 to 2000 W for the airborne
ambiguity is solved incorrectly and the equipment and 1 to 20 KW for the ground
TACAN will provide a bearing in error by sites, and a usable maximum range of
multiples of 40%. This is known as 40' from 50 to 300 nm. Ranging accuracies
lockout. For bearing, TACAN uses line vary from 0.1 to 3.0 nm. By far the
of sight propagation in two bands from largest contributor of error is the user
962 to 1024 and 1151 to 1213 MHZ, a equipment. (Ref. 38:pp. 2.65-2.67].
maximum power out from the ground site
of 1 to 20 KW and a maximum range of 300 3.1.5. Missions
nm from the ground station to the
receiver. Bearing error is usually
around 3.5" and results from site errors Although not as critical for navigation
associated with ground and other testing as for radar testing, a good
reflections of the signals transmitted knowledge of the intended mission of the
by the ground site and from errors navigation system is required to develop
associated with the airborne receiver, a proper test technique. For example, a
[Ref. 38:pp. 2.68-2.74]. knowledge of the intended operating area
is useful in selecting the correct
Range from the ground station to the operating modes for a test INS to insure
TACAN equipped aircraft is derived by that time is not wasted testing modes
measuring the time for an interrogation that are likely not to be used. Many
pulse to travel from the aircraft to the INSs use a special operating mode above
TACAN ground station and for a reply to 70" of latitude and if the aircraft is
return to the aircraft. The hardware is not expected to be flown above this
called Distance Measuring Equipment latitude it could be a waste of time and
(DME). The airborne TACAN transmits an money to take anything other than a
interrogation pulse pair consisting of cursory look at this function.
3.5 psec pulses 12 psec apart and at a
frequency separated by 63 MHZ from the A knowledge of the intended mission
ground station reply frequency. The duration is essential for development of
ground site receives the interrogation, test scenarios. For DR and integrated
holds it for a fixed period of 50 psec, navigation systems, the airborne tests
and then sends out a reply. Subtracting should be performed for at least a
the set delay period, range can be period as long as the expected mission
determined directly, given the speed of duration. This is to ensure that the DR
propagation. Each ground site can system's drift does not exceed the
handle 100 simultaneous users. As the maximum allowable limits, even at the
number of users increases above this end of the mission. Mission relatable
number, the 100 interrogators with the maneuvers need to be performed to ensure
strongest signals are serviced, that normal mission g levels,
maneuvering rates and aircraft attitudes
128

do not adversely affect navigation large sea navigation aids such as spider
accuracy. These maneuvers can affect buoys or light houses and small, well
the stability of an INS platform, exceed defined river inlets are useful when
the dynamic range of the INS doing testing near the coastline. The
accelerometers or cause the fuselage to landmark must be discrete, that is, the
mask the antenna for a radio navigation pilot must not have to figure out which
system. part of the landmark to fly over. As an
example, an island is generally too
A thorough mission knowledge is required large to use as a flyover point;
to understand the accuracy requirements however, a point of land on the northern
of the system. The requirements for a edge of the island may be adequate.
system that must drop ordnance at given
geographic coordinates and a system As important as finding and isolating
required for long range, overwater the specific feature, is knowing the
navigation are quite different. As with exact latitude and longitude of the
the radar test techniques, the point. The location must be known with
navigation test techniques to be an accuracy commensurate with the test
presented here require knowledge of the technique. For the flyover technique, a
intended mission, since they are based latitude and longitude position with an
upon the premise of qualitative testing accuracy of around 100 feet is
in a mission relatable scenario and sufficient. When choosing the points,
quantifiable data to support this the evaluator can search a TPC of the
assessment. If mission relatable test area and choose landmarks as shown
experience is not present on the test on the chart. The surveyed positions
team, then extensive research is are then derived from the listing of
required. vertical obstructions, reference 68.
These surveyed positions are of adequate
3.1.6. Navigation System Human accuracy for the flyover technique.
Factors Flying the technique requires the pilot
to first find the landmark. Onboard
sensors such as navigation or surface
As in the radar human factors section, search radar, electro-optical systems,
no attempt will br- made to completely as well as the navigation system under
cover the topic of ergonomics. As with test can be used. Prior to flyover, the
radar systems testing, navigation system pilot must acquire the landmark
controls and displays testing must be visually. The technique involves flying
performed while seated at the DEP and directly over the target and reco-ding
wearing a full set of personal flight data. The exact data differs depe;'Ing
equipment. The procedure for finding upon the system under test; althozugh,
the DEP is explained in the radar theory the identification of the landmark and
section. The anthropometric the displayed position provided by the
measurements and the flight gear worn by navigation system under test at the time
the evaluator must be recorded. of overflight is always required.
Optimally, the pilot should fly directly
3.1.7. The Flyover Method over the target; however, if unable, the
direction to the target and the
displacement at the time of Closest
The flyover method will be used as the Point of Approach (CPA) should also be
primary means for determining the recorded. The accuracy of the method is
aircraft's actual dynamic (airborne) affected by the technique of the pilot
position. This position will be used as and the flyover altitude. Generally,
truth data. The technique is simple and for a pilot experienced in the
requires a minimum of instrumentation, technique, the accuracy will be about
Preflight planning is important to this one half of the altitude above the
technique. Prior to flying the test, target. An altitude of between 200 and
the evaluator must choose a number of 2000 feet above the landmark is typizal.
surveyed landmarks to be used as flyover [Ref. 38:p. 4.5]. The techniqcm is
points. The landmarks must be easily flown identically for both position
found from the air, which usually means fixing and DR navigation system test:kng.
that the object used must be large
compared to other features in the area
and isolated from other landmarks. For
instance, isolated towers are good
choices in most terrains. Isolated road
intersections in desert or plain areas
are adequate. Distinct points of land,
 129

3.2. NAVIGATION SYSTEMS TEST be known as accurately and quickly as

possible so that failures can be
TECHNIQUES repaired and the long process begun
again. The entire procedure must be
accomplished safely and thoroughly
3.2.1. Preflight and Built in Tests before a hurried combat mission.

3.2.1.3. Instrumentation
3.2.1.1. Purpose
A stop watch and data cards are required
The purpose of this test is to assess for this test. A voice tape recorder is
the suitability of the navigation system optional.
preflight and turn on procedure and the
BIT to quickly and easily bring the 3.2.1.4. Data Required
navigation system on line and insure an
operating system once airborne. Qualitative comments, time to complete
the preflight/turn on and time to
3.2.1.2. General complete the BIT are required. A record
of BIT indications is required.
As airplanes become more expensive,
fewer and fewer will be available to 3.2.1.5. Procedure
accomplish each mission, amplifying the
loss of individual airplanes to inflight Perform a normal navigation system turn
failures. Quick, accurate ground on before each test flight using the
preflight tests are essential to published system check list. Note the
determine system status while repair can time for preflight and turn on up to the
still be affected. This requirement is point of initialization and alignment.
particularly important for navigation Perform a preflight BIT, noting the
systems included in highly integrated, total BIT time and indications. Note
modern aircraft since nearly all systems any correlation between the BIT
require an accurate navigation input to indications and the navigation system's
function correctly. Quick operation. Perform a complete check of
response/alert time is also important the failure indications on the ground.
and so these checks must be expeditious Make qualitative comments as
and must allow the operator to prepare appropriate.
for the mission with a minimum of
distractions. Limited airplane 3.2.1.6. Data Analysis and
availability also implies the need for Presentation
quick turn arounds to send the same
aircraft out for successive missions. The time and complexity of the
navigation system preflight and turn on
Many aircraft systems can be turned on procedures should be related to the
after the aircraft is airborne; however, expected alert launch time requirements
this is often not the case for and the overall operator workload during
navigation systems since the pilot must the alert launch. Note other serial
begin navigating' at takeoff, requirements following the preflight,
particularly on night and bad weather turn on and BIT before the system can
flights. For INS systems, the preflight provide airborne navigation and relate
and turn on sequence must be performed them to the requirement for accurate
serially before the initialization and navigation information immediately
alignment process. The INS following takeoff during night and bad
initialization and alignment process is weather flying. The BIT times and the
often the longest procedure required to amount of operator interface required to
get the aircraft ready for flight and so perform the BIT should be assessed in
the serially dependent preflight and the same scenario. Clarity of the BIT
turn on procedure must be as expeditious indications should be related to the
as possible. Radio navigation aids, such cockpit environment. The BIT
as OMEGA or GPS, require preflight and indications should be related to actual
turn on before the system can begin navigation system degradation and
acquiring the stations and integrating verified by ground technicians.
to a solution, also requiring a rapid Erroneous BIT false alarms should be
preflight and turn on procedure. noted and related to the probability of
Although the BIT can often be performed unnecessarily missed sorties.
during the initialization and alignment
process in INS systems and during
acquisition and integration for radio
navigation systems, the BIT results must
130

3.2.1.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are presented as cards

34 and 35.
 131

CARD NUMBER

NAVIGATION SYSTEM PREFLIGHT/TURN ON

CLARITY OF CHECKLIST INSTRUCTIONS:

LOGICAL SEQUENCE OF CHECKLIST:

THOROUGHNESS OF CHECKLIST:

TOTAL PREFLIGHT/TURN ON TIME

DEPENDENCY OF OTHER AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS UPON THE NAVIGATION SYSTEM PREFLIGHT/TURN ON:

Card 34: Navigation System Preflight/Turn On Data Card

132

CARD NUMBER

NAVIGATION SYSTEM BUILT IN TESTS

INITIATION PROCEDURES:

RUN/FINISH INDICATIONS:

EFFECTS OF THE BIT UPON THE INITIALIZATION/ALIGNMENT (i.e., SERIAL OR CONCURRENT):

BIT FAILURES AND QUALITATIVE FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE NAVIGATION SYSTEM/RESULTS

OF GROUND MAINTENANCE CHECKS:

Card 35: Navigation System Built In Test Data Card

 133

3.2.2. Controls and Displays safe ejection. The operative sense must
be correct. This means that the
direction of activation should conform
3.2.2.1. Purpose to the standards of common sense (turn
the knob to the right to turn on the
The purpose of this test is to assess system) and to the standards set in
the suitability and utility of the references 15 and 16 (which for the most
navigation controls and displays for the part merely put on paper the standards
assigned mission as an interface between of common sense). The operation of the
the operator and the navigation system. controls should be clear, requiring a
minimum of operator concentration and
3.2.2.2. General 8 attention. This leaves the operator
free to make tactical decisions.
As good as many new systems are at
determining the position, rates and The controls should also be placed in
orientation of the aircraft and in logical functional groups, reducing the
providing recommended steering area of scan required to check the
information, they have failed if the navigation system set up. The
operator is not presented with a usable navigation system controls should be
display of navigation parameters or if integrated well into the cockpit. This
the operator is not given adequate means that the navigation system
controls to operate the system. The controls should operate harmoniously
controls and displays must be usable in with the other controls within the
every conceivable flight regime, ambient cockpit and without hindering the
lighting condition, weather condition, simultaneous operation of other airplane
and by aviators with the range of systems. Integration must be evaluated
anthropometric measurements for which during a mission relatable workload and
the system was designed to operate. For while simultaneously operating all the
the modern fighter or attack airplane, other airplane systems. This is
this is usually all weather, day or important since navigating should take a
night, around +9 to -4 gs, for the 3 to minimum of operator concentration and
98 percentile groups, and in a realistic time, leaving the operator free to
tactical environment filled with urgent perform other tasks, such as selecting
decisions demanding the aviator's targets and evading surface to air
attention. The controls and display missiles.
should require an absolute minimum of
operator input or interpretation and the Lastly, the controls should provide good
information imparted and required from tactile feedback. For example, detents
the operator should be a minimum and should provide the proper amount of
precisely what the aviator needs to "click" and all the knobs shouldn't feel
execute the current phase of flight, exactly alike when reaching for a
The requirement to tailor the navigation control with eyes on the
information provided to the phase of radar scope. Applying a little common
flight is particularly important for a sense and manipulating the controls in a
navigation system. mission relatable environment usually
uncovers most of the control human
Controls should be easily manipulated factors violations.
wearing the proper flight clothing. The
range of control (both the physical Many modern aircraft have a large number
range of movement of the knob, dial, of the avionics controls included in the
lever, etc. and the range of effect that HOTAS format, allowing manipulation
the control has upon the navigation without releasing the throttle and
system) and sensitivity should be stick. These implementations have their
compatible with the expected flight own human factors challenges. Typical
regime. Controls that require problems include the mounting of too
manipulation while airborne should be many controls on the available area,
reachable from the DEP, particularly if appropriate control sensitivity across
they must be activated in a combat broad height conditions and tactile
environment. As an example, the feedback considerations.
controls necessary to perform a visual
position update must be reachable while The navigation displays should be
performing high g evasive maneuvers clearly visible from the DEP in bright
ingressing to a target and while daylight as well as complete darkness.
maintaining a body position ready for In bright daylight, the display must be

'For an introduction into controls and displays human factors,

see references 20, 54 and 73.
134

usable under all conditions of glare FLIR display, so that the operator can
including sunlight directly over the scan his sensors, recommended vectors
operator's shoulder onto the display (a and also visually search for the target.
particularly serious problem for most As with controls, display human factors
displays). In the dark, the display problems typically surface by applying a
should not be so bright that it little common sense while using the
distracts the operator or affects his system in a mission relatable scenario.
night vision. A good range of
brightness control that integrates 3.2.2.3. Instrumentation
harmoniously with the rest of the
cockpit is required. In many cases, A tape measure and data cards are
navigation information is integrated required for this test. A voice
into other tactical displays. Heading recorder is optional.
markers, course, steering, range and
time to go to waypoints etc. are often 3.2.2.4. Data Required
integrated into HUD and radar displays.
The navigation information must be Record qualitative comments, evaluator's
harmoniously integrated into these anthropometric data and a list of
displays providing clear and concise personal flight gear worn. The location
navigation cues without degrading the and type of the navigation information
other uses of the displays. displays should be recorded for
integrated systems that provide
The display must refresh itself quick navigation information in several
enough so that the symbology and locations (HUD, radar disp]ay,
alphanumerics present an even and Electro-Optic (EO) display, etc.).
continuous display without noticeable Legibility and readability of the
flicker. Analog displays and digital navigation information in all display
representations of analog displays such locations should be recorded. The
as compass cards, ownship on a geostable location of the display from the DEP
tactical display etc. should update should be measured if a qualitative
smoothly as the simulated compass card problem is noted. Reach length of the
rotates or the own aircraft symbol controls that are beyond the operator's
transits across the background. reach while seated at the DEP during any
Alphanumerics must be clear and legible. mission relatable scenario should be
The messages should be short and easily recorded. The utility of the provided
understood without excessive coding or information and information load (Is too
operator interpretation. The much information provided?) should be
information displayed to the operator, recorded during mission relatable
including symbols and alphanumerics, scenarios.
must be sufficient for the current phase
of flight while at the same time not 3.2.2.5. Procedure
overloading the operator with
information. This usually requires Find the DEP as outlined in the radar
tailoring the display to the specific theory section. All ground and airborne
attack mode/mission/phase of flight, tests should be performed while at the
that is currently being used. The DEP and wearing a complete set of flight
display should be assessed for the gear. Perform a system turn up on the
information load in a mission relatable ground outside of the hangar in a range
scenario to determine its utility as an of ambient lighting conditions (bright
aid in the combat environment as well as daylight to darkness which may be
in normal Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) simulated using a canopy curtain).
navigation. Manipulate all controls noting the
factors discussed above. Measure the
It is unlikely that a display compatible display usable area. Evaluate the
in size, weight, power and cooling display for the factors discussed above.
requirements with a tactical airplane Note and measure the position and reach
will be built in the near future that length to all controls and displays that
has too large of a usable display face. pose a visibility or reach problem wiile
Thus, the display should be evaluated seated at the DEP. During airbosrne
for size in a relatable mission testing, manipulate the controle and
environment, accounting for this element make qualitative comments during mipsion
of realism. The display should be relatable IFR navigation scenarios and
positioned in a location suitable for mission relatable attacks and
the mission. As an example, the course intercepts. Take particular note during
to target cursor, range/time to target extremes of ambient lighting for
etc., should be placed high in the displays and during high g maneuvers for
cockpit, along with the radar and/or controls. Confirm the results of the
 135

- ground checks for reach and visibility

while airborne. Check the extremes of
the control limits and sensitivity.
Repeat the evaluation for each test
flight.

3.2.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

Present a table of the operator's

anthropometric data and the personal
flight equipment worn during the tests.
Present the seat position as the number
of inches from the bottom of the seat
travel. Relate the sensitivity of the
controls to the tactical environment in
which they are to be used. For example,
a fighter's HUD brightness potentiometer
knob may be too sensitive to use under
moderate g or turbulence making it
unusable during intercepts and ACM.
Relate the accessibility, placement and
grouping of the controls under mission
relatable conditions. A navigation
update selection must be readily
accessible while maneuvering evasively
inbound to a target and looking outside
for surface to air missiles. Relate the
control clarity, operative sense and
tactile feedback to a multiple threat,
combat scenario requiring the operator
to make quick tactical decisions. If
ambient lighting affects the display in
any way, relate this to the limits of
the possible combat environments. The
displays should update smoothly as the
aircraft maneuvers and transits.

Relate the information load presented

the operator to the combat scenario
discussed above and evaluate whether the
needed information is present and
whether too much information is
cluttering the display. This
information can include analog
representations of navigation
information, alphanumerics or symbols.
This concept is closely related to the
size of the display face usable area. A
large scope can present more information
without cluttering the display and
requires less concentration to read and
evaluate. The refresh rate should be
related to the concentration required to
interpret a jittery display. The
display position should be evaluated for
the type of information involved, the
eye position required for using the
display and the display position's
effect upon scan.

3.2.2.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are presented as cards

36 and 37.
136

CARD NUMBER

'-.,'ON SYSTEM CONTROLS

CLARITY OF OPERATION:

ACCESSIBILITY (MEASURE REQT .,'ACH IF A PROBLEM):

OPERATIVE SENSE:

ADJUSTMENT SENSITIVITY:

RANGE OF ADJUSTMENT:

TACTILE FEEDBACK:

FUNCTIONAL LOCATION/GROUPIN IF A PROBLEM):

INTEGRATION:

Card 36: Navigation System Lta Card

 137

CARD NUMBER

NAVIGATION SYSTEM DISPLAYS

(PERFORM IN BRIGHT DAY TO DARKNESS]

LIST THE LOCATION AND TYPE OF NAVIGATION INFORMATION:

LOCATION QUALITATIVE COMMENTS (MEASURE THE LOCATION IF A

PROBLEM):

CONTRAST/BRIGHTNESS/GAIN CONTROLS (RANGE OF EFFECTIVENESS):

GLARE (BOTH FROM OUTSIDE AND INSIDE COCKPIT LIGHT SOURCES):

REFRESH RATE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

LOCATION OF THE SYMBOLOGY/ALPHANUMERICS UPON THE MULTIFUNCTION, INTEGRATED DISPLAYS:

INTERPRETATION OF SYMBOLOGY/ALPHANUMERICS:

INTEGRATION:

Card 37: Navigation System Displays Data Card

138

3.3. INERTIAL NAVIGATION to 100%

alignments.
longer than shore based
Most systems require four
SYSTEMS TEST TECHNIQUES to ten minutes for the shore based
initialization and alignment procedure.
A wide variance of times can be obtained
3.3.1. Initialization and Alignment depending upon the factors listed above
and so it is important to carefully
record the conditions of the alignment.
3.3.1.1. Purpose Since the alignment process takes a
significant amount of time, a status
The purpose of this test is to assess indication should be provided to give
the INS initialization and alignment the pilot an indication of the time left
procedures for their utility for quickly to a complete alignment and to provide
reaching a full navigation status with a feedback that the process is proceeding
minimum of operator time and attention normally.
and the effect that these procedures
have upon the set up sequence of other Ideally, the INS should be checked over
aircraft systems. the entire range of expected alignment
conditions. Checking all conditions is
3.3.1.2. General rarely possible. A wide range of
temperature conditions can require much
The INS initialization and alignment travel, time, or expensive test
process is described in the navigation chambers. Testing the alignment times
theory section. Initialization includes over a variety of locations also
providing the INS with position and requires expensive travel. This test
orientation inputs from which to procedure will be performed at the given
reference the alignment. Alignment test location and current atmospheric
involves first leveling the platform and conditions providing a spot check of one
then orienting the true north axis to possible condition. If a choice is
the geographic true north. Alignment is available; however, it is always best to
usually serially dependent upon test at the expected operational
initialization. The set up of other conditions and secondarily at the
aircraft systems is sometimes partially extremes of the expected range of
dependent upon the presence of an INS parameters. For this technique, ship
alignment. As an example, geostable based alignments will not be discussed.
tactical displays require navigation The ship based test technique is
input to operate. While alignment is essentially the same except that
taking place, the pilot will have many automatic recording of the continuously
other tasks to perform, such as turning changing position and orientation
on other systems, starting the aircraft, parameters is required.
attempting to obtain tactical SA, or
putting on his flight gear and strapping The sample system includes an airborne
into the aircraft seat. A quick and alignment mode. An airborne alignment
easy alignment process requiring a may be required if an alert launch has
minimum of operator inputs and attention to be made before a ground alignment is
is essential. complete, or after the loss of alignment
with the aircraft airborne. An airborne
Several factors can affect the alignment can take much more time than a
initialization and alignment process. ground alignment. A typical alignment
navigation control and display issues, may take twenty minutes or more.
addressed earlier can affect the time Typically, the alignment is begun by
and effort required for the entry of the initializing the latitude and longitude
initialization parameters. Outside air to the correct position. This is often
temperature can affect alignment time. done by overflying a known position and
The colder the temperature of the INS, initializing at the instant of the
the longer the alignment will take. flyover. Most INSs require the aircraft
Motion of the aircraft can slow the to be flown straight and level as much
alignment process. Actually moving the as possible during the airborne
aircraft, whether by taxiing or towing, alignment procedure. The airborne
usually requires suspending the alignment test is nearly identical to
alignment with an additional penalty of the dynamic non-maneuvering position
time ar the process is resumed. accuracy test and so a discussion of the
Alignment latitude can affect the procedure will be deferred until that
alignment time. An alignment often will section.
take longer at higher latitudes, with a
significant delay above 70" latitude.
Ship based alignments usually take 50%
 139

3.3.1.3. Instrumentation from published field charts, approach

plates, en route charts, TPCs, etc.
A stop watch, thermometer (suitable for
measuring outside air temperature) and Tow the test aircraft to the local
data cards are required for this test. compass rose and record the surveyed
A voice recorder is optional. position, heading and magnetic
variation. If a compass rose is not
3.3.1.4. Data Required used, record the surveyed alignment
location, the magnetic heading as
Record the time required to input the displayed on the back up magnetic
initialization parameters. Record compass with deviation applied and the
qualitative comments concerning the ease magnetic variation. Allow the INS to
and complexity of the data entry. Note remain OFF for at least one hour before
if the initialization process interferes beginning the test to allow the
significantly with the start up and turn components to cool to ambient
on procedures for the entire aircraft, temperature. Record the outside air
Record the surveyed latitude and temperature.
longitude of the aircraft, the actual
heading of the aircraft during alignment Using the procedure published for the
(if available via an independent source INS, perform an INS initialization.
such as a calibrated compass alignment Record the time required for
rose), local magnetic variation and initialization along with qualitative
outside air temperature. If a compass comments concerning the ease of the
rose is not available, record the initialization procedures and the extent
surveyed alignment position, magnetic to which initialization distracts the
compass heading (with deviation applied) pilot from turning on the entire
and magnetic variation. Record a aircraft. Following the initialization
complete description of aircraft motion procedure, begin the alignment, starting
during the alignment. For the the stopwatch as the alignment begins.
interrupted alignment, record the As the alignment progresses, note the
elapsed time at interrupt, resumption of quality of the alignment progress status
the alignment and a complete description indicators and of the alignment complete
of the aircraft movement. Include the indication. When the alignment is
new surveyed location and aircraft complete, note the total elapsed time,
heading. At the completion of the the indicated magnetic and true aircraft
alignment, record the INS displayed heading and the magnetic variation.
latitude and longitude, magnetic Completely describe any aircraft motion
heading, true heading, magnetic during the alignment process. Repeat
variation and the total time for the the initialization and alignment test
alignment. Note qualitative comments before each test flight.
concerning the utility of the INS
alignment status indications including At least one interrupted alignment
the alignment complete indication, should be performed. Begin the
alignment process at any surveyed point
3.3.1.5. Procedure and then tow or taxi the aircraft to the
surveyed compass rose to complete the
Most airfields have a surveyed compass alignment process. Record the
rose which is used for calibrating parameters described above at both the
installed magnetic compasses. The first and second location. Note the
center of the rose is accurately elapsed time at interrupt and again when
surveyed in latitude and longitude and the alignment is resumed.
magnetic headings are marked around the
circumference of the rose. When 3.3.1.6. Data Analysis and
possible, the alignment should be Presentation
performed at the surveyed rose to
provide accurate position and heading Relate the time required to perform the
truth data. When a compass rose is not INS initialization, the complexity of
available, perform the alignment at any the procedure and the overall operator
other surveyed location. Most hangars intensity as a distraction to the pilot
have surveyed parking slots on the ramp. as he or she attempts to turn on other
In this case, an estimate of aircraft systems, straps into the aircraft,
heading after alignment can be obtained starts the engines and gains SA.
using the magnetic compass, or some Compare the initialized aircraft
other portable magnetic heading source, position at the start of the alignment
with deviation applied. Local area (input by the operator) to the position
magnetic variation should be obtained at the time the alignment is complete.
There should be no drift during the
 140

alignment process. Apply the actual

aircraft heading on the compasF rose and
the local magnetic variation tý. -quation
(21) to obtain true heading. Where a
compass rose is not used, apply the
magnetic back up compass heading with
deviation applied and local magnetic
variation to equation (21) to obtain
true heading. The ac,-liracy of the truth
data will be degraded Compare the true
heading, magnetic heading and magnetic
variation provided by the INS at the
time of the alignment to the actual
values and relate the difference to the
quality of the alignment, the effect
that inaccuracies will have upon
positional drift and the utility of INS
headings for accurately navigating in a
mission relatable ingress and attack.

Relate the quality of the status

indicator, including the alignment
complete indication, as a guide to how
long the alignment has left to complete,
as a source of confidence that the
alignment is progressing normally and as
an indicator that the aircraft has an
operating navigation system with which
to launch. Relate this to the time
requirements and stress of an alert
launch. Compare the alignment time to
the time requirements of an alert launch
and to the specification at the ambient
temperature recorded during the test.
If extreme variation in the alignment
time and quality is noted during
alignments where aircraft motion is a
factor (for instance while maintenance
personnel are climbing on the airplane)
relate it to the requirement for
pre-flight trouble shooting before
aircraft launches. Compare the time for
a suspended alignment less the actual
time the alignment was suspended, to the
time for an uninterrupted alignment.
Relate any extreme variation to the
requirement to occasionally move
aircraft on a crowded ramp during a mass
alert sortie.

3.3.1.7. Data Cards

Sample data card are provided as card
38.
 141

CARD NUMBER

INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT

ALIGNMENT LOCATION

ALIGNMENT HEADING

MAGNETIC VARIATION

[ALLOW THE AIRCRAFT TO COLD SOAK FOR ONE HOUR. PERFORM A NORMAL INS

INITIALIZATION.]

INITIALIZATION EASE/COMPLEXITY/EFFECTS UPON OTHER TURN ON AND START PROCEDURES:

INITIALIZATION TIME

(START ALIGNMENT. START STOP WATCH.]

OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE

COMPLETELY DESCRIBE ANY AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT:

[IF THE AIRCRAFT IS TURNED OR TOWED, NOTE THE TIME OF THE SUSPENDED ALIGNMENT AND

THE TIME OF THE RESTART.]

SUSPENDED

RESTART

DESCRIPTION OF AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT DURING SUSPENDED ALIGNMENT:

Card 38: Initialization and Alignment Data Cards

142

INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT

FOR THE NEW AIRCRAFT LOCATION:

ALIGNMENT LOCATION

ALIGNMENT HEADING

MAGNETIC VARIATION

TIME TO COMPLETE THE ALIGNMENT

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE ALIGNMENT STATUS AND THE

ALIGNMENT COMPLETE INDICATORS:

WHEN ALIGNMENT COMPLETE:

DISPLAYED LOCATION

DISPLAYED MAGNETIC HEADING

DISPLAYED TRUE HEADING

DISPLAYED MAGNETIC VARIATION

WERE OTHER SYSTEMS/PROCEDURES WAITING ON THE ALIGNMENT? IF SO, DESCRIBE:

Card 38: Initialization and Alignment Data Cards (Continued)

 143

3.3.2. Static Position Accuracy PresentationData

3.3.2.6. Analysis and

3.3.2.1. Purpose Subtract the displayed latitude and

longitude from the surveyed latitude and
The purpose of this test is to measure longitude. Convert the latitude and
the static (ground) position accuracy of longitude difference into nm using
the INS over a mission relatable period equation (21). Plot the data as north-
to isolate INS errors that are not south and east-west error versus time.
caused by the dynamic (flight) Annotate the plots with any significant
environment. The static accuracy events noted during the test, such as
becomes a baseline for measuring the movement of the aircraft or system
effects caused by the dynamic alerts. Analyze the trend of the plots
environment, for possible causes of the errors as
outlined in the theory section. Relate
3.3.2.2. General the static accuracy to the requirement
to remain on the ground, while the INS
In static testing, the INS is evaluated navigates statically, for long periods
while the aircraft remains on the of time before a quick response alert
ground. Dynamic testing is performed launch. Check to see if a significant
while airborne. Static testing allows change in the error plot occurs at the
the errors caused by the INS itself, time of aircraft motion or when system
whether cyclic, linear, exponential, alerts occur. Relate the effects of
etc. to be isolated from errors induced aircraft motion to the requirement to
by maneuvering effects. The static perform maintenance on the aircraft
accuracy becomes the baseline from which after an alignment. Relate the static
to gauge the effects of the dynamics of accuracy of the INS to the system
flight. One mission relation for static alerts. Repeated alerts that imply
accuracy is to relate the requirement to degraded accuracy should be accompanied
perform quick reaction alerts with the by that degradation or they are false
INS navigating statically on the ground alarms. Completely investigate any INS
until launch time. alerts following the test. Relate the
occurrence of confirmed false alarms to
3.3.2.3. Instrumentation the possibility of unnecessarily aborted
sorties.
A stop watch and data cards are required
for this test, a voice recorder is 3.3.2.7. Data Cards
optional.
A sample data card is provided as card
3.3.2.4. Data Required 39.

Record the actual surveyed alignment

location latitude and longitude. At
five minute intervals, starting at time
zero, record the elapsed time and the
displayed latitude and longitude.
Completely describe any aircraft motion,
including the time that it occurs and
note any INS fault indications.
3.3.2.5. Procedure
Complete an alignment as outlined in the
previous test technique, Initialization
and Alignment. As the INS is placed in
a navigation mode, start the stop watch
and record the displayed latitude and
longitude. Record the displayed
latitude and longitude each five
minutes. Completely describe any
aircraft motion, along with the time of
the occurrence. Record any INS fault
indications. As a minimum, record data
for the length of the maximum mission
duration of the aircraft or two Schuler
cycles, whichever is shorter.
 144

CARD NUMBER

STATIC POSITION ACCURACY

(AFTER PERFORMING THE INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT TEST, SELECT A NAVIGATION MODE,

START THE CLOCK AND RECORD DATA AT TIME 0 AND EACH 5 MINUTES AFTER. DESCRIBE ANY

SIGNIFICANT MOVEMENT OR SYSTEM ALERTS AS NOTES AT THE APPROPRIATE TIME. CONTINUE

THE TEST FOR MINUTES.]

SURVEYED POSITION

POINT ELAPSED DISPLAYED DISPLAYED NOTES:

NUMBER TIME LATITUDE LONGITUDE

Card 39: Static Position Accuracy Data Card

 145

3.3.3. Dynamic Non-maneuvering initialization and alignment test

section.
Position Accuracy
3.3.3.3. Instrumentation
3.3.3.1. Purpose A stop watch and data cards are required
for this test, a voice recorder is
The purpose of this test is to measure optional.
the dynamic, non-maneuvering position
accuracy of the INS, to isolate the 3.3.3.4. Data Required
effects of non-maneuvering flight upon
the INS, to isolate any degradation in After recording the initialization and
accuracy due to an airborne vice ground alignment data, record the displayed
alignment, and to qualitatively assess latitude and longitude as a navigation
the utility of the INS as a navigation mode is selected. Record the runway and
aid in the non-maneuvering environment, location on the runway, elapsed time,
and INS displayed latitude and longitude
3.3.3.2. General at takeoff. At each flyover point,
record the elapsed time, surveyed point
Static testing provided a baseline of identification, altitude, offset bearing
accuracy over time caused by errors and range if required and INS displayed
inherent to the INS platform, latitude and longitude. After landing
accelerometers and gyroscopes. Dynamic, and rolling out, record the runway and
non-maneuvering position accuracy location on the runway, elapsed time and
testing provides the next logical step INS displayed latitude and longitude.
in fully testing the INS. While After the taxi back to the hangar,
airborne, the aircraft is flown in record the surveyed parking location,
navigation profiles designed to elapsed time and INS displayed latitude
demonstrate the effects of aircraft and longitude. Throughout the flight,
movement during flight while minimizing record as notes on the data cards, any
any maneuvering. The profiles are flown maneuvers requiring over 1.5 g, 30"
over maximum north-south and east-west angle of bank, or 20" of pitch, any
distances to excite the effects of earth airspeed changes of over 50 KIAS (other
rate and coriolis. The flight duration than takeoff and landing) and any INS
should be equal to the maximum mission system alerts, along with the elapsed
duration or two Schuler cycles, time of occurrence. Record qualitative
whichever is shorter. The optimum comments concerning the utility of the
technique is to perform one flight on a INS displays/controls and navigation
predominately east-west profile and one accuracy for navigating to and visually
on a predominately north-south profile. finding the surveyed flyover points in a
The maximum cruise range speeds should non-maneuvering environment.
be used to allow the maximum latitude
and longitude to be covered. During the airborne alignment test,
record the time at which the INS is
The flyover method explained earlier is cycled and the alignment is dumped, then
used to provide the truth data. For record the time at which the airborne
this reason, a low altitude must be initialization is started. Record
used. This restriction will reduce the qualitative comments concerning the ease
mission duration for jet aircraft but is and complexity of the data entry. Note
unavoidable without extensive if the initialization process interferes
instrumentation. During the test significantly with other flight duties.
flight, the utility of the steering cues Record the time at which the
should be evaluated as an aid in finding initialization is completed, and then
the flyover points in a non-maneuvering the time when the flyover alignment is
environment. Both the INS started. Record deviations from
displays/controls and the accuracy of straight and level flight and constant
the cues should be evaluated as an aid airspeed throughout the alignment
in acquiring the points visually in time process as notes. Record the time at
to overfly the point without excessive which the alignment is complete and then
maneuvering, record all the airborne and landing data
as outlined above.
The test is repeated after performing an
airborne alignment of the INS. A 3.3.3.5. Procedure
comparison of the data collected during
the two tests then isolates the effects Prior to the test flight, plan a route
of the airborne alignment. The airborne that provides a flyover point each 5 to
alignment is discussed in the 15 minutes of flight time. If possible,
146

plan one flight along a predominately flyover point. The first point should
north-south route, and one predominately be within 5 to 15 minutes of takeoff and
cast-west. Preflight planning of the each subsequent point should be at to
ilyover route is discussed in the 15 minute intervals. Record the el..ped
navigation theory section. Plan and time, displayed latitude and longatude
plot the route using normal low level and altitude in feet MSL at each flyover
visual navigation procedures as outlined point as well as the pilot's estimate of
in reference 59 "Trainee Guide for bearing and range to the point at the
Visual Navigation". Choose an altitude Closest Point of Approach (CPA) when the
that can be comfortably flown point is not directly overflown. Record
considering the maneuvering any system alerts with the elapsed time
characteristics of the test aircraft, as notes.
the experience of the pilot, the current
weather conditions and the local While navigating to the flyover points,
terrain. Altitudes between 200 and evaluate the utility of the INS
2,000 feet AGL are standard. VMC is displays/controls, utility of the INS
required and care should be taken to derived steering cues, as well as the
choose a route clear of small airfields, integration of the navigation
areas of dense low level traffic, as information within the aircraft as an
well as areas of high bird activity, aid in early visual location of the
Generally, standard military VR routes flyover points in the non-maneuvering
are useful since the route planning has environment. After visual location of
already been performed and the flyover point, evaluate the accuracy
scheduling/coordination is fairly of the cues until overflight and
simple. References 61 and 62 outline afterwards the controls, displays and
the VR structure and explain procedures cues as an aid for navigation to the
for their use. Once a VR route is next point. The last flyover should
chosen, only surveyed points leading to occur 5 to 15 minutes before touchdown.
and from the home airfield to the start
and end point of the VR route need to be Following touchdown and rollout, record
selected. the elapsed time, runway location,
latitude and longitude. Use the
Perform an Initialization and Alignment description of the runway location to
test as previously outlined. When the again obtain the surveyed position from
alignment is complete, select a airfield charts. Taxi to a surveyed
navigation mode, start the stopwatch and parking area and before shutdown, record
then record the displayed latitude and the elapsed time and displayed latitude
longitude. Following the published and longitude.
aircraft and airfield procedures, taxi
to the takeoff area and at the time of Repeat the test for the case of an
takeoff, record the elapsed time, and airborne alignment. When approaching
displayed latitude and longitude. Note the first flyover point, cycle the INS,
the location on the runway at the time causing the alignment to dump, and start
the position is marked. Surveyed the stop watch. Perform an inflight
airfield diagrams (usually available at initialization noting qualitative
the tower) are later used to obtain the comments on the parameters listed in the
actual surveyed latitude and longitude, previous section and the elapsed time at
the completion of the initialization.
Perform a normal airfield departure,
navigating to the initial flyover point. Begin the airborne alignment in
Select an airspeed near the maximum conjunction with a flyover update at the
range airspeed at the test altitude and first flyover point noting the elapsed
set this airspeed as early as possible. time as the alignment begins. During
Attempt to maintain this airspeed the alignment, fly as straight and level
throughout as much of the flight as as possible and minimize all speed
possible. Care must be taken to limit changes. Note a complete description of
maneuvering. Keep g, pitch and bank to any deviations of greater than 0.2 g, 150
a minimum, recording the elapsed time angle of bank, 100 of pitch or 15 KIAS of
and a complete description of all speed change. Continue to fly the
deviations. Generally, anything over originally planned low level route and
1.0 to 1.5g, 30" angle of bank, 20" of note the time when the alignment is
pitch or 50 KIAS of airspeed change complete. When complete, resume
should be noted. collection of the flyover data.

Use visual reference points as well as

the test INS and any other available
navigation aids to find the first
 147

3.3.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation the individual point can be discounted.
Occasionally the correct flyover point
For points where the aircraft did not can be found by interpolating the
fly directly over the flyover point, use appropriate navigation error from the
the pilot's estimate of bearing and curve of the error plot, adding it to
range at the CPA to find the actual the displayed latitude and longitude and
latitude and longitude. Convert the then matching the position to the
bearing to the point to true bearing and location of similar flyover points in
then resolve the vector into north-south the newly derived area. In this case,
and east-west components. Next, convert the new surveyed point can be used and
the components into differences in the data will not be wasted.
latitude and longitude. In the
north-west hemisphere, add the If excessive maneuvers are recorded
difference in latitude when the point is during the flight, check for significant
to the south of the aircraft. Add the changes in the error curves following
difference in longitude when the point the maneuver time. Relate excessive
is to the west of the aircraft. Use the changes in the drift rate to the
equations below: requirement to perform evasive maneuvers
inbound to a target while still
TkffMkft-V requiring accurate navigation
S(Al") information for the return to the home
(mi a4) airfield. If system alerts are noted
1 mm) during the flight, check for significant
= (Am,) changes in the error rate curve
•Ico•LAfollowing
- the time the alert is noted.
1 j DThoroughly investigate any INS alerts
after the flight. Alerts that imply
degraded accuracy and do not result in a
change on the error curve or cannot be
Subtract the INS displayed latitude and associated with a system failure should
longitude from the surveyed flyover be related to the possibility of
point latitude and longitude or the unnecessarily aborted sorties (false
offset corrected latitude and longitude, alarms). Relate the utility of the INS
as appropriate. Convert the latitude displays/controls, steering cues and
and longitude difference to nm using integration within the aircraft to the
equation (21). Plot the data as usefulness of the INS as an aid for
latitude and longitude error versus navigating to waypoints, the target
elapsed time. Annotate the plots with position and later returning to the home
any significant events noted during the airfield.
test, such as system alerts or
maneuvering above 1.5g, 30" angle of 3.3.3.7. Data Cards
bank, 20" of pitch or airspeed changes
of 50 KIAS. Analyze the trend of the A sample data card is provided as card
plots for the possible causes of the 40.
errors as outlined in the navigation
theory section. Relate the
non-maneuvering accuracy of the INS to
the requirement to perform
non-maneuvering navigation during ferry
missions and while ingressing from the
base airfield to enemy lines. Subtract
the recorded flyover point altitude
above sea level (available from the same
data base used to derive the surveyed
latitude and longitude) from the
recorded MSL aircraft altitude at
flyover. 1/2 of this difference is the
expected accuracy of the flyover derived
truth data for a pilot experienced in
the technique. Add an expected error of
25% of the offset range for an offset
flyover.
Occasionally the pilot will overfly the
wrong surveyed point. If a single point
is grossly wrong while the others have
plotted a more predictable drift rate,
148

CARD NUMBER PRIORITY L/M/H

DYNAMIC NON-MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

[AFTER PERFORMING THE INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT TEST, SELECT A NAVIGATION MODE,

START THE STOP WATCH AND RECORD THE LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. RECORD.DATA AT THE

TAKEOFF ROLL POINT. AFTER TAKEOFF, SET KIAS, CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND ASSUME

LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION TO THE FIRST POINT. NAVIGATE TO EACH NUMBERED FLYOVER POINT

AND RECORD DATA. RECORD AS NOTES, OFFSET FROM POINT, SYSTEM ALERTS AND MANEUVERS

ABOVE 1.5G, 30" ANGLE OF BANK, 20" OF PITCH OR 50 KIAS OF AIRSPEED CHANGE WITH TIME

AS REQUIRED. RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY FOR NON-MANEUVERING

FLIGHT OF THE NAVIGATION DISPLAYS, STEERING CUES AND NAVIGATION ACCURACY. RECORD

DATA AFTER ROLLOUT AND BEFORE SHUTDOWN.)

SURVEYED ALIGNMENT LOCATION

DISPLAYED WHEN SELECTED

DESCRIBE TAKEOFF POINT:

ELAPSED TIME AT TAKEOFF

DISPLAYED AT TAKEOFF

NOTES:

Card 40: Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards

 149

CARD NUMBER PRIORITY L/M/H

DYNAMIC NON-MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

TIME POINT # SURVEYED DISPLAYED ALTITUDE NOTES:

POSITION POSITION (FEET MSL)

Card 40: Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

150

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

DYNAMIC NON-MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

DESCRIBE LOCATION OF ROLLOUT:

ELAPSED TIME AFTER ROLLOUT

DISPLAYED AFTER ROLLOUT

SURVEYED SHUTDOWN LOCATION

ELAPSED TIME AT SHUTDOWN

DISPLAYED AT SHUTDOWN

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING UTILITY DURING NON-MANEUVERING FLIGHT OF NAVIGATION

DISPLAYS/CONTROLS:

INS STEERING CUES:

NON-MANEUVERING ACCURACY:

Card 40: Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 151

3.3.4. Dynamic Maneuvering displayed latitude and longitude and

flyover altitude. Record applicable
Position Accuracy notes including offset bearing and
range, as well as any INS system alerts
including the time of occurrence. For
3.3.4.1. Purpose the climb and descent data point, record
the altitude and rate of climb at 5,000
The purpose of this test is to measure feet increments. Following rollout,
the dynamic maneuvering accuracy of the record the runway, location on the
INS, to isolate the effects of various runway, elapsed time and displayed
types of aircraft maneuvers and to latitude and longitude. Just prior to
qualitatively assess the utility of the shutdown, record the surveyed shutdown
INS as a navigation aid in the spot latitude and longitude, the elapsed
maneuvering environment, time and displayed latitude and
longitude. During the entire flight,
3.3.4.2. General record qualitative comments concerning
the utility of the INS displays and
Dynamic, non-maneuvering position navigation accuracy for navigating to
accuracy testing provided a baseline of and visually finding the surveyed
accuracy which included the effects of flyover points in a maneuvering
strictly non-maneuvering flight. Using environment.
this baseline plot, the aircraft will
perform a series of maneuvers with 3.3.4.5. Procedure
flyover points taken after each
maneuver. The exact flight profile will During preflight planning, choose a
have little effect upon the accuracy flyover point in a working area
compared to the effects of maneuvering. (preferably a Restricted Area) that
For this reason, a single flyover point allows low and medium altitude
can be repeatedly used. A significant maneuvering as well as supersonic flight
departure from the dynamic baseline data at low and medium altitudes in the case
plot will be due to aircraft of a supersonic test aircraft. A
maneuvering. In this way, the effects flyover point within 5 to 15 minutes of
of mission relatable maneuvering upon the home airfield is optimum; however,
INS accuracy will be isolated from other if a longer transit is required, choose
effects. Low acceleration roll, pitch flyover update points every 5 to 15
(a loop maneuver will be used) and yaw minutes between the home airfield and
maneuvers will be used to check for the maneuvering flyover point. Choose
gimbal limits. Airspeed limitations an initial airspeed that conserves fuel.
will be checked while linearly A low altitude is best since flyover
accelerating from zero to the airspeed data will be required during the
limit of the aircraft. Rolls, pitch, transit. Perform a flyover point as
yaw, climbs, descents, and level turn described in the dynamic non-maneuvering
maneuvers to the limits of the aircraft position accuracy section in the
will be used to assess the effects of maneuvering area. Climb to a moderately
maneuvers in a single plane. Finally, low altitude in the case of an attack
rolling push-overs and pull-ups will be aircraft and a medium altitude in the
performed to the aircraft limits to case of a fighter aircraft and perform a
check the effects of multi-axis maximum power acceleration to the limit
maneuvers, airspeed or mach number of the aircraft.
A shallow dive can be used to expedite
3.3.4.3. Instrumentation the maneuver as long as it can be safely
performed at the chosen altitude. When
A stop watch and data cards are required a dive is used, an initial altitude
for this test, a voice recorder is above the test altitude should be
optional. chosen. Generally, the rate of descent
should never exceed 1/2 of the aircraft
3.3.4.4. Data Required altitude for safety purposes.
Following an initialization and Following the acceleration, decelerate
alignment test, record the surveyed to a good maneuvering speed while
alignment location and the displayed performing a 1.5 g or less turn, return
latitude and longitude just as a to the flyover point and perform a
navigation mode is selected. Just prior flyover data point. Use a typical, low
to takeoff, record the takeoff runway altitude for the flyover as described in
and position on the runway along with the dynamic nonmaneuvering position
the elapsed time and displayed latitude accuracy test. Next climb to a medium
and longitude. Following each maneuver, low altitude and perform a constant 3 g,
record the flyover elapsed time,
 152

360" turn. Use the best maneuvering latitude and longitude. Convert the
airspeed, or the cornering airspeed, for bearing to the point to true bearing and
the test. The cornering airspeed will then resolve the vector into north-zouth
be available from the aircraft operating and east-west components. Next, ccgvert
manual. Return to the flyover location the components into differences in
and repeat the flyover data point, latitude and longitude. In the
Repeat at 5 g and then at the maximum north-west hemisphere, add the
aircraft level g. For the fighter difference in latitude when the point is
aircraft test, perform the maximum g to the south of the aircraft. Add the
test at a medium altitude. Next, climb difference in longitude when the point
to a medium low altitude, set a good is to the west of the aircraft. Use the
maneuvering airspeed and perform an equations below:
aileron roll at 1/4 stick deflection.
Return to the flyover point and perform Tb,.,=M,,t-V
4
a flyover data point. Repeat at 1/2 = (Anm)
L&
stick deflection and then at full stick (csA7)
deflection or at the aircraft roll
limit, whichever is greater. Again at a
medium low altitude provide a step Subtract the displayed latitude and
rudder input at 1/4 and 1/2 rudder longitude from the surveyed latitude and
deflection and finally at either full longitude or the offset corrected
rudder deflection or the aircraft rudder latitude and longitude as appropriate.
input limit. Perform a flyover update Convert the latitude and longitude
between each input, difference to nm using equation (25).
Plot the data as latitude and longitude
Next, perform a maximum rate climb to a error versus elapsed time. Annotate the
medium-high altitude, followed by a flyover points with the type of
rapid descent to the flyover altitude. maneuvers performed just before each was
During the descent, ensure that no taken. Check the plot for any
aircraft limits are exceeded. In significant change in the slope of the
general, when below 5,000 feet AGL, do error plot and relate any changes to the
not exceed a rate of descent greater effect these maneuvers have upon INS
than one half of the aircraft altitude. accuracy. Further relate the error to
Perform a flyover update. the loss of INS accuracy during mi~sion
relatable ACM for fighters and evasive
Finally, climb to a medium low altitude maneuvering inbound to the target for
and perform a series of rolling push- attack aircraft.
overs and pull-ups, increasing the g to
the aircraft limits. After reaching the If system alerts are noted during the
aircraft limit, perform a final flyover flight, check for a significant change
data point. Return to the home airfield in the error rate curve following the
performing a flyover data point each 5 time the alert is noted. Thoroughly
to 15 minutes of transit time as investigate any INS alerts that imply
required. After the landing rollout, degraded accuracy but do not result in a
record the runway and runway position, change in the error curve and do not
elapsed time and displayed latitude and result in malfunctions being found
longitude. Before shut down, record the during the ground checks. The alerts
shut down spot surveyed latitude and should be related to the possibility of
longitude, the elapsed time and the unnecessarily aborted sorties (false
displayed latitude and longitude, alarms). Relate the utility of the INS
During the entire flight, watch for INS controls, displays, steering cues and
system discretes and record them as integration within the aircraft to the
notes along with the time of occurrence. utility of the INS as an aid for
Thoroughly investigate all failure navigating to the target position and
discretes after the flight. In later returning to the home airf. 1d,
addition, qualitatively evaluate the INS all while performing evasive maneuv:cs.
controls, steering cues, displays and
accuracy as an aid for finding the 3.3.4.7. Data Cards
flyover points in the maneuvering
environment. Sample data cards are provided as card
41.
3.3.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation
For data where the aircraft did not fly
directly over the flyover point, use the
recorded bearing and range at closest
point of approach to find the actual
 153

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

[AFTER PERFORMING THE INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT TEST, SELECT A NAVIGATION MODE.

START THE STOP WATCH AND RECORD THE LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. RECORD DATA AT THE

TAKEOFF ROLL POINT. AFTER TAKEOFF, SET KIAS, CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND ASSUME

NAVIGATION TO THE FLYOVER POINT, TAKING FLYOVER DATA ONCE THERE. PERFORM EACH

MANEUVER AND BETWEEN EACH TAKE A FLYOVER DATA POINT. RECORD AS NOTES, OFFSET FROM

POINT AND SYSTEM ALERTS. RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY FOR

MANEUVERING FLIGHT OF NAVIGATION DISPLAYS/CONTROLS, STEERING CUES AND NAVIGATION

ACCURACY. RECORD DATA AFTER ROLLOUT AND BEFORE SHUTDOWN.]

SURVEYED ALIGNMENT LOCATION

DISPLAYED WHEN SELECTED

DESCRIBE TAKEOFF POINT:

ELAPSED TIME AT TAKEOFF

DISPLAYED AT TAKEOFF

NOTES:

Card 41: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards

154

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

AIRSPEED KIAS

ALTITUDE FEET MSL

FLYOVER POINT

MANEUVER ALT/AIR- TIME DISPLAYED FLYOVER NOTES:

SPEED (FT ALT (FT

MSL/KIAS) MSL)

INITIAL

FLYOVER

MAX LEVEL

ACCEL

LEVEL TURN

3G

LEVEL TURN

5G

LEVEL TURN

_G

Card 41: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 155

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

MANEUVER ALT/AIR- TIME DISPLAYED FLYOVER NOTES:

SPEED (FT ALT (FT

MSL/KIAS) MSL)

1/4 STICK

ROLL

1/2 STICK

ROLL

FULL STICK

ROLL

1/4 RUDDER

1/2 RUDDER

FULL

RUDDER

Card 41: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

156

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITIONAL ACCURACY

MANEUVER ALT/RATE TIME DISPLAYED FLYOVER NOTES:

(CLIMB OR OF CLIMB ALT (FT

DESCENT) AT 5,000 MSL)

FT

INCREMENTS

(FT

MSL/FPM)

Card 41: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 157

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

MANEUVER ALT/AIR- TIME DISPLAYED FLYOVER NOTES:

SPEED (FT ALT (FT

MSL/KIAS) MSL)

ROLLING

PUSH-

OVERS/

PULL-UPS

DESCRIBE LOCATION OF ROLLOUT:

ELAPSED TIME AFTER ROLLOUT

DISPLAYED AFTER ROLLOUT

SURVEYED SHUTDOWN LOCATION

ELAPSED TIME AT SHUT DOWN

DISPLAYED AT SHUTDOWN

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING UTILITY DURING MANEUVERING FLIGHT OF NAVIGATION

DISPLAYS/CONTROLS:

INS STEERING CUES:

MANEUVERING ACCURACY:

Card 41: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 158

3.3.5. Dynamic Update Performance TACAN accuracy is approximately 3.5, and

0.1 to 3 nm. The OMEGA update accuracy
depends upon the position fixing
3.3.5.1. Purpose accuracy of the OMEGA it if. As was
explained earlier, the o..y parameter
The purpose of this test is to evaluate updated is the position, the rate of the
the functionality and accuracy of the drift will not be affected significantly
INS position update modes and to assess by the update.
their utility in a tactical environment.
3.3.5.3. Instrumentation
3.3.5.2. General
Data cards and an optional voice
As explained in the navigation theory recorder are required for this test.
section, the long term accuracy of the
INS is usually enhanced through periodic 3.3.5.4. Data Required
manual updates. The update modes allow
resetting the displayed position to a Prior to the first update, record the
given reference point or to a known initial flyover data point elapsed timp.
bearing and range from a given reference displayed latitude and longitude and 4 ý
point. The sample INS used in this book flyover altitude. After performing eazh
can be updated using a visual flyover update, record the flyover elapsed time,
(or waypoint) mode, radar, TACAN and displayed latitude and longitude and
OMEGA modes. The waypoint update is altitude. For each flyover data point
performed similar to the flyover point and for the waypoint update, record the
method. The latitude and longitude of offset bearing and range, if applicable,
the flyover point are loaded into the as notes. During the entire flight,
INS computer as a waypoint. At the record qualitative comments concerning
instant the point is visually overflown the utility of the INS update modes
an update is made and the INS latitude including the ease of the updates,
and longitude arr changed to the utility of the controls used for each
waypoint latitude and longitude. During update, the integration of the INS with
a radar update, the position of the the TACAN, radar and OMEGA used in the
radar target is loaded as a waypoint. updates as well as the update accuracy.
The radar target is designated on the
radar display and the bearing and range 3.3.5.5. Procedure
to the target are automatically
converted to an offset of latitude and Prior to the test flight, select a
longitude from the known radar target flyover point in a working arcx
position. This radar offset latitude (preferably a Restricted Area) that
and longitude becomes the current allows maneuvering for repeated flyover
position at the time the update is passes. Select a surveyed radar target
performed. In a TACAN update, the TACAN close enough to the flyover point to be
ground station position is loaded as a within the detection volume of the radar
waypoint and the TACAN radial and DME while overhead the flyover point.
are used in a fashion similar to the Finally, find the latitude, longitude,
radar bearing and range to provide a channel and identifier code for the
latitude and longitude offset at the TACAN station closest to the flyover
time the update is performed. In the point. Choose an airspeed that
OMEGA update, the OMEGA calculated conserves fuel. Since a number of
latitude and longitude are used directly flyover points will be performed in
to update the INS current position. rapid succession, the entire test should
be flown from approximately 200 to 2,000
As with the flyover method, the waypoint feet AGL. The lowest altitude that can
update accuracy is approximately equal be flown considering the maneuvering
to 1/2 of the height above the update characteristics of the aircraft, the
point, assuming an accurately surveyed qualifications of the pilot and the
update point position is known. The local terrain should be chosen. The
radar and TACAN update accuracies depend TACAN may be switched through channels
upon the surveyed position accuracy of as required to navigate to the flyover
the radar target and TACAN ground point. After the initial flyover point
station, the bearing and range accuracy is performed, limit all maneuvers to
of the radar and accuracy of the TACAN. 1.5g or less, 30" angle of bank, 20" of
A method for determining the bearing and pitch and iss than 50 KIAS of airspeed
range accuracy of an air-to-ground radar change ti isolate the effects of
was described in the radar theory aircraft maneuvers from the effects of
section and as described in the the update accuracy. In addition,
navigation theory section, the expected perform the flyover data points as
 159

quickly after the updates as possible to

reduce the amount of drift in the INS
between the update and the flyover
point. (1A3)

Perform a waypoint update using the AL= (A-m)

published procedures for the INS and the "'1 m )
same flyover point used for the flyover
data. Record the altitude above the
update point. If necessary, repeat the
waypoint update until little or no Subtract the displayed latitude and
offset is noted at the update point, longitude from the surveyed latitude and
Following the final waypoint update, longitude or the offset corrected
perform a flyover data point, recording latitude and longitude as appropriate.
the displayed latitude and longitude and Convert the latitude and longitude
the flyover altitude and then turn difference to nm using equation (21).
outbound towards the chosen radar Since the flyover points are taken
target. Using the published aircraft immediately after the updates, the
procedure, perform a radar update of the errors can be used to closely represent
INS and then repeat the flyover data errors in the updates. Compare the
point. Next, dial in the TACAN station noted errors to the expected accuracies
chosen during preflight (if it is not of the update sources. The expected
already being used) and after the TACAN accuracy of the waypoint update is 1/2
is properly tracking the ground station, of the height above the update point.
perform a TACAN update of the INS in The radar accuracy is as measured during
accordance with the published procedure. the bearing and range accuracy test.
Perform a third flyover data point. The TACAN accuracy is around 3.5" and
Finally, perform an OMEGA update in 0.1 to 3 nm as described in the
accordance with the published procedures navigation theory section. The OMEGA
and then perform the last flyover data accuracy is approximately 1 nm in the
point. Throughout the flight, record daytime and 2 nm at night. Relate the
INS alerts along with the time of accuracy of the update (both expected
occurrence, as notes. Thoroughly and unexpected) to the navigational
investigate all failure indications accuracy required to safely ingress to
after the flight. In addition, the target area for an attack aircraft
qualitatively assess the utility of the and for the necessity to find the home
INS update modes including the ease of field in IMC conditions after a mission
the updates, the utility of the controls for the fighter aircraft.
used for each update, the integration of
the INS with the TACAN, radar and OMEGA Thoroughly investigate any INS alerts
used in the updates, as well as the that imply degraded accuracy. Alerts
update accuracy. that do not result in malfunctions being
found during the ground check should be
3.3.5.6. Data Analysis and Presentation related to the possibility of
unnecessarily aborted sorties (false
For flyover point data where the alarms). Relate the ease with which
aircraft did not fly directly over the each update is performed to the
flyover point, use the recorded bearing requirement to perform the updates in a
and range at CPA to find the actual highly stressful combat environment and
latitude and longitude. Convert the while simultaneously performing other
bearing to the point to true bearing and functions such as avoiding enemy
then resolve the vector into north-south defenses. Relate the integration of the
and east-west components. Next, convert INS, radar, TACAN and OMEGA controls
the components into differences in. within the same context. Relate the
latitude and longitude. In the utility of the displays used during the
north-west hemisphere, add the INS update to the effect that performing
difference in latitude when the point is the update has upon the scan of other
to the south of the aircraft. Add the vital tactical information such as
difference in longitude when the point visually scanning for surface to air
is to the west of the aircraft. Use the missiles.
equations below:
3.3.5.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are provided as card

42.
160

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

DYNAMIC UPDATE PERFORMANCE

(INSURE TACAN AND OMEGA ARE TURNED ON AND INITIALIZING. SET KIAS, CLIMB TO

MSL AND ASSUME NAVIGATION TO FLYOVER. RESTRICT MANEUVERING TO 1.5 G, 30" ANGLE

OF BANK, 20" OF PITCH AND 50 KIAS OF AIRSPEED CHANGE. PERFORM EACH UPDATE AND

BETWEEN EACH TAKE A FLYOVER DATA POINT. REPEAT THE WAYPOINT UPDATE UNTIL OPTIMIZED.

RECORD AS NOTES, OFFSET FROM THE POINT, AS WELL AS SYSTEM ALERTS. RECORD

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE UPDATE MODES INCLUDING THE EASE

OF UPDATE, UTILITY OF THE CONTROLS USED FOR EACH UPDATE, INTEGRATION OF THE INS WITH

THE TACAN, OMEGA AND RADAR SYSTEMS USED IN THE UPDATES, AS WELL AS THE U•eATE

ACCURACY.]

FLYOVER POINT

DESCRIBE POINT:

RADAR TARGET

DESCRIBE TARGET:

UPDATE TACAN POSITION

TACAN CHANNEL/IDENTIFIER __/

Card 42: Dynamic Update Performance Data Cards

 161

DYNAMIC UPDATE PERFORMANCE

WAYPOINT UPDATE ALTITUDE (FT MSL)/OFFSET _/

UPDATE DISPLAYED FLYOVER ALT (FT NOTES:

MSL)

WAYPOINT

RADAR

TACAN

OMEGA

NOTES:

Card 42: Dynamic Update Performance Data Cards (Continued)

162

DYNAMIC UPDATE PERFORMANCE

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE INS UPDATE MODES INCLUDING THE

EASE OF THE UPDATES:

UTILITY OF THE UPDATE CONTROLS/DISPLAYS:

INTEGRATION OF THE INS WITH THE RADAR/TACAN/OMEGA SYSTEMS:

NOTES:

Card 42: Dynamic Update Performance Data Cards (Continued)

 163

3.3.6. Mission Utility and selection of a weapon and attack mode

and finally a safe egress from the
Integration target area. For a fighter, the
evaluation requires navigating to and
from a Combat Air Patrol (CAP) station,
3.3.6.1. Purpose steering cues to a radar designated
target, handoff to an air-to-air FLIR or
The purpose of this test is to other electro-optic sensor for VID as
qualitatively assess the utility of the well as navigation inputs to digital
INS and its integration with the other data links and tactical displays. The
aircraft systems. critical requirement is to select a
scenario that reflects the most likely
3.3.6.2. General use of the aircraft and to use this
scenario during the evaluation. For the
In most cases, the INS is not a stand purpose of this sample test procedure,
alone system. Many modern avionics the test aircraft will be an attack
systems require navigation inputs, aircraft with a weapons computer, HUD,
Radar and Forward Looking Infrared Radar radar and FLIR as well as the TACAN and
(FLIR) displays and antennas are often OMEGA systems used to demonstrate the
geographically stabilized using INS previous tests.
inputs. The INS can use sensor and
other navigation system inputs for 3.3.6.3. Instrumentation
position updates. Navigation
information is often displayed on radar Data cards are required for this test.
and FLIR displays, tactical displays and A voice recorder is highly recommended.
HUDs. A typical system will use radar
input to the navigation system as 3.3.6.4. Data Required
initial steering to the target (the
navigation system also is stabilizing Record qualitative comments concerning
the radar scan center to maintain the integration of the INS with the
detection of the target). The aircraft weapons computer, FLIR, HUD,
navigation input is then used to steer radar, TACAN and OMEGA. Include
the FLIR onto the target for a FLIR comments concerning the INS inputs to
handoff. The navigation cues are these systems as well as the radar,
provided on the HUD, often including an TACAN and OMEGA inputs to the INS for
INS stabilized target designator box, to INS updates. Evaluate the effects of
aid in visually finding the target. If INS accuracy upon other systems, for
detection is lost, such as during the instance the drift rate of radar and
terminal phase of a DBS radar attack, FLIR geographically stabilized cursors,
the INS provides final attack cues. once a target is selected, and the
Finally, during the weapons release, the resulting workload as the cursors are
INS provides inputs to the weapons repeatedly updated. Evaluate the
computer to calculate the proper release effects of navigation functions, such as
point, again providing cues to the INS update procedures, upon operator
pilot. workload in a mission relatable
environment. Assess the utility of the
In most cases, the INS requires the INS derived information displayed upon
widest integration within the complete the radar, FLIR, HUD and INS unique
aircraft of any system and as such is displays including the effects of INS
the most challenging to test for accuracy, while performing radar to FLIR
integration. Since the output of the or HUD handoffs and mission relatable
INS (latitude and longitude) is rarely ingresses, attacks and egresses.
used directly by the pilot, the issue of
integration and accuracy nearly 3.3.6.5. Procedure
completely define the utility of the
INS. Select a mission relatable target in the
test area that allows for a 35 to 40 nm
The utility and integration of the INS ingress to the target location. Select
can only be evaluated during mission several waypoints inbound to the target.
relatable tasks. For an attack While navigating from the home airfield
aircraft, the evaluation must be to the initial waypoint, qualitatively
performed during mission relatable assess the utility of the INS accuracy
ingresses to the target area, detection and steering cues for long range, IMC
of the target, handoff between the navigation. Choose an altitude and
sensors as would be expected in a airspeed that conserves fuel. Descend
tactically significant attack (for to a low ingress altitude and set an
example a handoff from a long range airspeed near the sea level limit of the
radar detection to a FLIR attack),
164

test aircraft. Head inbound to the

target and select a radar mapping mode
with at least a 40 nm scale and a widc
scan pattern useful for radar mapping.
Follow the INS and radar cues inbound to
the target, passing over the waypoints
along the route. Select DBS radar modes
inbound to the target and when inside of
10 ram perform a handoff of the target
from the radar to the FLIR. Continue
inbound to the target, performing a
mission relatable unguided ordnance
attack. Following the attack, turn
outbound from the target and navigate to
the initial point on the reverse route
using the radar and INS cues. Repeat
with different weapons deliveries as
time allows. Use a voice recorder or
write down comments after each run.
Care should be taken not to become
distracted with recording data to allow
the best overall qualitative evaluation.

3.3.6.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

Relate the qualitative deficiencies
noted to their effects upon the
performance of normal IFR navigation,
ingresses and attacks. Note any
limitations upon tactics imposed by the
INS accuracy, utility or integration.
For instance, the navigation cues used
to find the waypoints may require so
much operator attention and
interpretation that they destroy the
scan of the radar display while
searching for the target. As another
example, the INS drift may be so high
that the stored position of the target
may drift radically between the last
radar or FLIR update and the weapons
release, causing a miss of the target.
It is critical that the INS utility and
integration should not be driving
tactics. Use the applicable results
from the previous tests to support the
qualitative results.

3.3.6.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is presented as card
43.
 165

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

INS MISSION UTILITY AND INTEGRATION

(AFTER TAKEOFF, CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND SET KIAS. PERFORM INS NAVIGATION TO

THE INITIAL POINT, ASSESSING THE UTILITY OF THE INS'S ACCURACY AND DISPLAYS FOR IMC

NAVIGATION. DESCEND TO FEET AGL AND SET KIAS AT THE INITIAL WAYPOINT. SET

A 40 NM RADAR SCALE AND " SCAN ANGLE LIMIT. SEARCH FOR THE TARGET ON THE RADAR

WHILE NAVIGATING TO THE WAYPOINTS. AT 10 NM, PERFORM A FLIR HANDOFF. PERFORM

A ATTACK. AFTER RELEASE, REVERSE THE INGRESS TRACK. REPEAT USING A

, AND ATTACK AS FUEL ALLOWS.]

TARGET POSITION

INITIAL WAYPOINT I POSITION

WAYPOINT 2 POSITION

WAYPOINT 3 POSITION

NOTES:

Card 43: INS Mission Utility and Integration Data Card

166

3.3.7. Introduction to Advanced this table is merely to emphasize the

existence of these advanced techniques.
Inertial Navigation System Test Further, this list is not exhaustive.
Techniques Many innovative uses of assets and
instrumentation
the examples provided hoped
It is the
exist. leave that
reader

As mentioned in Chapter 1, only the most with a taste of how the test can be made
rudimentary form of the inertial more rigorous through the judicious use
navigation system test techniques are of instrumentation. In application; the
pre #ented in this book. Chapter 1 user must refer to the more adva.-ced
de' ils the reasons for this format; documents referenced in Chapter 1 or
hoý3ver, in many applications, miore solicit help from more experienced
rigor, accuracy and documentation of testers.
results are required. Table IV outlines
additional instrumentation and assets
which are typically applied in these
more advanced tests. The purpose of

Table IV: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced Inertial

Navigation System Tests

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation
Preflight and Digital Recorder. Typically records data from data bus
Built-in- on which navigation system under test
Tests. passes the BIT results. Allows
precise documentation of test
results. Usually used in conjunction
with fault insertion tests.
Video recording of Provides automatic recording of what
display. the operator sees as a fault status
is displayed.

Controls and Video recording of Allows automatic documentation of

Displays. display. display problems as well as post-
flight analysis and evaluation.

Cockpit mock-ups, Typically used for in-depth ground

reconfigurable tests of human factors and in
cockpits and iterative cockpit design.
virtual cockpits.
Digital recording Can be used as a means of precisely
of operator recording operator selections to
actions. document noted problems and as a
means of performing operator task
analysis.

Initializa- Digital recording Entire alignment process is captured

tion and of navigation data allowing isolation of poor alignment
Alignment. bus to include all performance. Initialization process
Inertial Navigation is recorded and correlated to
System (INS) operator selections. Final alignment
outputs, alignment results are compared to known
parameters and alignment location and aircraft
operator actions orientation.
and inputs.
Precisely surveyed
alignment location
and boresighted
aircraft heading
and orientation.
 Table IV: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced 167
Inertial Navigation System Tests (Continued)

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation I ]
Static Digital recording Digital position and rates are
Position of INS derived compared to the known static values.
Accuracy. position and rates. Display output to the operator is
Video recording of compared to the direct INS output.
display. Precisely
surveyed alignment
location.
Dynamic Non- Digital recording The profile is flown without the
maneuvering of aircraft necessity of surveyed point flyovers.
Position dynamics, precise, Space positioning data and aircraft
Accuracy. time stamped space dynamics are continuously recorded
positioning data, and later compared to INS derived
INS derived values. If derived from a range, the
position and rates, profile is often constrained
and operator geographically. Recently, Global
actions. Video Positioning System (GPS) data can be
recording of the used with sufficient accuracy to
display. avoid constricting the profile.
Recorded aircraft dynamics are also
examined to correlate maneuvering
excursions with changes in INS drift
rates. The display video is compared
to the INS bus data to check for
inconsistencies caused by the
manipulation of the INS data and then
its display.
Dynamic Digital recording Typically, precise space positioning
Maneuvering of aircraft data is derived from an instrumented
Position dynamics, precise, range. Aircraft dynamics can be
Accuracy. time stamped space derived from either on or off the
positioning data, aircraft. The INS derived rates and
INS derived position are compared directly with
position and rates, the time correlated data as the
and operator maneuvers are performed. The display
actions. Video video is used as above.
recording of the
display.
Dynamic Digital recording The data is used similarly to the
Update of aircraft Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position
Performance. dynamics, precise, Accuracy test with the comparisons of
time stamped space position and rates performed after
positioning data, each update.
INS derived
position and rates,
and operator
actions. Video
recording of the
display.
168 Table IV: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced
Inertial Navigation System Tests (Continued)

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation II
Mission Digital recording This test requires the largest amount
Utility and of aircraft of data to completely document the
Integration. dynamics, precise, results. It is during this test that
time stamped space most of the unexpected problems are
positioning data, found. In anticipation of having to
INS derived document these deficiencies, maximum
position and rates, instrumentation and range support are
and operator sometimes brought to bear in case
actions. Video unforseen data are required in post-
recording of the flight analysis.
display. Digital
recording of all
navigation data
passed to other
aircraft systems.
 169

3.4.OMEGA NAVIGATION SYSTEM propagation characteristics. Since the

entire procedure can be quite time
TEST TECHNIQUES consuming, some status indication is
required to indicate to the operator
that the process is proceeding normally
3.4.1 .Initialization and as an indicator of the approximate
time left to completion. Finally, the
operator must be alerted to the fact
3.4.1.1.Purpose that the OMEGA has integrated to an
initial solution and is ready for
The purpose of this test is to determine flight. Generally an operator alert is
the amount of time that the OMEGA provided.
requires from the time it is turned on
until it begins providing a position 3.4.1.3.Data Required
(initialized) and to assess the effects
that this time has upon the launch Record the time from when the initial
preparation time. position is input to the OMEGA to the
time that the initialization complete
3.4.1.2.General alert is provided. Record qualitative
comments concerning the utility of the
After the OMEGA is turned on and the initialization complete alert as an
initial position provided by the indicator that the OMEGA is ready for
operator, the OMEGA computer then flight. Record qualitative comments
searches for the signals from the OMEGA concerning the effects that the time
ground stations. In modern, airborne required for initialization of the OMEGA
OMEGAs, the ground stations used at the will have upon mission relatable quick
initial position are selected from an reaction alert launches. Record as
internal table and are based upon the notes a description of the weather
geometry to the stations. The stations conditions.
are selected to limit the effects of
GDOP by choosing pairs that provide 3.4.1.4. Instrumentation
hyperbolic lines that cross at as close
to 90" as possible. In addition, the A stop watch and data cards are required
effects of the differences in day and for this test. A voice tape recorder is
night propagation, the day/night optional.
transition line, near station modal
interference and PCA are usually 3.4.1.5. Procedure
considered in station selection.
Following station selection, the OMEGA Perform a preflight/BIT, starting the
must analyze the phase relationship of stop watch immediately after entering
the signals and integrate to a solution. the initial latitude and longitude.
The initial fix can take from 1 to 5 Allow the OMEGA to automatically select
minutes depending upon the the internally derived ground stations.
characteristics of the OMEGA being Monitor the status indications as the
tested and the propagation OMEGA integrates to an initial fix.
characteristics of the day. Note the elapsed time when an alert is
posted, indicating that the OMEGA has
In addition to selection of stations, integrated to an initial fix and that
the initial fix is used to determine the the system is ready for flight.
initial lane location. The lanes are
ambiguous every 8 nm in the worst case, 3.4.1.6. Data Analysis and
and station selection changes over even Presentation
longer distances, and so taxi distances
before takeoff have little or no effect Add the time required to turn on and
upon the OMEGA initialization. For this input the initial latitude and longitude
reason, the factor limiting the to the time required for the OMEGA to
allowable integration time is the time integrate to an initial position and
from OMEGA turn on to takeoff, where the post an alert. Relate the time required
first OMEGA position display is to the time available to make an alert
required. The time to turn on the launch and the possibility of launching
OMEGA, input the initial position, and without OMEGA derived position
for the OMEGA to select the ground information. Relate the clarity and
stations and to integrate to a solution accuracy of the initialization status
should be less than the alert launch indications to the possibility of
requirement of the aircraft. This test prematurely initiating troubleshooting
should be repeated over as many days as procedures while waiting for an
possible to allow for a wide variance of initialization complete alert. Relate
170

the clarity and location of the

initialization complete indication to
the possibility of missing the alert and
delaying the launch.

Severe weather may interfere with the

ground station signals and may thus
prolong the initialization process. If
the initialization time is excessive and
weather problems are suspected, repeat
the test in clear weather conditions.
Relate weather effects to the necessity
to launch with adverse weather in the
vicinity.

3.4.1.7. Data Cards

A sample data card is provided as card
44.
 171

CARD NUMBER

OMEGA INITIALIZATION

(START THE STOP WATCH IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE INPUT OF THE INITIAL LATITUDE AND

LONGITUDE. RECORD THE TIME WHEN THE INITIALIZATION IS COMPLETE. RECORD QUALITATIVE

COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE INITIALIZATION STATUS AND INITIALIZATION

COMPLETE INDICATIONS.]

INITIAL POSITION

TIME THE INITIALIZATION IS COMPLETE

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

Card 44: OMEGA Initialization Data Card

 172

3.4.2. Dynamic Position Accuracy the total error

relatable tolerances.
is within mission
Further testing,
requiring more sophisticated data
3.4.2.1. Purpose gathering techniques and
instrumentation, will be required if the
The purpose of this test is to determine error is beyond these limits.
the position fixing accuracy of the
OMEGA system within the extremes of the With the exception of the time dependent
expected groundsite geometries, variations of the PCA and SIDs, the
OMEGA errors are generally not dependent
3.4.2.2. General upon time as were the INS errors. The
effects are generally dependent upon
As described in the navigation theory station geometry. The testing emphasis
section, diurnal effects, ground is then shifted from time dependency to
conductivity effects (with the exception placing the system in as many station
of attenuation over the polar ice caps) geometry situations as possible.
and the earth's shape effects are fairly Maximum range airspeeds are used to
predictable and are accounted for within maximize the number of different
the OMEGA computer. Near station modal geometric relationships possible in a
interference, long range, directional single flight. In addition, the data is
ambiguity and polar cap attenuation generally plotted in the form of a
effects are compensated for by north-south/east-west error scatter plot
automatically deselecting stations vice an error versus elapsed time plot.
inside 200 to 500 nm, beyond [Ref. 38:p. 4.22a].
approximately 8,500 nm and with
propagation paths over the polar ice 3.4.2.3. Instrumentation
caps. The exact ranges vary from system
to system and are determined and set by Data cards and an optional voice
the designer. The exact values can be recorder are required for this test.
determined from the manufacturer
documentation as can plots of the areas 3.4.2.4. Data Required
where stations are deselected due to
polar cap attenuation. SIDs and PCAs Following an OMEGA initialization,
are unpredictable for the most part, record the stations in use and the
cannot be accounted for, and therefore displayed latitude and longitude.
cannot be tested for within the time and Immediately prior to takeoff, record the
cost constraints of this test since a runway, runway location, stations in
complete investigation would require use, and displayed latitude and
testing over great periods of time and longitude. At each flyover point,
atmospheric conditions. record the selected stations, surveyed
point identification, altitude, and
The performance degradation of the OMEGA OMEGA displayed latitude and longitude.
due to three of the above effects will After landing and rollout, record the
be specifically isolated in this runway, runway location, stations in
procedure. The pilot is typically given use, and the displayed latitude and
an indication of the OMEGA stations in longitude. Throughout the flight,
use on the OMEGA navigation display. record any OMEGA alerts and note the
The performance of the OMEGA in latitude and longitude when stations are
selecting and deselecting these stations deselected for near station modal
due to near station modal interference, interference, long range, directional
long range, directional ambiguity and ambiguity and PCA. Record qualitative
PCA can be measured by noting the comments concerning the utility of the
stations in use as the aircraft transits OMEGA displays/controls and navigation
these areas. These effects can be accuracy for navigating to and visually
isolated by assuming that the errors finding the surveyed flyover points.
will not be significant as long as the Record as notes a description of the
selections are performed correctly. The weather conditions.
measured accuracy can then be assumed to
be influenced by some combination of the 3.4.2.5. Procedure
remaining effects discussed in the OMEGA
theory section. The exact contributions Prior to the flight, plan a route that
will generally be indeterminate by this provides a flyover point each 5 to 15
technique. The aggregate effects of minutes of flight time. Preflight
errors in the internal compensation planning of the flyover route is
routines of the OMEGA computer and the discussed in the navigation theory
uncompensable errors can; however, be section. Plan and plot the route using
assumed to be satisfactory as long as normal low level visual navigation
 173

procedures as outlined in reference 59 Attempt to maintain this airspeed

"Trainee Guide for Visual Navigation". throughout as much of the flight as
Choose an altitude that can be possible. Use visual reference points
comfortably flown considering the as well as the test OMEGA and any other
maneuvering characteristics of the test available navigation aids to find the
aircraft, the experience of the pilot, first flyover point. The first point
the current weather conditions and the should be within 5 to 15 minutes of
local terrain. Altitudes between 200 takeoff and each subsequent point should
and 2,000 feet AGL are standard. Visual be at 5 to 15 minute intervals. Record
Meteorological Conditions (VMC) are the stations in use and the displayed
required and care should be taken to latitude and longitude at each flyover
choose a route clear of small airfields, point as well as the bearing and range
areas of dense low level traffic, as to the point when the point is not
well as areas of high bird activity, directly overflown. Record any system
Generally, standard military VR routes alerts with the elapsed time as notes.
are useful since the route planning has
already been performed and While navigating to the flyover points,
scheduling/coordination is fairly evaluate the utility of the OMEGA
simple. References 61 and 62 outline displays/controls, utility of the OMEGA
the VR structure and explain procedures derived steering cues, as well as the
for their use. Once a VR route is integration of the navigation
chosen, only surveyed points leading to information with the aircraft as an aid
and from the home airfield to the start in early visual location of the flyover
and end point of the VR route need to be points. After visual location, evaluate
selected, the accuracy of the cues until
overflight and afterwards the controls,
If possible, a route should be chosen to displays and cues as an aid for
exercise the OMEGA ground station select immediate navigation to the next point.
logic for near station modal The last flyover should occur 5 to 15
interference, long range, directional minutes before touchdown. Following
ambiguity and PCA. The manufacturer's touchdown and rollout, record the
handbook on the OMEGA's operation will stations in use, runway location,
provide charts of the points at which latitude and longitude. Use the
the stations should deselect and description of the runway location to
reselect due to these three effects. In again obtain the surveyed location from
many cases, flight time, cost and home airfield charts. Taxi to a surveyed
airfield location will not allow this to parking area and before shutdown, record
be performed; however, an attempt should the stations in use and displayed
be made, if possible. For most tests latitude and longitude. Record the
within the continental United States, displayed latitude and longitude when
the North Dakota station will be used to the OMEGA deselects a station for near
check near station modal interference station modal interference, long range,
deselection, the Norway station will be directional ambiguity or PCA.
best for checking PCA deselection and
the Liberia station will be best for 3.4.2.6. Data Analysis and
checking long range, directional Presentation
ambiguity deselection.
For data where the aircraft did not fly
Perform an OMEGA initialization test. directly over the flyover point, use the
When the initialization is complete, recorded bearing and range at CPA to
record the stations in use and then the find the actual latitude and longitude.
displayed latitude and longitude. Convert the bearing to the point to true
Following normal aircraft and airfield bearing and then resolve the vector into
procedures, taxi to the takeoff area and north-south and east-west components.
at the time of takeoff, record the Next, convert the components into
stations in use and the displayed differences in latitude and longitude.
latitude and longitude. Note the In the north-west hemisphere, add the
aircraft location on the runway at the difference in latitude when the point is
time the position is marked. This to the south of the aircraft. Add the
position can later be used to obtain the difference in longitude when the point
actual surveyed latitude and longitude, is to the west of the aircraft. Use the
equations below:
Perform a normal airfield departure,
navigating to the initial flyover point.
Select an airspeed near the maximum
range airspeed at the test altitude and
set this airspeed as early as possible.
174

Relate the utility of the OMEGA

Tb,•=Mk,-.._V displays, steering cues and integration
(A=(wn) within the aircraft to the utility of
(i C!M the OMEGA as an aid for navigating to
,,T
m.) the target position and later returning
(Anm)
A= to the home airfield and as an aid in
I nm 7)] updating the INS after it drifts.
1ino(.4 Compare the positions where the OMEGA
deselects and reselects ground stations
for near station modal interference,
Subtract the displayed latitude and long range, directional ambiguity and
longitude from the surveyed latitude and PCA to the manufacturer's charts of the
longitude or the offset corrected designed selection and deselection
latitude and longitude as appropriate, points. Relate any discrepancies of
Convert the latitude and longitude greater than 50 nm to the possibility of
difference to nm using equation (21). increased errors due to the applicable
Plot the data as a scatter plot of the effect. Relate any change in the error
east-west errors on the x axis and the during the periods where the OMEGA
north-south errors on the y axis. Since stations are incorrectly selected or
the errors are not time dependent, the deselected to the reduced effectiveness
data from a number of flights may be of the OMEGA as an aid for navigation
c-..bined as long as the basic system set and updating the INS.
u: does not change. The scatter plot
may be statistically analyzed to Severe weather may interfere with the
determine the parameters quoted within ground station signals and may thus
the specific system specification for degrade the dynamic accuracy. If the
the OMEGA under test. Generally, a accuracy is poor and weather prublems
calculation of the mean error, standard are suspected, repeat the test in clear
deviation and Circular Error Probable weather conditions to confirm the
(CEP) will be required. Reference 45 problem source. Relate weather effects
provides a good discussion of the to the necessity to fly in the vicinity
techniques for determining these of adverse weather.
parameters. Relate the accuracy of the
OMEGA to the requirement to perform 3.4.2.7. Data Cards
non-maneuvering navigation during ferry
missions and while ingressing from the Sample data cards are provided as card
base airfield to enemy lines and to the 45.
requirement for updating the aircraft
INS to correct for drift.

Occasionally the pilot will overfly the

wrong surveyed point. If a single point
is grossly wrong while the others have a
more predictable error, the individual
point can be discounted. Often, the
correct flyover point can be found by
inferring the appropriate navigation
error from the error of adjacent data
points and the presence of other targets
on the TPC used for navigation. In this
case, the new surveyed point can be used
and the data will not be wasted.
If system alerts are noted during the
flight, check for significant change in
the error data following the time the
alert is noted. Thoroughly investigate
any OMEGA alerts that imply degraded
accs. acy and do not result in a change
on . - error plot or a malfunction being
fou.,: during ground checks. Alerts that
do not result in degraded accuracy or
problems being found during the ground
checks should be related to the
possibility of unnecessarily aborted
sorties (false alarms).
 175

CARD NUMBER

DYNAMIC POSITION ACCURACY

[AFTER PERFORMING AN OMEGA INITIALIZATION TEST, NOTE THE SELECTED STATIONS AND

RECORD THE LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. RECORD DATA AT THE TAKEOFF ROLL POINT. AFTER

TAKEOFF, SET KIAS, CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND ASSUME LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION TO THE

FIRST POINT. NAVIGATE TO EACH FLYOVER POINT AND RECORD THE DATA. RECORD THE

OFFSET FROM THE POINT, SYSTEM ALERTS AND DESELECTION POINTS AS REQUIRED. RECORD

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE NAVIGATION DISPLAYS, STEERING

CUES AND NAVIGATION ACCURACY. RECORD DATA AFTER ROLLOUT AND BEFORE SHUTDOWN.)

SURVEYED ALIGNMENT LOCATION

STATIONS IN USE

DISPLAYED WHEN SELECTED

EXPECTED POINTS OF DESELECTION:

N. DAKOTA

LIBERIA

NORWAY

NOTES:

Card 45: Dynamic Position Accuracy Data Cards

176

DYNAMIC POSITION ACCURACY

POINT SURVEYED DISPLAYED STATIONS ALTITUDE NOTES:

POSITION POSITION (FEET MSL)

Card 45: Dynamic Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 177

DYNAMIC POSITION ACCURACY

DESCRIBE THE LOCATION OF THE ROLLOUT:

SELECTED STATIONS AFTER ROLLOUT

DISPLAYED AFTER ROLLOUT

SURVEYED SHUTDOWN LOCATION

SELECTED STATIONS AT SHUT DOWN

DISPLAYED AT SHUTDOWN

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE OMEGA

DISPLAYS/CONTROLS:

OMEGA STEERING CUES:

ACCURACY:

Card 45: Dynamic Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 178

3.4.3. Lane Ambiguity Resolution derived position. To correct for INS

drift prior to the test, the INS must be
updated using the OMEGA derived
3.4.3.1 Purpose position. Next add the latitude and
longitude errors to the displayed OMEGA
The purpose of this test is to evaluate position, enter this new latitude and
the response of the OMEGA system to longitude as an OMEGA initialization
erroneous operator inputs of aircraft position and start the stop watch.
position. Record the elapsed time and INS
displayed latitude and longitude when
3.4.3.2. General the system discrete indicating a
navigating OMEGA is displayed. Without
As described in the OMEGA theory updating the INS, repeat for the 10, 20,
section, OMEGA lanes are ambiguous every 40, 80, 110 and 150 nm errors. If a
1/2 wavelength of the OMEGA LF RF. For discrete is not displayed after 5
the 10.2 KHZ signals, this means the minutes 9 from initialization following
lanes are ambiguous every 8 nm. The any of the erroneous inputs, discontinue
ambiguity can be mitigated, through the test. No larger errors will then
analysis of several of the frequencies, have to be applied.
to an ambiguity of approximately 144 nm.
Most modern airborne OMEGAs use this 3.4.3.6. Data Analysis and
technique. In most OMEGAs, inputing a Presentation
new initial position will cause the
OMEGA to begin anew the initialization Most modern OMEGA systems are designed
process, the length of which will to resolve errors of up to 144 nm. The
partially be based upon the accuracy of maximum error in initial position which
the input position. The process will be the OMEGA can tolerate and still
assumed complete when the OMEGA posts an successfully initialize is bounded
operator alert that the system is between the last successful error input
navigating, and the failed input. The latitude and
longitude of the INS and OMEGA at the
3.4.3.3. Instrumentation time the operator alert is posted should
be consistent with the expected errors
A stop watch and data cards are required determined from the OMEGA and INS
for this test, a voice recorder is dynamic aircraft tests. Relate the
optional. range of the erroneous inputs resulting
in an initialized OMEGA to the
3.4.3.4. Data Required possibility of having to reinitialize
the OMEGA following a power or system
For each erroneous own aircraft position failure and the requirement for an
input to the OMEGA, record the input accurate navigational aid following this
error, time for an initialized discrete failure. The presence of a ready
to be posted, INS displayed latitude and discrete with a significant split
longitude and OMEGA displayed latitude between the INS and OMEGA derived
and longitude, position should be related to the
degraded accuracy and subsequently
3.4.3.5. Procedure degraded ability to complete the mission
and to safely recover the airplane due
Prior to the test flight, determine the to position fixing errors. The halted
latitude and longitude at which the test initialization or degradation of
will be conducted. The test will be accuracy can be related to the
performed using errors in north-south requirement for finding the target or an
and east-west positions of + 5, 10, 20, airfield to land during IMC conditions.
40, 80, 110 and 150 rim. Convert the nm
errors to latitude and longitude errors 3.4.3.7. Data Cards
using equation (26). The INS will be
used for a comparison with the OMEGA A sample data card is provided as card
46.

9May be adjusted for individual systems.

 179

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

LANE AMBIGUITY RESOLUTION

(PERFORM AN OMEGA UPDATE OF THE INS, INPUT THE OMEGA ERRORS, START THE STOPWATCH AND

WAIT FOR A NAVIGATION READY DISCRETE. RECORD DATA. REPEAT UNTIL THE DISCRETE IS

NOT PROVIDED AFTER 5 MIN.]

LAT LONG TIME INS POSIT OMEGA POSIT

NOTES:

Card 46: Lane Ambiguity Resolution Data Card

 180

3.4.4. Mission Utility and OMEGA/INS updates and assess the utility
of the update controls and OMEGA
Integration displays for ferry navigation. Descend
to a low altitude of approximately 500
feet AGL if safety permits and set an
3.4.4.1. Purpose airspeed near the sea level limit of the
test aircraft. Head inbound to the
The purpose of this test is to assess target and select a radar mapping mode
the utility of the OMEGA system as a with at least a 40 nm scale and a wide
position fixing navigation aid and the scan pattern useful for radar mapping.
integration of the OMEGA with the other Following the updated INS and radar
aircraft avionics, controls and cues, fly inbound to the target, passing
displays. over the waypoints along the route.
Once the target is acquired on radar,
3.4.4.2. General turn outbound and fly the reverse route
to the initial point. Perform another
As a position fixing system with a long OMEGA update during the reverse route.
integration time, the primary purpose of Use a voice recorder or write down
the OMEGA is to provide position updates comments after each run. Care should be
to the DR system (the INS is the sample taken not to become distracted with
system here); however, a limited display recording data to allow the best overall
of OMEGA information integrated into the qualitative evaluation.
other aircraft displays is desired.
Since OMEGA updates of the INS are 3.4.4.6. Data Analysis and
expected, the process should be easily Presentation
performed in a tactical environment.
The accuracy of the OMEGA must be Relate the utility of the OMEGA/INS
consistent with navigation requirements update controls and accuracy to the
during long range ingress to the target requirement for suitable position
area for an attack aircraft and for information for finding the target on
station keeping and return to base for a radar and for long range navigation
fighter. For the purposes of this ferry flights. The updates should be
sample test procedure, the test aircraft quickly and easily performed in a high
will be an attack aircraft equipped with workload IMC navigation or attack
an air-to-ground radar and an INS that ingress environment.
has an OMEGA update mode.
3.4.4.7. Data Cards
3.4.4.3. Instrumentation
A sample data card is provided as card
Data cards are required for this test. 47.
A voice recorder is highly recommended.

3.4.4.4. Data Required

Record qualitative comments concerning
the utility of the OMEGA position fix as
an update to the INS. Record comments
concerning the accuracy of the OMEGA
update as an aid for navigating to and
determining the position of the target
accurately enough to enable a radar
acquisition of the target. Record
comments concerning the utility and
integration of the OMEGA navigation data
displays and the controls necessary for
performing an OMEGA update during a
mission relatable ingress to the target
area. Record as notes a description of
the weather conditions.

3.4.4.5. Procedure

Select a mission relatable target in the

test area that allows for a 35 to 40 nm
ingress to the target location. Select
several waypoints inbound to the target.
While navigating from the home airfield
to the initial waypoint, perform
 181

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

OMEGA MISSION UTILITY AND INTEGRATION

[AFTER TAKEOFF, CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND SET KIAS, PERFORM AN OMEGA UPDATE AND

USE OMEGA INFORMATION TO NAVIGATE TO THE INITIAL POINT, ASSESSING THE UTILITY OF THE

OMEGA'S ACCURACY AND DISPLAYS FOR IMC NAVIGATION. DESCEND TO FEET AGL AND SET

KIAS AT THE INITIAL WAYPOINT. SET A 40 NM RADAR SCALE AND A " SCAN ANGLE

LIMIT. SEARCH FOR THE TARGET ON RADAR WHILE NAVIGATING TO THE WAYPOINTS. WHEN THE

RADAR TARGET IS ACQUIRED, RETURN TO THE INITIAL POINT USING THE RECIPROCAL FLIGHT

PATH.]

INITIAL WAYPOINT 1 POSITION

WAYPOINT 2 POSITION

WAYPOINT 3 POSITION

NOTES:

Card 47: OMEGA Mission Utility and Integration Data Card

182

3.4.5. Introduction to Advanced tests. The purpose of this table is

merely to emphasize the existence of
OMEGA Navigation System Test these advanced techniques. Further,
,Techniues this list is not exhaustive. Many
innovative uses of assets and
instrumentation exist. It is hoped that
As mentioned in Chapter 1, only the most the examples provided leave the reader
rudimentary form of the OMEGA navigation with a taste of how the test can be made
system test techniques are presented in more rigorous through the judicious use
this book. Chapter 1 details the of instrumentation. In application; the
reasons for this format; however, in user must refer to the more advanced
many applications, more rigor, accuracy documents referenced in Chapter i or
and documentation of results are solicit help from more experienced
required. Table V outlines additional testers.
instrumentation and assets which are
typically applied in these more advanced

Table V: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced OMEGA

Navigation System Tests
Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit
I Instrumentation II
Initializa- Digital recording The entire initialization is
tion. of OMEGA derived recorded, allowing isolation of the
position, site causes of a slow or failed
selections, and initialization. The test OMEGA
operator actions. initialization is compared to a
Precisely surveyed second OMEGA with known
initialization characteristics. When both have
location, initialization problems, correlation
Validated OMEGA is made with the recorded weather and
receiver located known propagation anomalies. The
close to the test initialization is correlated to
aircraft. Precise operator selections. The first
documentation of position is compared to the known
weather and alignment location.
propagation
effects.

Dynamic Digital recording The profile is flown without the

Position of time stamped necessity of surveyed point flyovers.
Accuracy. space positioning Space positioning data and aircraft
data, OMEGA derived dynamics are continuously recorded
position and site and later compared to OMEGA derived
selections, and values. If derived from a range, the
operator actions, profile is often constrained
Video recording of geographically. Recently, Global
the time stamped Positioning System (GPS) data can be
display. Precise used with sufficient accuracy to
documentation of avoid constricting the profile. The
weather and time stamped display video is
propagation- compared to the OMEGA data to check
effects, for inconsistencies caused by the
manipulation of the OMEGA data and
then its display. If problems are
noted, the errors are first compared
to known weather and propagation
problems. The OMEGA selection of
ground sites is compared to the
expected site use (based upon the
time stamped aircraft location) for
inconsistencies.
 Table V: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced OMEGA 183
Navigation System Tests

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

I Instrumentation I
Lane Digital recording The precise aircraft location at the
Ambiguity of time stamped time the erroneous position error is
Resolution. space positioning entered is compared directly to
data, OMEGA derived determine the position error at each
position and site initialization. Elapsed time is
selections, and derived at the time the
operator actions, initialization is complete and the
Video recording of position is compared to the known
the time stamped aircraft location. The displayed
display. Precise positions and operator feedback are
documentation of compared to the time stamped OMEGA
weather and parameters. When unexpected problems
propagation are noted in lane ambiguity
effects. resolution, the errors are first
compared to known weather and
propagation problems.

Mission Digital recording This test requires the largest amount

Utility and of time stamped of data to completely document the
Integration. space positioning results. It is during this test that
data, OMEGA derived most of the unexpected problems are
position and found. In anticipation of having to
operator actions, document these deficiencies, maximum
Video recording of instrumentation and range support are
the time stamped sometimes brought to bear in case
display. Time unforseen data are required in post-
stamped, digital flight analysis.
recording of all
navigation data
passed to other
aircraft systems.
 184

3.5. Coupled Global Positioning ephemeral data,

ionospheric propagation corrections are
clock bias and

System/Inertial Navigation System calculated. These new parameters,

unique to each satellite, are then
uplinked to the constellation via the
3.5.1. General three Uplink Stations. The Control
Segment uses a frequency of 2227.5 MHZ
for downlink from the satellite and
The Global Positioning System (GPS) was 1783.74 MHZ for uplink to the satellite.
designed to provide an unlimited number [Ref. 48:p. 1-6, Ref. 11].
of users with continuous, worldwide,
all-weather, common grid, three- 3.5.4. User Segment
dimensional, positional information as
well as a highly accurate source of time
and doppler based velocity information. The User Segment consists of the various
GPS consists of the three segments: GPS equipment carried onboard the user
[Ref. 48:p. 1-3, 1-4]. platforms. GPS equipment may be carried
/ Space Segment on ground vehicles, ships, by individual
/ Control Segment persons and on aircraft. This document
/ User Segment'° will concentrate on the testing of
aircraft-based user equipment.
3.5.2. Space Segment
A typical aircraft installation includes
an antenna and associated cabling/coax,
The space segment consists of a a receiver, which converts the incoming
constellation of 18 operational RF signals to digital messages, a
satellites with three on-orbit spares. processor unit and a display. The
The satellites are spaced in six planes receiver and processor are often
inclined at 55" with three or four contained within the same physical unit
satellites per plane. The satellites or may be placed on a single card for
travel in 10,900 nm circular orbits with inclusion in another unit.
a period of twelve hours. Each
satellite transmits a continuous The receiver and processor accept the
information stream including its own satellite ephemeral data and use it to
satellite ephemeral data", atmospheric calculate a precise location for the
propagation correction data and satellite. The satellite sends the
satellite clock bias information. The exact time of transmission of each
data are transmitted on two frequencies, message. The processor uses the exact
1575.42 MHZ and 1227.6 MHZ, known as Ll time of transmission and reception of
and L2, respectively. Two frequencies the signal, corrects the signal, scales
are used so that an algorithm can be the difference in time by the
applied to correct ionospheric propagation rate, corrects ionospheric
propagation effects. (Ref. 10]. propagation effects and thus calculates
the unambiguous range to the satellite.
3.5.3. Control Segment Knowledge of the satellite location at
the time of transmission thus provides a
sphere on which the user equipment
The Control Segment consists of five antenna must be located. By performing
Monitor Stations, three Uplink Stations the same calculations for three
and a single Master Control Station as satellites, an unambiguous position upon
depicted in figure 10. The Monitor the surface of the earth is calculated.
Stations passively track each satellite By adding a fourth satellite's
within their view and collect ranging information, a three-dimensional
data using the satellite signal. The position is provided. (Ref. 10].
information is passed to the Master
Control Station in Colorado Springs,
Colorado, where updated satellite

10This document will discuss the testing of airborne user equipment only. It is assumed that the space and control segments are fully developed and
their performance quantified.

"Ephemeral data include a complete description of the orbital parameters of the satellite and thus allow the calculation of the precise location of the
satellite at any time.
 185

SUMNYVAL CD

HAWAII " ° 7 VCWXAJALEIN

CENSION GARCIA -EGO

* MASTER OL STATION
* MONITOR STATION
E GROUND ANTENNA
0 BACKUP CONTROL STATION

Figure 10: Control Segment Components

For airborne applications, the its position is adequate for targeting

receiver/processor is designed to of many weapons. During the design of
simultaneously receive, decode and use the GPS system, it was the stated intent
the signals from four to eleven of the U. S. DoD not to make targeting
different satellites simultaneously. In grade accuracy available to everyone.
this way, the required signals for The GPS signal is thus degraded
three-dimensional position calculations somewhat, requiring special
can always be tracked even when cryptographic equipment to attain the
satellites rise and fall from view. full system accuracy. This function is
called the Selective Availability (SA)
In addition to range, the ephemeral system. To obtain the SA accuracies,
data, aircraft location and doppler cryptographic hardware and a special
shift of the GPS signal are used to code, called the P code, which is
calculate platform translation periodically changed, must be loaded.
velocities. A very precise time source
is also available from the GPS system. 3.5.6. Accuracies
[Ref. 10]. The GPS concept is
graphically depicted in figure 11.
The GPS, with SA applied, is designed to
3.5.5. Selective Availability provide 16 m Spherical Error Probable
(SEP) accuracy. SEP is a sphere with
radius equal to the 50% error bounds. A
The GPS-generated position is typically sphere is used vice a circle since the
very accurate. It is so accurate that GPS is capable of three-dimensional
positioning. Without SA applied, the GPS
186

Space Segment

r" 2. 1 221 Satellites

User Segmentt
Control Segment

ions

5Monitor
Stations Master Control Station

Figure 11: The Global Positioning System Concept

is designed to provide 100 m SEP vehicle environment will be

accuracies. It is important to note indistinguishable and will be quantified
that the non-SA accuracy is completely as a group. To date, a full.
arbitrary and totally dependent upon the constellation of GPS satellites are
desires of the satellite controllers. airborne and thus, an adequate set of
(Ref. 48:p. 1-10]. GPS time is satellites should always be visible. If
typically accurate to 100 nanoseconds problems are noted during the test, it
and velocity to 0.1 m/sec. [Ref. 10]. may become necessary to either isolate
or eliminate the geometry effects. This
GPS user equipment performance is is readily accomplished since the
affected by seven factors [Ref. 10]: satellite ephemeral data are openly
"/Vehicle Dynamics available. A number of software
/Multipath Effects programs are available for accomplishing
/Nominal System Errors this task. As an example, the author
.Vehicle Environment was provided, free of charge, with a set
/Satellite Constellation Geometry of GPS simulation and utility proraoms
/Ionospheric/Tropospheric Effects which included algorithms For
/Hostile Environment calculating GPS satellite visibili+y AS
well as GDOP predictions (Ref. 9/r' R
These test procedures will specifically 3]. As long as the system doeS /pd
isolate and quantify vehicle dynamics exhibit deficiencies during the tests fo
and multipath effects. Since these be described, it will not be neceyvjry
tests are performed on the GPS, as to check for satellite constell$-t4an
installed in the aircraft, the nominal geometry problems. Ionospheric/tro•p-
system errors and errors due to the spheric effects are corrected within the
 187

space segment. For the purposes of this is restricted by any condition which may
test, it will be assumed that the space affect optical visibility as well as by
segment corrections are functioning the geometry within the theodolite
appropriately. The user equipment array. Accuracy is a function of the
hostile environment includes the effects range from each theodolite and geometry
of hostile jamming of the satellite with the best accuracy occurring when
signal. The effects of intentional, the lines of bearing from each
hostile jamming will not be considered theodolite used are approximately at
in this document. right angles. Typical arrays allow
coverage of a 15 to 20 nm area.
3.5.7. Precise Space Positioning Most test ranges use the precise space
Instrumentation positioning data as an input to a
computer algorithm which then is used to
calculate precise groundspeed and
Due to the extreme accuracy of the GPS course. The calculations may be done
system, GPS testing requires an off-line or in real time. For the
instrumentation system which is also purposes of developing the sample test
extremely precise. Target location must techniques, it will be assumed that the
be known to at least the accuracy to calculations are performed real time and
which the tester is attempting to available to the test aircraft while the
validate the system. Two classes of test is being performed.
trackers are usually used to obtain
accuracies on the order of a few feet, Since the GPS position and the range
laser trackers and theodolite trackers. derived space positioning data tend to
be so accurate, it is absolutely
Laser-based trackers are highly precise, necessary for the positions derived from
but are severely limited in range. The both sources to use a common geodetic
limited range is exacerbated by high grid system and reference point. Until
humidity or the presence of any visible recently, the errors induced by shifting
moisture. Typically, the technique is from one system to another were
no longer useful when the aircraft is typically small enough that they were
greater than 15 nm from the laser. Most not significant relative to the system
laser trackers provide both a precise errors. With the advent of systems like
bearing to the target as well as range. GPS, the geodetic system differences can
Ranging is done by pulsing the laser cause significant apparent errors in the
energy in a fashion similar to radar. GPS under test, when in fact, none
Given a surveyed location of the laser exist. A geodetic set, common to the
tracker, the azimuth and elevation of system under test, must be used, or
the laser beam and the target range, the corrections for the differences must be
target latitude and longitude is made during data reduction.
calculated. Accuracies on the order of
two to three feet are typical. With 3.5.8. Sample System
accuracies less than the dimensions of
the aircraft, it is necessary to specify
the location on the aircraft which is to The procedures to follow will be
be tracked. This is usually done by developed to test a sample system which
installing a small array of mirrors in includes an antenna mounted upon the top
the form of a hemisphere, on the of a tactical aircraft, behind the
aircraft. The laser then tracks this cockpit. The receiver and processor are
set of mirrors. a single box internal to the aircraft.
positioning may also be The positions, velocities and time,
derived accurate
Highly ausingratnepositwonig o tels
y e generated by the GPS, are passed to a
derived using a network of theodolite second processor which integrates the
trackers. Conceptually, a theodolite is GPS navigation information with the
merely a telescope. The telescope is output of the aircraft INS described
mounted on a precisely surveyed earlier. The GPS thus provides a
location. An operator places optical continuous update to the INS position as
crosshairs over a chosen location on the well as an additional source of
aircraft. The precise azimuth and velocities. These inputs are combined
elevation angle of the telescope with the INS solution using standard
apparatus is then measured and thus a filters to produce a single navigation
precise, three-dimensional line through solution. This solution is more
the target location is known. The accurate than either the stand-alone INS
theodolites are used in arrays with or GPS is capable of developing.
several simultaneously providing lines
of bearing, thus defining the location
of the target. The maximum useful range
188

In most cases, a Kalman filter is used 1. Fully coupled INS with GPS,
in the GPS to develop the smoothed initial latitude and
positions and in the INS to observe the longitude provided, P Code
platform rates, which are then used in installed, on the ground.
the DR solution. The sample system uses 2. GPS alone, initial latitude
a single, 18-state Kalman filter, and longitude provided, P
combining the inputs of both. This Code installed, on the
arrangement has the advantage of ground.
exploiting the benefits inherent in both 3. GPS alone, initial latitude
a highly precise position fixing system and longitude not known, P
and a DR system. However, it also has Code installed, on the
the disadvantage that it retains the ground.
problems inherent in both systems. 4. Repeat 1 through 3 with the
Therefore, it is necessary to test the P code not installed.
system for all the weaknesses discussed 5. INS alone.
in the INS testing section as well as 6. Repeat 1 through 5 using an
the new problem areas inherent in the airborne alignment.
GPS system.
Initialization of the GPS requires two
If either the GPS or INS inputs are not phases. In the first phase,
available, the algorithm continues to synchronization of the GPS user
produce a navigation solution using the equipment clock with satellite time is
single source of information. The performed. In the second phase, the
missing information is calculated as signal from each satellite is acquired,
needed. The outputs to the operator are tracked and decoded to calculate a
similar; however, the accuracies are navigation solution. The initialization
limited to approximately that of the process typically takes several minutes
stand-alone INS or GPS as applicable, to perform.
The GPS/INS integration described here Initialization indications usually
is an example of a coupled position include a graphical display as the first
fixing/DR system. It will be seen that satellite and each subsequent satellite
the test techniques are logically a signal is acquired. A quality number is
combination of those used for the sample provided as the signal for each
INS and OMEGA systems used as the satellite is decoded. Usually, the
examples of pure position fixing and DR display of the first satellite coincides
systems. The Preflight and Built-In with the completion of the clock
Tests, and the Controls and Displays synchronization. The quality numbers
tests provided in section 3.2 are will typically vary as the quality of
applicable as written to the sample the satellite signal changes, such as
GPS/INS. may occur as the satellite leaves the
visible horizon. A separate quality
3.6. GLOBAL POSITIONING number is usually provided
indicates the state of the complete GPS
which
SYSTEM TEST TECHNIQUES navigation solution. This number may be
in terms of a confidence level with
little physical significance or may
3.6.1. Initialization and Alignment directly relate to the expected
positional accuracy. A discrete is
usually provided which indicates that
3.6.1.1. Purpose the, system is providing the expected
navigational accuracy. This will be
The purpose of this test is to assess considered the completion of the
the coupled GPS/INS initialization and initialization phase for the sample
alignment procedures for their utility system. [Ref. 10].
for quickly reaching full navigation
status, with a minimum of operator time As the GPS begins the initialization
and attention, and the effect that these process, it uses the user-entered or
procedures have upon the set-up sequence previously stored GPS location,
of other aircraft systems. approximate time and the stored library
of satellite ephemeral data to determine
3.6.1.2 General which satellites are within view and
which provide the optimal geometry, for
Since the GPS/INS used for the sample the navigation calculations. GDOP tS as
unit is a coupled system, several important to GPS as it is for OMEA , If
different configurations must be tested: the location is significantly incorrect,
the initialization takes longer since
 189

the GPS must search for which satellites fix. The time will still be greater
are within view and which are best to than the ground alignment time.
minimize GDOP. The test is performed
using a known initial location and then Initialization of the INS includes
performed again under the assumption providing the system with position and
that the operator knows little about the orientation inputs from which to
initial location. The initial position reference the alignment. Alignment
location error magnitude choice is a bit involves first leveling the platform and
arbitrary, but 300 nm will be used for then orienting the true north axis to
this test. This number was chosen under the geographic true north. Alignment is
the assumption that the operator can be usually serially dependent upon
expected to know the correct location to initialization. The set up of other
within five minutes of latitude. aircraft systems is sometimes partially
dependent upon the presence of an INS
The INS initialization and alignment alignment. As an example, geostable
procedures are outlined in the tactical displays require navigation
navigation theory section. During a input to operate. While alignment is
fully coupled initialization and taking place, the pilot will have many
alignment, the highly precise, GPS- other tasks to perform, such as turning
derived, initial position is made on other systems, starting the aircraft,
available to the INS for an initial attempting to obtain tactical SA, or
alignment position. As long as the putting on his or her flight gear and
initial position is known prior to start strapping into the aircraft seat. A
and the correct position entered into quick and easy alignment process
the INS during initialization, this requiring a minimum of operator inputs
coupling makes little difference in the and attention is essential.
time required for initialization and
alignment. Waiting for the GPS to Several factors can affect the INS
initialize typically requires more time initialization and alignment process.
than is saved in the alignment, and Navigation control and display issues,
thus, most systems begin the INS addressed earlier can affect the time
procedures concurrent with the GPS and and effort required for the entry of the
later allow the GPS position to be used initialization parameters. Outside air
to update the INS position after the GPS temperature can affect alignment time.
alignment is complete. The sample The colder the temperature of the INS,
system uses this technique. the longer the alignment will take.
Motion of the aircraft can slow the
In most systems, the presence or absence alignment process. Actually moving the
of a P code makes little difference to aircraft, whether by taxiing or towing,
the GPS initialization process. In the usually requires suspending the
sample system, the only difference is alignment with an additional penalty of
the time required to transfer the code time as the process is resumed.
from the cryptographic unit's memory and Alignment latitude can affect the
the BIT on the unit itself. These alignment time. An alignment often will
processes occur during and before the take longer at higher latitudes, with a
BIT process and thus are timed during significant delay above 70' latitude.
the Navigation System Preflight and BIT Ship-based alignments usually take 50%
tests discussed earlier. However, for to 100% longer than shore-based
completeness, the initializations will alignments. Most systems require four
be repeated without the presence of the to ten minutes for the shore-based
P code, to ensure there is no difference initialization and alignment procedure.
in the time required. A wide variance of times can be obtained
depending upon the factors listed above
All of the ground initialization and and so it is important to carefully
alignment configurations can be record the conditions of the alignment.
performed while airborne. Airborne Since the alignment process takes a
alignment may be required after a very significant amount of time, a status
rapid alert launch or after losing the indication should be provided to give
alignment while airborne. Typically, the pilot an indication of the time left
the GPS initialization times will be to a complete alignment and to provide
similar for both the airborne and ground feedback that the process is'proceeding
cases. The INS will take significantly normally.
longer to align while airborne for the
case of the INS alone. The required Ideally, the system should be checked
time is significantly reduced when the over the entire range of expected
GPS is coupled due to the presence of a alignment conditions. Checking all
continuously updating, highly precise conditions is rarely possible. A wide
190

range of temperature conditions can latitude and longitude, magnetic

require much travel, time, or expensive heading, true heading, magnetic
test chambers. Testing the alignment variation and the total time for the
Smes over a variety of locations also alignment. Note _-_litative comments
quires expensive travel. This test concerning the utility of the INS
procedure will be performed at the given alignment status indications including
test location and current atmospheric the alignment complete indication.
conditions providing a spot check of one
possible condition. If a choice is For all of the configurations which
available; however, it is always best to include the GPS, record the approximate
test at the expected operational heading of the aircraft and any
conditions and secondarily at the obstructions between the GPS antenna and
extremes of the expected range of the sky, including buildings, mountains,
parameters. For this technique, ship- vehicles, etc. Record the elapsed time
based alignments will not be discussed, and satellite numbers as each satellite
The ship-based test technique is is acquired, and if applicable, dropped.
essentially the same except that Make comments as to the quality number
automatic recording of the continuously trends for each satellite. The quality
changing position and orientation numbers should continuously improve
parameters is required. until an adequate fix is calculated.
Comment on the utility of the GPS
3.6.1.3. Instrumentation initialization displays for determining
the status of the initialization.
A stop watch, thermometer (suitable for
measuring outside air temperature) and 3.6.1.5. Procedure
data cards are required for this test.
A voice recorder is optional. Most airfields have a surveyed compass
rose which is used for calibrating
3.6.1.4. Data Required installed magnetic compasses. The
center of the rose is accurately
For each of the initialization and surveyed in latitude and longitude and
alignment configurations, record the magnetic headings are marked around the
time required to input the GPS and INS circumference of the rose. When
initialization parameters as possible, the alignment should be
appropriate. Record qualitative performed at the surveyed rose
comments concerning the ease and provide accurate position and head.
complexity of the data entry. Note if truth data. When a compass rose is n..
the initialization process interferes available, perform the alignment at any
significantly with the start-up and other surveyed location. Most hangars
turn-on procedures for the entire have surveyed parking slots on the ramp.
aircraft. For all of the In this case, an estimate of aircraft
configurations, record the surveyed heading after alignment can be obtained
latitude and longitude of the aircraft using the magnetic compass with
and the position provided to the INS and deviation applied. Local area magnet.-
GPS as part of the initialization variation should be obtained from
process. published field charts, approach plates,
en route charts, TPCs, etc.
For all of the configurations which
include the INS, record the actual Large obstructions between the aircraft
heading of the aircraft during alignment and the sky may affect the GPS
(if available via an independent source initialization by obstructing the view
such as a calibrated compass alignment of satellites. Select a location which
rose), local magnetic variation and is representative of the types of
outside air temperature. If a compass obstructions which will be encountered
rose is not available, record the by operational users. Carefully note
surveyed alignment position, magnetic any and all obstructions in case
compass heading (with deviation applied) problems with satellite acquisition are
and magnetic variation. Record a noted. Heading must still be recorded
complete description of aircraft motion for the GPS-only initialization;
during the alignment. For the however, the accuracy need not be as
interrupted alignment, record the precise.
elapsed time at interrupt, resumption of
the alignment and a complete description Tow the test aircraft to the local
of the aircraft movement. Include the compass rose and record the surveyed
new surveyed location and aircraft position, heading and magnetic
heading. At the completion of the variation. If a compass rose is not
alignment, record the INS displayed used, record the surveyed alignment
 191

location, the magnetic heading as Perform the airborne initialization and

displayed on the back-up magnetic alignments using each of the five test
compass with deviation applied and the configurations. Prior to the flight,
magnetic variation. Allow the INS to select a flyover point near the field as
remain OFF for at least one hour before discussed in the earlier section on The
beginning the test to allow the Flyover Method. Take off with both the
components to cool to ambient INS and GPS secured. Initialize the INS
temperature. Record the outside air and GPS by turning on the systems,
temperature. allowing the BIT to run and then by
flying over the surveyed point and
Using the procedure published for the inputing the flyover latitude and
GPS/INS, perform a coupled GPS/INS longitude as the present position.
initialization. Record the time Start the clock as the point is entered.
required for initialization of both As on the ground, this is the time that
systems along with qualitative comments the GPS begins its synchronization and
concerning the ease of the acquisition process. Note the elapsed
initialization procedures and the extent time when the INS alignment mode is
to which initialization distracts the manually selected. Most systems,
pilot from turning on the entire including the sample system, require a
aircraft. The GPS synchronization and maximum amount of straight and level
satellite acquisition will begin flying as the INS aligns. The GPS is
automatically after the initialization typically affected little by maneuvering
is performed. The INS initialization as long as the antenna can maintain
must be selected by the operator. Start satellite visibility. Since the first
the clock as the GPS initialization is test is coupled, perform this portion
completed and the satellite acquisition while maintaining a maximum of straight
begins; and note the elapsed time upon and level flying. Record the elapsed
starting the INS alignment. As the time as each new satellite is acquired
alignment progresses, note the quality and as the initialization is complete.
of the alignment status indicators and Record as notes the general trends and
of the alignment complete indication, the satellite quality numbers as each
Note as each satellite is acquired and satellite is tracked and the navigation
make general comments about how the solution converges.
quality numbers for each satellite
progress. When the alignment is Upon completing the GPS initialization,
complete, note the total elapsed time, the sample system uses the GPS position
the indicated magnetic and true aircraft to update the INS position. The final
heading and the magnetic variation, position accuracy must be measured after
Completely describe any aircraft motion the alignment. The expected accuracy of
during the alignment process. Repeat the position provided by the GPS makes
the initialization and alignment test the measurement problematic while
before each test flight, airborne, requiring that the goal of
minimum outside instrumentation be
At least one interrupted alignment violated. Since the required accuracy
should be performed. Begin the must be on the order of feet to validate
alignment process at any surveyed point the accuracies of the coupled system,
and then tow or taxi the aircraft to the only two sources are typically
surveyed compass rose to complete the available. The first is via laser-based
alignment. Record the parameters tracking and the second is by
described above at both the first and theodolite. These trackers were
second location. Note the elapsed time discussed in the GPS theory section.
at interrupt and again when the
alignment is resumed. Upon completion of the airborne
alignment, also note the total elapsed
Repeat the test with the INS turned off, time, the indicated magnetic heading,
recording only the parameters related to INS derived true heading and the
the GPS. Repeat the test again, but magnetic variation. Completely describe
this time, provide the GPS with an any aircraft maneuvers during the
initial position which is in error by alignment process.
300 nm. Next, repeat all three tests
with the P code not installed. As the Repeat the test with the INS turned off,
final ground task, perform the test with recording only the parameters related to
the GPS turned off, recording only the the GPS. Repeat the test again, but
parameters related to the INS. Ensure this time, provide the GPS with an
that for each test including the INS, initial position which is in error by
that the INS has been off for at least 300 nm. Next, repeat all three tests
one hour. with the P code not installed. As the
 192

final task, perform the test with the aircraft on a crowded ramp during a mass
GPS turned off, recording only the alert sortie.
parameters related to the INS.
Relate the time and effort to perform
3.6.1.6. Data Analysis and Presentation the airborne INS and GPS initialization,
the complexity of the procedure and the
Relate the time required to perform the overall operator intensity as a
ground INS and GPS initialization, the distraction to the pilot as he or she
complexity of the procedure and the attempts to fly the airplane on a rap.d
overall operator intensity as a alert launch. Relate any degradation in
distraction to the pilot as he or she the GPS initialization or the INS
attempts to turn on other systems, alignment caused by essential
straps into the aircraft, starts the maneuvering and speed changes to the
engines and gains SA. Compare the necessity to perform normal naviaation
initialized aircraft position at the after the alert launch. Compare the
start of the alignment (input by the total time for the GPS to reach full
operator) to the position at the time capability and the satellite acquisition
the alignment is complete. There should times to the times recorded for the
be no INS drift during the alignment ground tests. There should be only
process and the GPS position should be minor differences for the airborne
the same. Apply the actual aircraft initialization. The total INS alignment
heading on the compass rose and the time should meet the specified
local magnetic variation to equation requirement and should allow the INS to
(21) to obtain true heading. Where a become aligned before it becomes
compass rose is not used, apply the essential to the mission. This time is
magnetic back-up compass heading with typically during the final phases of an
deviation applied and local magnetic attack, where weapons are being
variation to equation (21) to obtain targeted.
true heading. The accuracy of the truth
data will be degraded. Compare the true Compare the GPS-derived position,
heading, magnetic heading and magnetic course, groundspeed and altitude to the
variation provided by the INS at the truth data. The position and altitude
time of the alignment to the actual should meet the accuracy requirements as
values and relate the difference to the outlined in the theory section. The
quality of the alignment, the effect course and groundspeed should be
that inaccuracies will have upon accurate enough to allow degraded
positional drift and the utility of INS navigation while awaiting completion of
headings for accurately navigating in a the inflight alignment.
mission relatable ingress and attack.
Compare the position, course,
Relate the quality of the status groundspeed and altitude after the
indicator, including the alignment GPS/INS is fully aligned to the
complete indication, as a guide to how specified requirements. Typical
long the alignment has left to complete, position and altitude requirements are
as a source of confidence that the discussed in the theory sect on.
alignment is progressing normally and as Typical course and groundspeed
an indicator that the aircraft has an requirements are within the resolution
operating navigation system with which of the heading display and a few knots.
to launch. Relate this to the time
requirements and stress of an alert Relate the same parameters for the GPS-
launch. Compare the alignment time to only configuration to the necessity to
the time requirements of an alert launch perform the mission after the INS has
and to the specification at the ambient failed following a rapid alert launch
temperature recorded during the test. which occurs before either system is
If extreme variation in the alignment ready. For the INS only configuration,
time and quality is noted during relate the parameters to the need to
alignments where aircraft motion is a perform the mission after the GPS fails
factor (for instance while maintenance under the same conditions.
personnel are climbing on the airplane)
relate it to the requirement for Relate the P code absent test conditions
preflight trouble shooting before to the necessity to perform the mission
aircraft launches. Compare the time for after loss of the code or after a launch
a suspended alignment less the actual from a location where the code is not
time the alignment was suspended, to the available.
time for an uninterrupted alignment.
Relate any extreme variation to the
requirement to occasionally move
 193

3.6.1.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are provided as cards

48 and 49. For the condition of the GPS
turned off and the INS alignment
performed independently, use data card
38 from the INS test techniques section.
Reuse cards 48 and 49 when the P code is
not installed.
194

CARD NUMBER

GPS/INS COUPLED INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT

ALIGNMENT LOCATION P CODE YES/NO

ALIGNMENT HEADING MAGNETIC VARIATION

[ALLOW THE AIRCRAFT TO COLD SOAK FOR ONE HOUR. PERFORM A NORMAL COUPLED GPS/INS

INITIALIZATION.]

INITIALIZATION EASE/COMPLEXITY/EFFECTS UPON OTHER TURN ON AND START PROCEDURES:

INITIALIZATION TIME

(WHEN THE POSITION IS INPUT INTO THE GPS AND INS, START THE STOP WATCH, THEN START

THE ALIGNMENT.]

ELAPSED TIME AT START OF ALIGNMENT

OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE

(NOTE THE ELAPSED TIME AS EACH SATELLITE IS ACQUIRED.]

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

NOTE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE SATELLITE QUALITY NUMBER PROGRESSION AND

UTILITY OF THE GPS READY INDICATIONS:

COMPLETELY DESCRIBE ANY OBSTRUCTIONS BETWEEN THE GPS ANTENNA AND THE HORIZON:

TIME WHEN THE GPS READY INDICATION IS PROVIDED

FINAL GPS POSITION WHEN READY FOR NAV

Card 48: Initialization and Alignment Ground Test Data Cards

 195

CARD NUMBER

GPS/INS COUPLED INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT

COMPLETELY DESCRIBE ANY AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT:

[IF THE AIRCRAFT IS TURNED OR TOWED, NOTE THE TIME OF THE SUSPENDED ALIGNMENT AND

THE TIME OF THE RESTART.]

SUSPENDED RESTART

DESCRIPTION OF AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT DURING SUSPENDED ALIGNMENT:

FOR THE NEW AIRCRAFT LOCATION:

COMPLETELY DESCRIBE ANY NEW OBSTRUCTIONS BETWEEN THE GPS ANTENNA AND THE HORIZON:

ALIGNMENT LOCATION

ALIGNMENT HEADING MAGNETIC VARIATION

TIME TO COMPLETE THE ALIGNMENT

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE ALIGNMENT STATUS AND THE

ALIGNMENT COMPLETE INDICATORS:

WHEN THE ALIGNMENT IS COMPLETE:

DISPLAYED INS LOCATION

DISPLAYED MAGNETIC HEADING

DISPLAYED TRUE HEADING

DISPLAYED MAGNETIC VARIATION

WERE OTHER SYSTEMS/PROCEDURES WAITING ON THE INITIALIZATION OF THE GPS OR INS, OR

THE INS ALIGNMENT? IF SO, DESCRIBE:

Card 48: Initialization and Alignment Ground Test Data Cards (Continued)
196

CARD NUMBER

GPS INITIALIZATION (CORRECT POSIT AVAILABLE)

ALIGNMENT LOCATION P CODE YES/NO

ALIGNMENT HEADING MAGNETIC VARIATION

[PERFORM A NORMAL GPS INITIALIZATION.]

INITIALIZATION EASE/COMPLEXITY/EFFECTS UPON OTHER PROCEDURES:

INITIALIZATION TIME

(WHEN THE POSITION IS INPUT INTO THE GPS, START THE STOP WATCH]

ELAPSED TIME AT START OF TIME SYNC

(NOTE THE ELAPSED TIME AS EACH SATELLITE IS ACQUIRED)

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

NOTE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE SATELLITE QUALITY NUMBER PROGRESSION AND

UTILITY OF THE GPS READY INDICATIONS:

COMPLETELY DESCRIBE ANY OBSTRUCTIONS BETWEEN THE GPS ANTENNA AND THE HORIZON:

TIME WHEN GPS READY INDICATION PROVIDED

FINAL GPS POSITION WHEN READY FOR NAV

WERE OTHER SYSTEMS/PROCEDURES WAITING ON THE INITIALIZATION OF THE GPS? IF SO,

DESCRIBE:

Card 48: Initialization and Alignment Ground Test Data Cards (Continued)
 197

CARD NUMBER

GPS INITIALIZATION (CORRECT POSIT NOT AVAILABLE)

INITIALIZATION LOCATION P CODE YES/NO

INITIALIZATION HEADING MAGNETIC VARIATION

(PERFORM A NORMAL GPS INITIALIZATION USING AN INITIAL POSIT IN ERROR BY 300 NM.]

ERRONEOUS INITIAL POSIT

INITIALIZATION EASE/COMPLEXITY/EFFECTS UPON OTHER PROCEDURES:

INITIALIZATION TIME

[WHEN THE POSITION IS INPUT INTO THE GPS, START THE STOP WATCH.]

ELAPSED TIME AT START OF TIME SYNC

[NOTE THE ELAPSED TIME AS EACH SATELLITE IS ACQUIRED.]

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

NOTE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE SATELLITE QUALITY NUMBER PROGRESSION AND

UTILITY OF THE GPS READY INDICATIONS:

COMPLETELY DESCRIBE ANY OBSTRUCTIONS BETWEEN THE GPS ANTENNA AND THE HORIZON:

TIME WHEN GPS READY INDICATION PROVIDED

FINAL GPS POSITION WHEN READY FOR NAV

WERE OTHER SYSTEMS/PROCEDURES WAITING ON THE INITIALIZATION OF THE GPS? IF SO,

DESCRIBE:

Card 48: Initialization and Alignment Ground Test Data Cards (Continued)
198

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

GPS/INS COUPLED IMFLIGHT INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT

(INITIALIZE FOR A FLYOVER UPZATE AND ALIGNMENT.]

FLYOVER POINT LOCATION P CODE YES/NO

ALIGNMENT HEADING _ _ NETIC VARIATION

INITIALIZATION EASE/COMPLExtTzJy, CTS UPON OTHER PROCEDURES:

INITIALIZATION TIME

(NOTE ANY HEADING/SPEED/ALTITUDE CHANGES WITH TIME.]

CHANGE TIME CHANGE TIME

CHANGE TIME CHANGE TIME

[WHEN THE POSITION IS INPUT INTO THE GPS AND INS, START THE STOP WATCH, THEN r.ART

THE ALIGNMENT.]

ELAPSED TIME AT START OF ALIGNMENT

OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE

(NOTE THE ELAPSED TIME AS EACH SATELLITE IS ACQUIRED.]

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

NOTE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE SATELLITE QUALITY NUMBER PROGRESSION AND

UTILITY OF THE GPS READY INDICATIONS:

COMPLETELY DESCRIBE ANY OBSTRUCTIONS BETWEEN THE GPS ANTENNA AND THE HORIZON:

Card 49: Initialization and Alignment Airborne Data Cards

 199

CARD NUMBER

GPS/INS COUPLED INFLIGHT INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT

(CALL A MARK TO THE SPACE POSITIONING GROUND STATION WHEN THE GPS IS READY.]

TIME WHEN GPS READY INDICATION PROVIDED

FINAL GPS POSITION WHEN READY FOR NAV ALT

DISPLAYED TRUE COURSE GROUNDSPEED

GROUND STATION SPACE POSITIONING

GROUND STATION TRUE HEADING GROUNDSPEED ALT

TIME TO COMPLETE THE ALIGNMENT

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE UTILITY OF THE ALIGNMENT STATUS AND THE

ALIGNMENT COMPLETE INDICATORS:

(WHEN THE ALIGNMENT IS COMPLETE, CALL A MARK TO THE SPACE POSITIONING GROUND

STATION.]

DISPLAYED INS LOCATION ALT

DISPLAYED MAGNETIC HEADING

DISPLAYED TRUE HEADING

DISPLAYED MAGNETIC VARIATION

GROUND STATION SPACE POSITIONING

WERE OTHER SYSTEMS/PROCEDURES WAITING ON THE INITIALIZATION OF THE GPS OR INS OR THE

INS ALIGNMENT? IF SO, DESCRIBE:

Card 49: Initialization and Alignment Airborne Data Cards (Continued)

200

CARD NUMBER

GPS AIRBORNE INITIALIZATION (CORRECT POSIT AVAILABLE)

(INITIALIZE FOR A FLYOVER UPDATE.]

INITIALIZATION LOCATION P CODE YES/NO

INITIALIZATION HEADING MAGNETIC VARIATION

INITIALIZATION EASE/COMPLEXITY/EFFECTS UPON OTHER PROCEDURES:

INITIALIZATION TIME

[WHEN THE FLYOVER UPDATE IS PERFORMED AND THUS A POSITION IS AVAILABLE TO THE GPS,

START THE STOP WATCH.]

ELAPSED TIME AT START OF TIME SYNC

(NOTE ANY HEADING/SPEED/ALTITUDE CHANGES WITH TIME.]

CHANGE TIME CHANGE TIME

CHANGE TIME CHANGE TIME

(NOTE THE ELAPSED TIME AS EACH SATELLITE IS ACQUIRED.]

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT I TIME

SAT I TIME SAT # TIME

Card 49: Initialization and Alignment Airborne Data Cards (Continued)

 201

CARD NUMBER

GPS AIRBORNE INITIALIZATION (CORRECT POSIT AVAILABLE)

NOTE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE SATELLITE QUALITY NUMBER PROGRESSION AND

UTILITY OF THE GPS READY INDICATIONS:

DESCRIBE ANY OBSTRUCTIONS BETWEEN THE GPS ANTENNA AND THE HORIZON:

(CALL A MARK TO SPACE POSITIONING GROUND STATION WHEN GPS READY.]

TIME WHEN GPS READY INDICATION PROVIDED

FINAL GPS POSITION WHEN READY FOR NAV

ALT

DISPLAYED TRUE HEADING

GROUNDSPEED

GROUND STATION SPACE POSITIONING

ALT

GROUND STATION TRUE HEADING

GROUNDSPEED ALT

NOTE IF SYSTEMS/PROCEDURES WAITING ON THE INITIALIZATION OF GPS:

Card 49: Initialization and Alignment Airborne Data Cards (Continued)

202

CARD NUMBER

GPS AIRBORNE INITIALIZATION (CORRECT POSIT NOT AVAILABLE)

[INITIALIZE FOR FLYOVER UPDATE USING INITIAL POSIT ERROR OF 300 NMI

LOCATION P CODE YES/NO

HEADING MAGNETIC VARIATION

INITIALIZATION EASE/COMPLEXITY/EFFECTS UPON OTHER PROCEDURES:

INITIALIZATION TIME

[WHEN THE FLYOVER UPDATE IS PERFORMED AND THUS A POSITION IS AVAILABLE TO THE GPS,

START THE STOP WATCH.]

ELAPSED TIME AT START OF TIME SYNC

[NOTE ANY HEADING/SPEED/ALTITUDE CHANGES WITH TIME.]

CHANGE TIME CHANGE TIME

CHANGE TIME CHANGE TIME

(NOTE THE ELAPSED TIME AS EACH SATELLITE IS ACQUIRED]

SAT I TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

SAT # TIME SAT # TIME

Card 49: Initialization and Alignment Airborne Data Cards (Continued)

 203

CARD NUMBER

GPS AIRBORNE INITIALIZATION (CORRECT POSIT NOT AVAILABLE)

NOTE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING THE SATELLITE QUALITY NUMBER PROGRESSION AND

UTILITY OF THE GPS READY INDICATIONS:

DESCRIBE ANY OBSTRUCTIONS BETWEEN THE GPS ANTENNA AND THE HORIZON:

[CALL A MARK TO THE SPACE POSITIONING GROUND STATION WHEN THE GPS IS READY.]

TIME WHEN GPS READY INDICATION PROVIDED

FINAL GPS POSITION WHEN READY FOR NAV

ALT

DISPLAYED TRUE HEADING

GROUNDSPEED

GROUND STATION SPACE POSITIONING

ALT

GROUND STATION TRUE HEADING

GROUNDSPEED ALT

NOTE IF SYSTEMS/PROCEDURES WAITING ON THE INITIALIZATION OF GPS:

Card 49: Initialization and Alignment Airborne Data Cards (Continued)

204

3.6.2. Static Position Accuracy fault indications. As a minimum,

data for the length of the maximum
record

mission duration of the aircraft.

3.6.2.1. Purpose Repeat the test with the INS turned off
and then with the GPS turned off and the
The purpose of this test is to measure INS operating. Repeat the GPS tests
the static (ground position) accuracy of without the GPS P code installed.
the coupled GPS/INS and the single GPS
and INS over a mission relatable period 3.6.2.6. Data Analysis and
to isolate errors that are not caused by Presentation
the dynamic (flight) environment. The
static accuracy becomes a baseline for Subtract the displayed latitude and
measuring the effects caused by the longitude from the surveyed latitude and
dynamic environment, longitude. Convert the latitude and
longitude difference into nm using
3.6.2.2. General equation (21). Plot the data as error
versus time. Annotate the plots with
In static testing, the coupled GPS/INS, any significant events noted during the
GPS and INS are evaluated while the test, such as movement of the aircraft,
aircraft remains on the ground. system alerts and satellite switches or
Dynamic testing is performed while drops. Analyze the trend of the plots
airborne. Static testing allows the for possible causes of the errors as
errors caused by the INS and GPS, outlined in the theory section. Relate
whether cyclic, linear, exponential, the static accuracy to the requirement
etc., to be isolated from errors induced to remain on the ground, while the INS
by maneuvering effects. The static navigates statically, for long periods
accuracy becomes the baseline from which of time before a quick response alert
to gauge the effects of the dynamics of launch. Check to see if a significant
flight. One mission relation for static change in the error plot occurs at the
accuracy is the requirement to perform time of aircraft motion, when system
quick reaction alerts with the system alerts occur or after satellite changes.
navigating statically on the ground Relate the effects of aircraft motion to
until launch time. the requirement to perform maintenance
on the aircraft after an alignment.
3.6.2.3. Instrumentation Relate the static accuracy of the INS to
the system alerts. If repeated alerts
A stop watch and data cards are required that imply degraded accuracy are not
for this test, a voice recorder is accompanied by that degradation, then
optional. they are false alarms. Completely
investigate any INS alerts following the
3.6.2.4. Data Required test. Relate the occurrence of
confirmed false alarms to the
Record the actual surveyed alignment possibility of unnecessarily aborted
location latitude and longitude. At sorties.
five minute intervals, starting at time
zero, record the elapsed time and the For the case of the INS or GPS operating
displayed latitude and longitude, alone, and the case where the P code is
Completely describe any aircraft motion, missing, relate the drift to the
including the time that it occurs and requirement to perform the alert mission
note any GPS or INS fault indications, when the GPS user segment, control
segment or space segment is not
3.6.2.5. Procedure operating, when the INS is not
functioning, or when the P code is lost
Complete an initialization and alignment or not available at the launch location,
as outlined in the previous test as appropriate.
technique. As the INS is placed in a
navigation mode, start the stop watch 3.6.2.7. Data Cards
and record the displayed GPS and INS
latitude and longitude. Record the A sample data card is provided as card
displayed GPS and INS latitude and 50.
longitude every five minutes. Record
which GPS satellites are being used, the
quality number of each and finally the
total GPS fix quality number at each
interval. Completely describe any
aircraft motion; along with the time of
the occurrence. Record any GPS or INS
 205

CARD NUMBER

STATIC POSITION ACCURACY

(AFTER PERFORMING THE INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT TEST, SELECT A NAVIGATION MODE,

START THE CLOCK AND RECORD DATA AT TIME 0 AND EACH 5 MINUTES AFTER. DESCRIBE ANY

SIGNIFICANT MOVEMENT OR SYSTEM ALERTS AS NOTES AT THE APPROPRIATE TIME. CONTINUE

THE TEST FOR MINUTES.] GPS ON __ INS ON __ BOTH ON __ PCODE YES/NO

SURVEYED POSITION

POINT ELAPSED DISPLAYED DISPLAYED SATS/QUAL NOTES:

NUMBER TIME INS GPS AND

LAT/LONG LAT/LONG FIX QUAL

Card 50: Static Position Accuracy Data Card

206

3.6.3. Dynamic Non-maneuvering at various points during the test. As

part of the test to be described here, a
Position Accuracy separate, portable GPS is used to
provide a relative position accuracy
comparison during the long legs. This
3.6.3.1. Purpose is not the optimum situation since it
does not verify the absolute accuracy of
The purpose of this test is to measure the test unit, merely the accuracy
the dynamic, non-maneuvering position relative to another GPS which can
accuracy of the GPS/INS, GPS alone and theoretically have similar errors. As a
INS alone and to isolate the effects of minimum, the absolute accuracy is
non-maneuvering flight upon the INS and verified at the start and at the shut
GPS, and finally to qualitatively assess down of the system. In addition, where
the utility of the INS as a navigation possible, the flight profiles are
aid in the non-maneuvering environment, planned to allow flight in the vicinity
of a facility capable of providing the
3.6.3.2. General highly accurate theodolite or laser
tracker space positioning data.
baseline of
Static testing provided a
accuracy over time caused by errors When the GPS is running alone, the
inherent to the INS platform, system errors are not driven by the INS
accelerometers and gyroscopes and the dynamics and the need to cover rigid
GPS unit. Dynamic non-maneuvering flight profiles is lessened, allowing
position accuracy testing provides the the system to be flown in the vicinity
next logical step in fully testing the of a space positioning facility. The
INS and GPS both coupled and alone. GPS position is thus compared to the
While airborne, the aircraft is flown on accurate space positioning data at
navigation profiles designed to frequent times during the flight. For
demonstrate the effects of aircraft the case where the INS is run alone, the
movement during flight while minimizing test is conducted identically to the
any maneuvering. dynamic non-maneuvering test described
previously in the INS testing section.
For configurations where the INS is Since the expected accuracy of the INS
used, the profiles are flown over system alone is much less than the
maximum north-south and east-west coupled system or the GPS system alone,
distances to excite the effects of earth the flyover method is adequate.
rate and the Coriolis force. The flight
duration should be equal to the maximum 3.6.3.3. Instrumentation
mission duration or two Schuler cycles,
whichever is shorter. The optimum A portable GPS receiver, stop watch and
technique is to perform one flight on a data cards are required for this test, a
predominately east-west profile and one voice recorder is optional. A properly
on a predominately north-south profile instrumented range including highly
repeating as necessary to establish the accurate laser ranger or theodolite
required statistical baseline. The tracking is required. For the case
maximum cruise range speed should be where a laser ranger is used, a laser
used to allow the maximum latitude and reflector array must be installed on the
longitude to be covered, test aircraft.
The coupled GPS/INS is a highly accurate 3.6.3.4. Data Required
navigation system. This strength makes
it extremely hard to test system For the configuration where the GPS and
accuracy while simultaneously navigating INS are available and coupled, after
over long ranges, since the theodolite recording the initialization and
and laser ranger techniques described alignment data, record the displayed
earlier are usually restricted to local latitude and longitude as a navigation
testing. The long north-south and east- mode is selected. Record the GPS/INS
west legs are necessary for the coupled and portable GPS latitude and longitude;
system since the INS dynamics described the satellites used, their quality
in the INS theory section can still numbers and the total fix quality
cause system errors. Thus, it must be number; also record the GPS/INS and
conceded that it is not practical to portable GPS altitude, course and
test the GPS/INS to within the expected groundspeed, all at five-minute
system SEP. However, it is possible to intervals. At each laser ranger or
verify that the system provides the theodolite flyover point, record the
accuracies necessary to perform the elapsed time, point identification,
mission throughout the flight profile altitude, GPS/INS displayed latitude and
and to spot check the absolute accuracy
 207

longitude, satellites used, satellite 50 KIAS of airspeed change should be

quality numbers, total fix quality noted.
number, altitude, course, groundspeed
and laser or theodolite calculated While navigating to the waypoints,
latitude and longitude, altitude, course evaluate the utility of the GPS/INS
and groundspeed. After the taxi back to displays/controls, utility of the
the hangar, record the surveyed parking GPS/INS derived steering cues, as well
location, elapsed time and GPS/INS as the integration of the navigation
displayed latitude and longitude, information within the aircraft as a
Throughout the flight, record as notes navigation aid in the non-maneuvering
on the data cards, any maneuvers environment.
requiring over 1.5 g, 30" angle of bank,
or 20" of pitch, any airspeed changes of When flying over the precise space
over 50 KIAS (other than takeoff and positioning sources, record the same
landing) and any INS or GPS system data required for the five-minute data
alerts, along with the elapsed time of points in addition to the theodolite or
occurrence. Record qualitative comments laser ranger derived positioning data.
concerning the utility of the GPS/INS in
navigating to each waypoint along the Following touchdown and rollout, taxi to
route. a surveyed parking area. Before
shutdown, record the elapsed time and
Record the same data for the GPS-alone displayed latitude and longitude.
test condition, deleting the INS alerts.
Repeat both tests with the P code not Repeat the test for the case where the
installed. When using the INS alone, GPS is used alone. The entire flight
record the data described in the INS may be performed in the vicinity of a
test procedures presented earlier, space positioning range. Repeated laser
ranger or theodolite fixes at 5 to 15-
3.6.3.5. Procedure minute intervals are required. Repeat
the first two tests without the P code
For the case of the coupled GPS/INS, installed.
prior to the test flight, plan a route
that provides a flyover of as many For the condition where the INS is used
accurate space positioning ranges as alone, perform the test as outlined in
possible. Plan at least one flight the INS test procedure section.
predominately east-west and one north-
south. Choose a flight profile 3.6.3.6. Data Analysis and
consistent with normal, long range Presentation
cruise.
Subtract the coupled GPS/INS displayed
Perform an Initialization and Alignment latitude and longitude from the surveyed
test as previously outlined. When the point latitude and longitude or precise
alignment is complete, select a space positioning derived latitude and
navigation mode, start the stop watch longitude, as appropriate. Convert the
and then record the displayed latitude latitude and longitude difference to nm
and longitude. At five-minute using equation (21). Plot the data as
intervals, record the elapsed time along latitude and longitude error versus
with the GPS/INS and portable GPS elapsed time. Annotate the plots with
positions, satellites used and the any significant events noted during the
quality numbers described in the data test, such as system alerts or
section. Record any system alerts with maneuvering above 1.5g, 30" angle of
the elapsed time as notes. bank, 20" of pitch or airspeed changes
of 50 KIAS. Apply the same procedure
Perform a normal airfield departure, to the GPS/INS and the portable GPS-
navigating to the initial waypoint. derived positions and add to the same
Select an airspeed near the maximum plot using different symbols.
range airspeed at the test altitude and
set this airspeed as early as possible. Develop similar plots comparing the
Attempt to maintain this airspeed GPS/INS altitude, course and groundspeed
throughout as much of the flight as and the data collected from the space
possible. Care must be taken to limit positioning data and the hand-held GPS.
maneuvering. Keep g, pitch and bank to
a minimum, recording the elapsed time Analyze the trend of the plots for the
and a complete description of all possible causes of the errors. If the
deviations. Generally, anything over start-up and shut-down surveyed points
1.5g, 30" angle of bank, 20" of pitch or and the precise space positioning data
points show little error for the
208

portable GPS, assume that the portable the necessity to perform the mission
GPS may be used as a truth data source after the INS has failed or after an
for the times between the absolute alert launch that did not allow for the
fixes. Typically, the GPS will provide alignment of the INS.
such precise updates at such frequent
intervals that the INS errors discussed Analyze the data derived with the P code
in the INS section will not be evident, missing in the same fashion as the two
previous sets of data. Relate the data
Since the time dependent errors of the to the necessity to perform the mission
INS are not easily seen in the coupled after the P code is dropped or when it
system, it is also useful to develop a is not available due to operational
scatterplot as defined in the OMEGA constraints.
section to highlight any errors caused
by the position fixing GPS receiver. Reduce and analyze the INS alone data
identically to the process outlined in
Relate the non-maneuvering accuracy of the INS test procedures.
the coupled GPS/INS to the requirement
to perform non-maneuvering navigation 3.3.3.7. Data Cards
during ferry missions and while
ingressing from the base airfield to A sample data card is provided as card
enemy lines. 51.
If excessive maneuvers are recorded
during the flight, check for significant
changes in the error curves following
the maneuver time. Relate excessive
changes in the drift rate to the
requirement to perform evasive maneuvers
inbound to a target while still
requiring accurate navigation
information for the return to the home
airfield. If system alerts are noted
during the flight, check for significant
changes in the error rate curve
following the time the alert is noted.
Thoroughly investigate any INS alerts
after the flight. Alerts that imply
degraded accuracy and do not result in a
change on the error curve or cannot be
associated with a system failure should
be related to the possibility of
unnecessarily aborted sorties (false
alarms). Relate the utility of the
GPS/INS displays/controls, steering cues
and integration within the aircraft to
the usefulness of the INS as an aid for
navigating to waypoints, the target
position and later returning to the home
airfield.
Analyze the recorded satellites and
quality numbers for changes and drops,
checking for corresponding degradation
in the navigation accuracy. If the
accuracy is degraded beyond the
necessary accuracy, follow up with an
investigation of the satellite geometry
and the appropriateness of the
individual satellite selections.

Repeat the procedure for the case of the

GPS alone. The time base plot is not
normally used for a position fixing
system, however it may be useful to
highlight the effects of satellite swaps
and drop outs and of any maneuvers
performed. Relate the performance to
 209

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

DYNAMIC NON-MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

[AFTER PERFORMING THE INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT TEST, SELECT A NAVIGATION MODE,

START THE STOP WATCH AND RECORD THE LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE AND SATELLITE DATA.

AFTER TAKEOFF, SET KIAS, CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND BEGIN NORMAL EN ROUTE

NAVIGATION. RECORD THE GPS/INS AND PORTABLE GPS DATA AT FIVE MINUTE INTERVALS.

RECORD AS NOTES SYSTEM ALERTS AND MANEUVERS ABOVE 1.5G, 30" ANGLE OF BANK, 20" OF

PITCH OR 50 KIAS OF AIRSPEED CHANGE WITH TIME AS REQUIRED. RECORD QUALITATIVE

COMMENTS CONCERNING UTILITY FOR NON-MANEUVERING FLIGHT OF NAVIGATION DISPLAYS,

STEERING CUES AND NAVIGATION ACCURACY. RECORD DATA BEFORE SHUTDOWN.]

SURVEYED ALIGNMENT LOCATION

DISPLAYED WHEN SELECTED

CONFIGURATION: GPS ON INS ON BOTH ON

P CODE: YES / NO

SATELLITES IN USE/QUALITY NUMBERS:

TOTAL FIX QUALITY NUMBER

NOTES:

Card 51: Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards

210

CARD NUMBER
DYNAMIC NON-MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

TIME HAND-HELD GPS GPS/INS SATELLITES/ TOTAL FIX NOTES:

POSITION/SPACE POSITION QUALITY QUALITY
POSIT FIX IF /ALT NUMBERS NUMBER
APPLICABLE/ALT/ /COURSE/
COURSE/GROUND- GROUND-
SPEED SPEED

Card 51: Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 211

CARD NUMBER

DYNAMIC NON-MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

SURVEYED SHUTDOWN LOCATION

ELAPSED TIME AT SHUT DOWN

DISPLAYED AT SHUTDOWN

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING UTILITY DURING NON-MANEUVERING FLIGHT OF NAVIGATION

DISPLAYS/CONTROLS:

GPS/INS OR GPS ALONE STEERING CUES:

NON-MANEUVERING ACCURACY:

Card 51: Dynamic Non-maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

212

3.6.4. Dynamic Maneuvering acceleration roll, pitch (a

maneuver will be used) and yaw maneuvers
loop

Position Accuracy will be used to check for INS gimbal

limits as well as attitudes where GPS
coverage is significantly degraded.
3.6.4.1. Purpose Airspeed limitations will be checked
while accelerating from a slow airspeed
The purpose of this test is to measure to the airspeed limit of the aircraft.
the dynamic maneuvering position Roll, pitch, yaw and level turn
accuracy of the GPS/INS, GPS alone and maneuvers to the limits of the aircraft
INS alone to isolate the effects of will be used to assess the effects of
various types of aircraft maneuvers and maneuvers in a single plane. Finally,
to qualitatively assess the utility of rolling push-overs and pull-ups will be
the system as a navigation aid in the performed to the aircraft limits to
maneuvering environment, check the effects of multi-axis
maneuvers. Table VI shows the typical
3.6.4.2. General linear and angular dynamic limits for a
notional GPS unit designed for use on a
Dynamic non-maneuvering position tactical platform [Ref. 10].
accuracy testing provided a baseline of
accuracy which included the effects of 3.6.4.3. Instrumentation
strictly non-maneuvering flight. Using
this baseline data, the aircraft will A stop watch and data cards are required
perform a series of maneuvers with space for this test, a voice recorder is
positioning data taken after each optional. A properly instrumented range
maneuver. The exact flight profile will including highly accurate laser ranger
have little effect upon the accuracy or theodolite tracking is required. For
compared to the effects of maneuvering, the case where a laser ranger is used, a
For this reason, a single, laser tracker laser reflector array must be installed
or theodolite array can be repeatedly on the test aircraft.
used. A significant departure from the
dynamic baseline data plot will be due 3.6.4.4. Data Required
to aircraft maneuvering. In this way,
the effects of mission relatable For the configuration where the GPS and
maneuvering upon system accuracy will be INS are available and coupled, after
isolated from other effects. Low
Table VI: Typical GPS Linear and Angular Dynamic Limits

I Linear Dynamics( )
1
Angular Dynamics
Velocity (m/sec) or 1,200 yaw ± 1.0
Rate (rad/sec)e) pitch 1.0

roll ± 5.5
2
Acceleration (m/sec or 90 yaw ± 3.0
rad/sec2 )(2) pitch ± 6.0

roll ± 17.5
jerk (m/sec) 100 not usually specified
(1) Any linear axis.
(2) As appropriate.
 213

recording the initialization and cornering airspeed, for the test. The
alignment data, record the displayed cornering airspeed will be available
latitude and longitude as a navigation from the aircraft operating manual.
mode is selected. At each laser ranger Return to the range area and again
or theodolite flyover point, record the collect the GPS/INS and space
elapsed time, altitude, GPS/INS positioning data. Repeat at 5 g and
displayed latitude and longitude, then at the maximum aircraft level g.
satellites used, satellite quality For the fighter aircraft test, perform
numbers, total fix quality number and the maximum g test at a medium altitude.
laser or theodolite calculated latitude Next, climb to a medium low altitude,
and longitude. After the taxi back to set a good maneuvering airspeed and
the hangar, record the surveyed parking perform an aileron roll at 1/4 stick
location, elapsed time and GPS/INS deflection. Again collect the GPS/INS
displayed latitude and longitude, and space positioning data. Repeat at
Throughout the flight, record as notes 1/2 stick deflection and then at full
on the data cards, any INS or GPS system stick deflection or at the aircraft roll
alerts, along with the elapsed time of limit, whichever is greater. Again at a
occurrence. Record qualitative comments medium low altitude provide a step
concerning the utility of the GPS/INS in rudder input at 1/4 and 1/2 rudder
navigating to and from the test area as deflection and finally at either full
well as during the maneuvers, rudder deflection or the aircraft rudder
input limit. Collect the same data
Record the same data for the GPS-alone between each input.
test condition, deleting the INS alerts.
Repeat both tests without the P code Finally, climb to a medium low altitude
installed. When using the INS alone, and perform a series of rolling push-
record the data described in the INS overs and pull-ups, increasing the g to
test procedures provided earlier, the aircraft limits. After reaching the
aircraft limit, collect the same data.
3.6.4.5. Procedure Return to the home airfield. Before
shut down, record the shut-down spot
During preflight planning, choose a surveyed latitude and longitude, the
point within range of a laser tracker or elapsed time and the displayed latitude
within the operating area of a and longitude. During the entire
theodolite array that allows low and flight, watch for GPS and INS system
medium altitude maneuvering as well as discretes and record them as notes along
supersonic flight at low and medium with the time of occurrence. Thoroughly
altitudes in the case of a supersonic investigate all failure discretes after
test aircraft. Choose an initial the flight. In addition, qualitatively
airspeed that conserves fuel. Record evaluate the INS controls, steering
GPS/INS and space positioning data upon cues, displays and accuracy as an aid
arriving within the test area as for finding the flyover points in the
described in the dynamic non-maneuvering maneuvering environment.
position accuracy section. Climb to a
moderately low altitude in the case of Repeat the test for the case where the
an attack aircraft and a medium altitude GPS alone is used. The entire flight
in the case of a fighter aircraft and may be performed in the vicinity of a
perform a maximum power acceleration to space positioning range. Repeated laser
the limit airspeed or mach number of the ranger or theodolite fixes at 5 to 15-
aircraft. A shallow dive can be used to minute intervals are required. Repeat
expedite the maneuver as long as it can the first two tests without the P code
be safely performed at the chosen installed.
altitude. When a dive is. used, an
initial altitude above the test altitude For the condition where the INS is used
should be chosen. Generally, the rate alone, perform the test as outlined in
of descent should never exceed 1/2 of the INS test procedure section.
the aircraft altitude for safety
purposes. 3.6.4.6. Data Analysis and
Presentation
Following the acceleration, decelerate
to a good maneuvering speed while Subtract the coupled GPS/INS displayed
performing a 1.5 g or less turn, return latitude and longitude from the surveyed
to the range area and again record point latitude and longitude or precise
GPS/INS and space positioning data. space positioning derived latitude and
Next, climb to a medium low altitude and longitude, as appropriate. Convert the
perform a constant 3 g, 360' turn. Use latitude and longitude difference to nm
the best maneuvering airspeed, or the using equation (21). Plot the data as
214

latitude and longitude error versus after the P code is dropped or when it
elapsed time. Annotate the plots with is not available due to operational
all the maneuvers performed before each constraints.
point was recorded as well as any system
alerts or changes in the GPS satellites Reduce and analyze the INS-alone data
in use. Check the plot for any identically to the processes outlined in
significant change in the slope of the the INS test procedures.
error plot and relate any changes to the
effect these maneuvers have upon GPS/INS 3.6.4.7. Data Cards
accuracy. Further relate the error to
the loss of accuracy during mission Sample data cards are provided as card
relatable ACM for fighters and evasive 52.
maneuvering inbound to the target for
attack aircraft.

Since the time dependent errors of the

INS are not easily seen in the coupled
system, it is also useful to develop a
scatterplot as defined in the OMEGA
section to highlight any errors caused
by the position fixing GPS receiver.

If system alerts are noted during the

flight, check for significant changes in
the error rate curve following the time
the alert is noted. Thoroughly
investigate any GPS or INS alerts after
the flight. Alerts that imply degraded
accuracy and do not result in a change
on the error curve or cannot be
associated with a system failure should
be related to the possibility of
unnecessarily aborted sorties (false
alarms). Relate the utility of the
GPS/INS displays/controls, steering cues
and integration within the aircraft to
the usefulness of the INS as an aid for
navigating to waypoints, the target
position and later returning to the home
airfield.

Analyze the recorded satellites and

quality numbers for changes and drops,
checking for corresponding degradation
in the navigation accuracy. If the
accuracy is degraded beyond the
necessary accuracy, follow up with an
investigation of the satellite geometry
and the appropriateness of the
individual satellite selection.
Repeat the procedure for the case of the
GPS alone. The time base plot is not
normally used for a position fixing
system, however it may be useful to
highlight the effects of satellite swaps
and drop outs and of the individual
maneuvers. Relate the performance to
the necessity to perform the mission
after the INS has failed or after an
alert launch that did not allow for the
alignment of the INS.
Analyze the data derived with the P code
missing in the same fashion as the two
previous sets of data. Relate the data
to the necessity to perform the mission
 215

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

[AFTER PERFORMING THE INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT TEST, SELECT A NAVIGATION MODE.

START THE STOP WATCH AND RECORD THE LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. AFTER TAKEOFF, SET

KIAS, CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND ASSUME NAVIGATION TO THE RANGE TAKING DATA ONCE

THERE. PERFORM EACH MANEUVER AND BETWEEN EACH TAKE A DATA POINT. RECORD AS NOTES

SYSTEM ALERTS AS WELL AS GPS SATELLITE CHANGES. RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS

CONCERNING SYSTEM UTILITY FOR NAVIGATION DURING MANEUVERING FLIGHT OF

DISPLAYS/CONTROLS, STEERING CUES AND NAVIGATION ACCURACY. RECORD DATA BEFORE

SHUTDOWN.]

SURVEYED ALIGNMENT LOCATION

DISPLAYED WHEN SELECTED

CONFIGURATION: GPS ON INS ON BOTH ON

P CODE: YES / NO

SATELLITES IN USE/QUALITY NUMBERS:

TOTAL FIX QUALITY NUMBER

NOTES:

Card 52: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards

216

CARD NUMBER

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

TRANSIT AIRSPEED KIAS

TRANSIT ALTITUDE FEET MSL

OPTIMUM LOCATION FOR COLLECTING POSITIONING DATA

MAN- ALT/AIR- TIME/ DISPLAYED/ SATELLITE/ TOTAL NOTES:

EUVER SPEED (FT FLY- RANGE QUALITY FIX

MSL OVER DERIVED NUMBERS QUAL

/KIAS) ALT (FT POSITION NUM-

MSL) AND ALT BER

(FT)

INITIAL

FLYOVER

MAX

LEVEL

ACCEL

LEVEL

TURN 3G

LEVEL

TURN 5G

LEVEL

TURN G

Card 52: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 217

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

MAN- ALT/AIR- TIME/ DISPLAYED/ SATELLITE/ TOTAL NOTES:

EUVER SPEED (FT FLY- RANGE QUALITY FIX

MSL OVER DERIVED NUMBERS QUAL

/KIAS) ALT (FT POSITION NUM-

MSL) AND ALT BER

(FT)

1/4

STICK

ROLL

1/2

STICK

ROLL

FULL

STICK

ROLL

1/4

RUDDER

1/2

RUDDER

FULL

RUDDER

Card 52: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

218

CARD NUMBER

DYNAMIC MANEUVERING POSITION ACCURACY

MAN- ALT/AIR- TIME/ DISPLAYED/ SATELLITE/ TOTAL NOTES:

EUVER SPEED (FT FLY- RANGE QUALITY FIX

MSL OVER DERIVED NUMBERS QUAL

/KIAS) ALT (FT POSITION NUM-

MSL) AND ALT BER

(FT)

ROLLING

PUSH-

OVERS/

PULL-UPS

SURVEYED SHUTDOWN LOCATION

ELAPSED TIME AT SHUT DOWN

DISPLAYED AT SHUTDOWN

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS CONCERNING UTILITY DURING MANEUVERING FLIGHT OF NAVIGATION

DISPLAYS/CONTROLS:

GPS/INS STEERING CUES:

MANEUVERING ACCURACY:

Card 52: Dynamic Maneuvering Position Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

 219

3.6.5. Navigation Performance in 3.6.4.5. Procedure

Overwater/Multipath Environment Perform the test when the surface of the
water in the vicinity of a space
positioning range is as smooth as
3.6.5.1 Purpose possible. This provides a worst case
situation for satellite signal
The purpose of this test is to assess multipath. Begin the test at an
the effects of satellite signal altitude of at least 5,000 feet AGL with
multipath upon the GPS system accuracy the GPS running alone. While minimizing
and utility. maneuvers, note the satellite data, GPS
position data and space positioning
3.6.5.2. General data.
The GPS satellite signal tends to Descend to the minimum altitude
reflect off of the surface of bodies of allowable considering the aircraft and
water. Typically, the smoother the qualifications of the test pilot.
surface, the better the surface will Usually 100 to 200 feet is sufficient.
reflect. When an aircraft flies at low If possible, crew duties should be split
altitudes along the surface of the to allow one person to fly the aircraft
water, the aircraft will receive two while the other collects data. Again,
signals from the GPS satellite, one sent note the satellite data and compare to
directly from the satellite and the the previous satellites used and quality
second sent from the satellite and then numbers. If the quality of the
reflected off the surface of the water satellite signals are reduced notably,
and thence directly to the aircraft. repeat the GPS position and space
The reflected signal can interfere with positioning data point. Repeat the low
the direct signal, causing the satellite level portion of the test at 60" heading
quality numbers to become degraded and intervals. If multipath was noted with
subsequently the total fix quality the P code installed, repeat the test
number also becomes degraded. The with the P code not installed.
problem will vary with aircraft altitude
above the surface; however, the effect 3.6.4.6. Data Analysis and
will not normally be seen above 500 to Presentation
1,000 feet AGL. The multipath problem
will also vary with the roughness of the If the quality numbers are not degraded
water surface. The worst case will at low altitude, assume that the
occur when the surface is smooth. multipath effects are not present. If
significant differences were noted, the
3.6.5.3. Instrumentation additional space positioning data must
be evaluated to determine the
A stop watch and data cards are required correlation between the degraded quality
for this test, a voice recorder is numbers and the actual degradation in
optional. A properly instrumented range positioning accuracy. For the data
including highly accurate laser ranger collected at the higher altitude,
or theodolite tracking is required. For subtract the coupled GPS displayed
the case where a laser ranger is used, a latitude and longitude from the precise
laser reflector array must be installed space positioning derived latitude and
on the test aircraft. longitude. Convert the latitude and
longitude difference to nm using
3.6.5.4. Data Required equation (21). Repeat the procedure for
the low level data at all headings where
At altitude, note the satellites in use, degradation was noted. Relate the
satellite quality numbers and total fix degree of degradation to the necessity
quality number. Record the time, GPS- to perform low level navigation using
derived latitude and longitude and laser GPS-derived data during attacks on
ranger or theodolite-derived latitude shipping or during ingress and egress
and longitude. After descending, note over the coastline.
any times where the individual satellite
quality numbers degrade. If low 3.6.4.7. Data Cards
altitude fixes are required, record the
elapsed time, altitude, GPS/INS Sample data cards are provided as card
displayed latitude and longitude, 53.
satellites used, satellite quality
numbers, total fix quality number and
laser or theodolite calculated latitude
and longitude.
220

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

PERFORMANCE IN OVERWATER/MULTIPATH ENVIRONMENT

[USE GPS ALONE WITH INS SET TO OFF. CLIMB TO FT AGL AND SET KIAS. MINIMIZE

MANEUVERING. NOTE SATELLITE DATA.]

P CODE: YES / NO

SATELLITES IN USE/QUALITY NUMBERS:

TOTAL POSITION QUALITY NUMBER

TIME SPACE POSIT LAT/LONG

NOTES:

Card 53: Navigation Performance in Overwater/Multipath Environment

 221

CARD NUMBER

PERFORMANCE IN OVERWATER/MULTIPATH ENVIRONMENT

(DESCEND TO FT AGL AND SET KIAS. MAINTAIN HEADING AND NOTE SATELLITE

QUALITY NUMBERS AND IF DEGRADED. IF DEGRADED, NOTE REST OF DATA LISTED ON CARD.]

TIME GPS LAT SATELLITES/QUAL NUM TOTAL HEADING ALT SPACE

/LONG QUAL POSIT

NUM LAT/

LONG

Card 53: Navigation Performance in Overwater/Multipath Environment (Continued)

222

3.6.6. Mission Utility and during mission relatable tasks. For an

attack aircraft, the evaluation must be
Integration performed during mission relatable
ingresses to the target area, detection
of the target, handoff between the
3.6.6.1. Purpose sensors as would be expected in a
tactically significant attack, (for
The purpose of this test is to example a handoff from a long range
qualitatively assess the integration of radar detection to a FLIR attack)
the GPS and the INS with the other selection of a weapon and attack mode,
aircraft navigation systems, the utility and finally, a safe egress from the
of the GPS and INS with the other target area. For a fighter, the
aircraft avionics systems and sensors evaluation requires navigating to and
and the integration of the GPS and INS from a Combat Air Patrol (CAP) station,
displays and controls as an aid for steering cues to a radar designated
navigation and locating targets in a target, handoff to an air-to-air FLIR or
mission relatable environment, other electro-optic sensor for VID as
well as navigation inputs to digital
3.6.6.2. General data links and tactical displays. The
critical requirement is to select a
In most cases, the GPS and INS are not scenario that reflects the most likely
stand-alone systems. Many modern use of the aircraft and to use this
avionics systems require navigation scenario during the evaluation. For the
inputs. Radar and Forward Looking purpose of this sample test procedure,
Infrared Radar (FLIR) displays and the test aircraft will be an attack
antennas are often geographically aircraft with a weapons computer, HUD,
stabilized using INS and/or GPS inputs, radar and FLIR, as well as the TACAN and
The INS can use sensor and other OMEGA systems used to demonstrate the
navigation system inputs for position previous tests.
updates. Navigation information is
often displayed on radar and FLIR 3.6.6.3. Instrumentation
displays, tactical displays and HUDs. A
typical system will use radar input to Data cards are required for this test.
the navigation system which provides A voice recorder is highly recommended.
initial steering to the target (the
navigation system also is stabilizing 3.6.6.4. Data Required
the radar scan center to maintain
detection of the target). The Record qualitative comments concerning
navigation input is then used to steer the integration of the GPS/INS system
the FLIR onto the target for a FLIR with the aircraft weapons computer,
handoff. The navigation cues are FLIR, HUD, radar and TACAN. Include
provided on the HUD, often including a comments concerning the INS and GPS
navigation system stabilized target inputs to these systems as well as the
designator box, to aid in visually radar and TACAN inputs to the INS for
finding the target. If detection is INS updates during tests where the GPS
lost, such as during the terminal phase is not used. Evaluate the effects of
of a DBS radar attack, the navigation GPS and INS accuracy upon other systems,
system provides final attack cues. for instance the drift rate of radar and
Finally, during the weapons release, the FLIR geographically stabilized cursors,
navigation system provides inputs to the once a target is selected, and the
weapons computer to calculate the proper resulting workload as the cursors are
release point, again providing cues to repeatedly updated. Evaluate the
the pilot. effects of navigation functions, such as
INS update procedures, upon operator
In most cases, the navigation system workload during a mission relatable
requires the widest integration within environment. Assess the utility of the
the complete aircraft of any system and GPS and INS-derived information
as such is the most challenging to test displayed upon the radar, FLIR, HUD, as
for integration. Since the output of well as GPS and INS unique displays
the INS (latitude and longitude) and of including the effects of GPS and INS
the GPS (latitude, longitude and time) accuracy, while performing radar to FLIR
is rarely used directly by the pilot, or HUD handoffs and mission-relatable
the issues of integration and accuracy ingresses, attacks and egresses.
nearly completely define the utility of
the INS.
The utility and integration of the
navigation system can only be evaluated
 223

3.6.6.5. Procedure factors for the INS and GPS-alone

configurations to the requirement to
Select a mission-relatable target in the perform the mission following a system
test area that allows for a 35 to 40 nm failure or after having to launch
ingress to the target location. Select without a complete INS alignment.
several waypoints inbound to the target. Relate the configurations where the P
While navigating from the home airfield code is not installed to the requirement
to the initial waypoint, qualitatively to perform the mission after the P code
assess the utility of the GPS/INS is lost or when operating out of a base
accuracy and steering cues for long where the P code is not available.
range, IMC navigation. Choose an
altitude and airspeed that conserves 3.6.6.7. Data Cards
fuel. Descend to a low ingress altitude
and set an airspeed near the sea level A sample data card is presented as card
limit of the test aircraft. Head 54.
inbound to the target and select a radar
mapping mode with at least a 40 nm scale
and a wide scan pattern useful for radar
mapping. Follow the navigation system
and radar cues inbound to the target,
passing over the waypoints along the
route. Select DBS radar modes inbound
to the target; and when inside of 10 nm
perform a handoff of the target from the
radar to the FLIR. Continue inbound to
the target, performing a mission-
relatable, unguided, ordnance attack on
the target. Following the attack, turn
outbound from the target and navigate to
the initial point on the reverse route
using the radar and navigation system
cues. Repeat with different weapons
deliveries as time allows. Use a voice
recorder or write down comments after
each run. Care should be taken not to
become distracted with recording data to
allow the best overall qualitative
evaluation. Repeat the test with the
INS turned off and then using the INS
alone. Finally, repeat the GPS test
without the P code installed.

3.6.6.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

Relate the qualitative deficiencies

noted to their effects upon the
performance of normal IFR navigation,
ingresses and attacks. Note any
limitations upon tactics imposed by the
system accuracy, utility or integration.
For instance, the navigation cues used
to find the waypoints may require so
much operator attention and
interpretation that they destroy the
scan of the radar display while
searching for the target. As another
example, the navigation drift may be so
high that the stored position of the
target may drift radically between the
last radar or FLIR update and the
weapons release, causing a miss of the
target. It is critical that the
navigation system utility and
integration should not be driving
tactics. Use the applicable results
from the previous tests to support the
qualitative results. Relate the same
224

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

GPS/INS MISSION UTILITY AND INTEGRATION

CONFIGURATION: GPS ON INS ON BOTH ON P CODE YES/NO

(AFTER TAKEOFF, CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND SET KIAS. PERFORM NAVIGATION TO THE

INITIAL POINT, ASSESSING THE UTILITY OF NAVIGATION SYSTEM ACCURACY AND DISPLAYS FOR

IMC NAVIGATION. DESCEND TO FEET AGL AND KIAS AT THE INITIAL WAYPOINT. SET

A 40 NM RADAR SCALE AND SCAN ANGLE LIMIT. SEARCH FOR THE TARGET ON THE RADAR

WHILE NAVIGATING TO THE WAYPOINTS. AT 10 NM, PERFORM A FLIR HANDOFF. PERFORM A

ATTACK. AFTER RELEASE, REVERSE THE INGRESS TRACK. REPEAT USING A

, AND ATTACK AS FUEL ALLOWS.]

TARGET POSITION

INITIAL WAYPOINT 1 POSITION

WAYPOINT 2 POSITION

WAYPOINT 3 POSITION

NOTES:

Card 54: GPS/INS Mission Utility and Integration Data Card

 225

3.6.7. Introduction to Advanced instrumentation and assets which are

typically applied in these more advanced
Coupled Global Positioning tests. The purpose of this table is
System/inertial Navigation System merely to emphasize the existence of
these advanced techniques. Further,
Test Techniques this list is not exhaustive. Many
innovative uses of assets and
instrumentation exist. It is hoped that
As mentioned in Chapter 1, only the most the examples provided leave the reader
rudimentary form of the coupled global with a taste of how the test can be made
positioning system/inertial navigation more rigorous through the judicious use
system test techniques are presented in of instrumentation. In application; the
this book. Chapter 1 details the user must refer to the more advanced
reasons for this format; however, in documents referenced in Chapter 1 or
many applications, more rigor, accuracy solicit help from more experienced
and documentation of results are testers.
required. Table VI outlines additional

Table VI: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced

Coupled Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation System Tests

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation I
Initializa- Digital recording Entire initialization and alignment
tion and of navigation data process is captured allowing
Alignment. bus to include all isolation of poor alignment
Inertial Navigation performance. Initialization process
System (INS) and is recorded and correlated to
Global Positioning operator selections. Final
System (GPS) initialization and alignment results
outputs, GPS are compared to known alignment
initialization and location and aircraft orientation.
INS alignment
parameters and
operator actions
and inputs.
Precisely surveyed
alignment location
and boresighted
aircraft heading
and orientation.
Static Digital recording Digital position and rates are
Position of INS and GPS compared to the known static values.
Accuracy. derived position Satellite selections and position
and rates as well calculated by calibrated, ground
as GPS satellite based GPS receiver are examined if
selections. GPS accuracy is a problem. Display
Calibrated, ground output to the operator is compared to
based GPS receiver, the direct INS output.
Video recording of
display. Precisely
surveyed alignment
location.
226 Table VI: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced
Coupled Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation System Tests

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

I Instrumentation I I
Dynamic Non- Digital recording The profile is flown without the
maneuvering of time stamped necessity of surveyed point flyovers.
Position aircraft rates and Space positioning data and aircraft
Accuracy. precise space rates are continuously recorded and
positioning data, later compared to INS and GPS derived
INS and test GPS values. If derived from a range, the
derived time profile is often constrained
stamped position geographically. A second GPS, of
and rates, GPS known performance, can sometimes be
satellite used with sufficient accuracy to
selections, system avoid constricting the profile.
modes and operator Recorded aircraft dynamics are also
actions. In some examined to correlate maneuvering
cases, particularly excursions with changes in INS and
when the filter coupled GPS/INS drift rates. When
algorithms are in the GPS accuracy is degraded, the
development, the satellite selections are examined for
inputs to the anomalies. System modes (for
filter are instance when the system degrades to
digitally recorded, an INS only mode when satellite
Video recording of tracking is lost) are verified for
the display. their appropriateness. The inputs to
the GPS/INS filter are sometimes
needed to develop and verify the
filter weights. The display video is
compared to the INS/GPS bus data to
check for inconsistencies caused by
the manipulation of the INS data and
then its display.

Dynamic As for the Dynamic Typically, precise space positioning

Maneuvering Non-maneuvering data is derived from an instrumented
Position Position Accuracy range. Aircraft dynamics can be
Accuracy. test. derived from either on or off the
aircraft. The INS/GPS derived rates
and position are compared directly
with the time correlated data as the
maneuvers are performed. When the
GPS accuracy is degraded, the
satellite selections are examined for
anomalies. System modes (for
instance when the system degrades to
an INS only mode when satellite
tracking is lost) are verified for
their appropriateness. The inputs to
the GPS/INS filter are sometimes
needed to develop and verify the
filter weights. The display video is
compared to the INS/GPS bus data to
check for inconsistencies caused by
the manipulation of the INS data and
then its display.
 Table VI: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in Advanced 227
Coupled Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation System Tests

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation 1 I
Navigation Digital recording If possible, the output of each
Performance of the data derived receiver channel is recorded and
in Overwater from each receiver compared to a calibrated, ground
/Multipath channel if based GPS of known characteristics to
Environment possible. check for the presence of multipath
phenomenon. This is often not
practical due to system architecture
and multipath is inferred by
recording the parameters listed for
the Dynamic Maneuvering Position
Accuracy test. The data is then
analyzed for the multipath induced,
characteristic loss of accuracy and
variances in satellite quality while
flying the aircraft to induce the
multipath phenomenon.

Mission As for the Dynamic This test requires the largest amount
Utility and Non-maneuvering of data to completely document the
Integration. Position Accuracy results. It is during this test that
as well as the most of the unexpected problems are
Navigation found. In anticipation of having to
Performance in document these deficiencies, maximum
Overwater/Multipath instrumentation and range support are
Environment tests. sometimes brought to bear in case
unforseen data are required in post-
flight analysis.
 228

4.0. ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEM all EO systems.

sample
For these reasons, a
IR system will be used to
TESTING demonstrate the procedure used to
develop all EO test techniques. The
generalized thought process may then be
4.1. Introduction to Electro-Optical applied to develop tests for specific
systems.
Theory
All objects above a temperature of
absolute zero emit within the IR
4.1.1. General bandwidth. The amount and frequency of
the IR radiation emitted varies with the
temperature of the object [Ref. 74:Chap.
Figure 12 depicts the electromagnetic 3]. When operating, most military
spectrum [Ref. 37:pp. 2.1a,2.82a]. The targets are strong IR emitters due to
portion of the spectrum applicable to their high temperatures.' 2 This is
Electro-Optical (EO) systems lies perhaps the greatest advantage of the IR
between the Extremely High Frequency EO system since it allows passive
(EHF) band and the X-ray band [Ref. detection and imaging of militarily
37:p. 2.1]. EO systems are very similar significant targets. [Ref. 37:p. 1.1].
in concept to their RF band counterparts The universal emittance of IR radiation
including the radars discussed earlier; also accounts for one of the most
however, they have some unique strengths significant weaknesses of IR systems.
and weaknesses. Due to their extremely Since all objects radiate IR at some
high frequencies and small wavelengths, level, a large amount of clutter exists
the bandwidths of EO sensors are in the IR environment from which the
extremely high, and very narrow system has to discriminate the target.
beamwidths are possible, providing Another important disadvantage of IR
highly accurate systems, capable of systems is the strong level of
imaging. Narrow beam widths make EO atmospheric absorption and scattering of
systems hard to jam. [Ref. 37:p. 1.1]. IR radiation. IR systems generally
operate over much lesser ranges than RF
Common applications of EO systems systems due to this constraint. [Ref.
include [Ref. 37:p. 1.1) (Note that 37:p. 1.2; Ref. 74:Chap. 4-5]. Finally,
there is an RF counterpart to each IR systems are strictly limited to line
application): of sight propagation paths. [Ref. 37:pp.
Threat Detection, Identification and
Tracking 4.1.2.1. Discriminating Targets from
Threat Detection and Warning Clutter
Surveillance and Ground Mapping
Navigation The discrimination of IR targets from
Communications background noise can be accomplished
Weapons Delivery through a number of techniques.
Direct Radiation Weapons Wavelength/frequency (the frequency of
the emitted radiation is dependent upon
For the purposes of demonstrating the the emitting object's absolute
thought process used for developing EO temperature) can be used as a
test techniques, this book will discriminator. This concept is known as
concentrate on passive systems, since chromatic filtering. [Ref. 37:p. 2.35;
these systems are perhaps the most Ref. 74:p. 17.35-17.47, 22.95-22.10].
unique of the EO category of avionics.
As illustrated in figure 3, the RF
4.1.2.Infrared Systems spectrum of a radar signal can be
completely described in the amplitude
versus frequency domain by breaking the
A large majority of EO systems operate spectrum into its Fourier components.
in the near, middle and far InfraRed The EO analogy is to break the IR or
(IR) band. Additionally, the test visual (or any other band) scene into
techniques used to test IR systems are Fourier components in the spatial fre-
similar to the techniques used to test

' 2Some military targets can be purposely cold-soaked to make them harder to detect. For instance, a visually hidden tank can be shut off for days,
making its temperature close to ambient. The tank can still be detected with a system which resolves the fine IR variations caused by differences in
the heating/cooling rates of the steel tank versus the surrounding environment.
 229

VISIBLE

-J
INFRARED > AM
RAYS RAYS
U.J. 1.. UL. U.. LU U..
-J -J M

SVIDEO MICROWAVE

3x10E3 3xlOEG 3x10E9 3,d101•12 3x10E15' 3x10E18

3x10E4 3x10E7 3xt0EI0 Sx1OE13 3x10E1, 3xlOElQ
3x10E5 3x10E8 3x10E11 3x10E14 3x1dE17 FREQUENCY
(HZ)

EXTREME FAR W• NEAR ULTRA-

INFRARED INFRARED 0 c INFRARED VIOLET
CU-

18x10E14 2.,x1IOE15 FREQUENCY

4.5xlOE13 9x10E14 1.2x10E15 (HZ)

15.0 0.0 3.0 0.77 0.4 WAVELENGTH

Figure 12: The Electromagnetic Spectrum [Ref. 37:pp.2.la, 2.82a]

quency domain. Spatial frequency can be objects, require a number of discrete

visualized as the number of times a Fourier components to be adequately
component of a physical shape occurs described in the spatial frequency
over a unit of measurement. Normally, domain. The components can be filtered
for EO systems, the units used are to eliminate unwanted features and thus
angular. As a simplistic example, a the signal to noise characteristics of
picket fence could be modeled with a the sensor can be improved. Following
single spatial frequency that describes filtering, the components are
the number of pickets per radian of re-combined to present the filtered
scene. A tank, ship or series of scene. [Ref. 37:pp. 2.36-2.39]. As an
230

example of the application of the The samples can then be manipulated by

technique, an IR scene, including a either digital or analog techniques
ship, which is a fairly distributed using standard electronic processing
source; and a flare, which approximates devices. A simple sensor can be scanned
a point source, can be broken into its in a grid fashion over the entire scene
Fourier components. The flare would or a linear array can be scanned across
have a much higher spatial frequency, one dimension of the scene to build the
which could be filtered and eliminated same picture. [Ref. 74:Chap. 17].
by a low pass type filter. [Ref. 37:pp.
2.43-2.44]. The scene would then be 4.1.2.3. Infrared Atmospheric
re-combined to present the ship without Transmittance
the flare's presence.
Figure 14 [Ref. 37:p. 2.10a] depicts the
When filtering in the spatial domain, sea level transmittance of the
(different than the spatial frequency atmosphere for the near to far IR band.
domain) masks or reticles are used to The gaps in transmittance are due to
optimize system response to targets of absorption by resonant molecules such as
known dimensions. As an example, figure water and carbon dioxide [Ref. 74:Chap.
13 [Ref. 37:pp. 2.42-2.43; Ref. 74:p. 5]. It is imperative that an operating
17.11-17.25] depicts the response of a wavelength for any IR detection system
sensor with an Instantaneous Field Of be chosen that falls within one of the
View (IFOV) larger than, and then equal "windows" of high transmittance. [Ref.
to the target. The IFOV is the angular 37:pp. 2.10-2.17]. This restriction can
width over which the sensor looks at any occasionally conflict with the desire
instant. In this simplified example, for temporal filtering of military
the system can only sense the total targets that have a maximum emittance
signal of all the emissions within the within a gap of poor transmittance.
IFOV. As shown in the figure, the
signal to noise ratio is highest when 4.1.2.4. Radiation Detectors
the IFOV matches the dimensions of the
target. In this way, the signal to Radiation detectors are at the heart of
noise can be maximized for a target of any IR system. Radiation detectors
known dimensions. [Ref. 37:pp. sense the average level of radiation
2.42-2.43]. within their IFOV and then convert this
to an electrical. signal. This
In optical time modulation, the incoming facilitates the conversion of the
signal is time modulated in amplitude, spatial domain scene into the electrical
The known modulation scheme can then be time domain for further electrical/
used to manipulate the signal during electronic processing. The detectors
processing. The modulation can be can be used singly and scanned in two
provided through a number of techniques, dimensions to build the entire
including adding simple rotating mirrors "picture", used in a linear array and
or segmented reticles in the optical scanned in one dimension or used in a
path. A typical application is in the two dimensional array to build the
elimination of internal noise. The picture without scanning [Ref. 74: Chap.
signal is time modulated as it comes 11]. In practice, single detectors and
into the system at the reticle. Any two dimensional arrays are rarely used.
added processing noise would not be [Ref. 37: p. 2.52].
modulated and could then be identified
and filtered out.[Ref. 37:p. 2.45]. Radiation detectors are of two types.
Thermal detectors absorb radiant energy
4.1.2.2. Image Scanning and subsequently increase in
temperature. Detection is performed by
In order to use powerful electronic measuring the change of some property of
processing devices, the IR scene must be the detection material resulting from
modeled by an electrical signal. the change in temperature. Common
Additionally, IR sensors generally sense thermal detectors include [Ref. 74:p.
only the average intensity of the total 11.7; Ref. 37:p. 2.52]:
IR scene within its IFOV. A larger
scene is then constructed by Pyroelectric
sequentially sampling the IFOV of the Thermopneumatic
sensor over the entire field of view and Evaporagraphic
then combining the pieces. The sampling Thermovoltaic
is usually performed at a given Balometric
interval, providing direct conversion of
the signal from the pure space/amplitude Photon detectors rely upon the direct
domain to the time/amplitude domain, effects of photons of radiant energy as
 231

APERATURE LARGER THAN TARGET

APERATURE SAME SIZE AS TARGET
TARGET
S1 I -II

I I I I I , •I I-
-i I
SCAN I_ 1I I I_ 1I

W 0

cc
0 ý- AREA OF
APERATURE>
OW S/N=SMALL AREA OF
<0a
Er U- TARGET

SCANNED DIMENSION
cc
0 OAREA OF
aW
w< S/N=LARGE AREA OF
a: t TARGET

SCANNED DIMENSION

Figure 13: Space Domain Filtering

they react with the detector material, closely as possible to absolute zero
The effects are measured as an reduces the amount of noise generated by
indication of the level of incident the detector itself. Internally
photons. [Ref. 37: p. 2.52]. Common generated noise is indistinguishable in
photon detectors include [Ref. 37: p. most cases from the received IR from the
2.52; Ref. 74: p. 11.7]: outside scene. Supercooling of the
detectors greatly increases the
Photoemissive performance of the detectors. Most IR
Photoconductive detectors are cryogenically cooled using
Photovoltaic liquid gasses such as nitrogen or helium
Photoelectomagnetic to temperatures around 4.2" to 77" K
Photographic (Ref. 74: p. 15.6].

The signal to noise ratio of photon

detectors is greatly increased when the
detectors are cooled. Cooling as
 232

4.1.2.5. Forward Looking Infrared Radar visible spectrum scene is generated in

two dimensions directly onto a video
Figure 15 [Ref. 37:p. 2.9] depicts the camera. The operator then views the
IR, EO system to be used for development scene generated by the camera as
of the sample test techniques. This displayed on a cockpit CRT. The camera
Forward Looking Infrared Radar (FLIR) is is necessary to provide the proper scan
typical of many air to ground systems in conversion from the analog visual
operational use today. The conversion display to the digital CRT display.
of incoming IR radiation from the
external scene to a visible light The scanning process described above
representation occurs in three steps. determines the dimensions of the IFOV13
First, the IR radiation is collected at of the sensor. The IFOV of the sample
the reticle and scanned onto the IR system is 15" horizontally by i0"
detectors. Next the detected IR scene vertically in the WFOV and 1.5" by i" in
is converted to the visual spectrum and the NFOV. The entire sensor is mounted
scanned onto a television camera. in a three-dimensionally gimballed
Finally the visual spectrum output is sphere, allowing the IFOV to be slewed
converted by the television camera into through 200" left and right of the
a displayable format. aircraft centerline and 20" up to 90"
below the aircraft fuselage reference
The IR radiation enters the FLIR through line. While slewing the sensor through
the reticle. The radar analogy of the the allowable limits, a portion of the
reticle is the antenna. The sample IFOV at various gimbal positions is
reticle has two operating modes. In the hidden by portions of the aircraft
Wide Field Of View (WFOV), the incident structure. The complete angular limits
IR is unmagnified and is processed as a through which an object can be viewed
one to one representation of the outside through the FLIR exclusive of the areas
world. In the Narrow Field Of View masked by aircraft structure is the FLIR
(NFOV) the incident radiation is field of regard.
magnified ten fold through a series of
simple lenses. Two stabilization modes are available
for the sample FLIR. In the fuselage
The sample system uses a linear array of stabilized mode the IFOV (the gimballed
186 IR detectors and so some method is sphere) is held at selected angles as
required to scan the remaining dimension measured from the aircraft fuselage
and build the two dimensional reference line. As the aircraft
representation of the IR scene. This is maneuvers, the IFOV center
facilitated by a rotating mirror. As simultaneously moves as referenced to
the mirror rotates in the optical path, earth stabilized axes. Additionally, as
it reflects radiation onto the detectors the aircraft flies a groundtrack, the
proportional to the instantaneous level IFOV center translates along a
of incoming IR. Thus, the two groundtrack (assuming the FLIR is
dimensional IR scene becomes 186 analog looking down) in a similar fashion. This
signals. These 186 signals are then stabilization mode is used when
amplified and sent to 186 corresponding detection along the aircraft flight path
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which emit is desired. Navigation FLIRs scan in
light in the visible spectrum this manner since it allows a real time
proportional to the incoming analog update of the scene ahead of the flight
signal. Since the corresponding LED path.
array is also linear, the visible light
must be scanned identically to the IR In the geographically stabilized mode,
scanning process to convert to a two as the operator slews the FLIR to cover
dimensional representation. Perfect a desired scene, feedback from the
synchronization with the IR scanning aircraft INS is used to maintain the
process is required to insure a true FLIR orientation relative to a fixed
visible spectrum representation of the earth reference. The angles of
IR scene. Perfect synchronization is orientation relative to the aircraft
insured by using a two sided mirror to vary as the aircraft maneuvers. This
scan the IR scene and using the back stabilization mode has utility in
side of the mirror to simultaneously targeting since it allows for viewing in
scan the LED generated scene. The

', The critical reader will note an inconsistency between the definition of IFOV used here and the definition provided earlier. By consensus, EFOV
may be used to describe the angular limits of the scene projected upon the system detector array. Additionally, it is often used to describe the angular
limits of the total scene covered by an imaging system with the reticle head fixed at one position. Typically, the reader must determine which
definition is applicable by examination of the current context. The latter definition will be used subsequently in this book.
 233

e 1

U I
C;

0 11

BTTH'N 19a UOTSSTMSUeII 2glu•oulo

Figure 14: Infrared Atmospheric Transmittance at Sea Level [Ref.36:p.2.10a]

the direction of a target, even while is used or an assumption is made that

maneuvering, the target is at sea level so that
aircraft altitude from the navigation
In most cases, the greatest source of system can be used to partially
stabilization errors for the stabilize the FLIR in three dimensions.
geographically stabilized mode is the Since an exact tapeline height above the
determination of the height of the target is not available, errors accrue
aircraft above the point on the target and the crosshairs drift depending upon
where the FLIR crosshairs are placed. the accuracy of the approximations.
Often a manual input of target elevation Geographic stabilization is often
234

DEAN DOFLECTION

OISPAY ,VOPTof,•

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radaror LASER deie rangens ste scan also than thirpbackgounds. The utility of
beusda for targeting.ifAccuateiangularog thjectwo modes vaiesplwith the tacticale
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additioraitionth
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derived hegtabovesean aleve FLIR videor dckriveds direl fromitheo
aste dsedfauthigtaovrh targetin.Acrtnua camera sevmoera vauxiiary displaye facieald
Thmoeasramet ormay maulle n teroatarget aretutiplexed onetyeofth reCt, s
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hseigh to derived height above thalee theR FiRe d uringd

dietayrgeting

target. No LASER range or coupled radar Additionally, the horizontal angle from
modes are available, the aircraft centerline to the FLIR
bores ight is displayed along the bottom
In most cases, FLIR displays are of the CRT and the vertical angle from
monochrome. Two options are available the aircraft fuselage reference line to
 235

the FLIR boresight is displayed along accomplish each mission, amplifying the
the left side of the CRT. loss of individual airplanes to inflight
fa'iures. Quick, accurate ground
With the exception of FLIRs set at fixed pe-light tests are essential to
boresights, the operator must have some denermine system status while repairs
means to control the center of the FLIR can still be made. A quick response/
IFOV. In the sample system, a joystick alert time is also important and so
hand controller is used. The controller these checks must be expeditious and
is used in three situations. In the must allow the operator to prepare for
fuselage referenced mode, the hand the mission with a minimum of
controller is used to adjust the distractions. Limited airplane
boresight angle from the fuselage. In availability also implies the need for
the geographically stabilized mode, the quick turn arounds to send the same
hand controller is used to center the aircraft out for successive missions.
FLIR over a geographic point that This necessitates a very short preflight
remains stabilized with reference to the and turn on procedure that can be
earth angles excluding errors caused by accomplished safely and thoroughly
the tapeline height above the target. before a hurried combat mission. In the
After placing the FLIR crosshairs over case of a FLIR, the time required for
the target of interest, the inertial the cool down phase of the IR detectors
feedback system maintains alignment on is often the most time consuming portion
the target. of the turn on sequence; although, some
very new systems use open loop coolers
4.1.3. Electro-Optical System with much quicker cool-down times.
Human Factors 4.2.1.3. Instrumentation

A stop watch and data cards are required

As in the radar human factors section, for this test. A voice tape recorder is
no attempt will be made to completely optional.
cover the topic of ergonomics"'. As
with radar systems testing, 4.2.1.4. Data Required
electro-optical systems testing must be
performed while seated at the DEP and Record qualitative comments, time to
wearing a full set of personal flight complete the preflight/turn on and time
equipment. The procedure for finding to complete the BIT. A record of BIT
the DEP was explained in the radar indications is required. If a separate
theory section. The anthropometric discrete is available announcing the
measurements and flight gear worn by the completion of the cool down sequence,
evaluator must be recorded. record the time to obtain this advisory.

4.2. ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEMS 4.2.1.5. Procedure

TEST TECHNIQUES Perform a normal system turn on before
each test flight using the published
system check list. Note the times of
4.2.1. Preflight and Built in Tests FLIR cool down and time out and the
total system preflight time up to the
ready for operate indications. Perform
4.2.1.1. Purpose a preflight BIT, noting the total BIT
time and indications. Note any
The purpose of this test is to assess correlation between the BIT indications
the suitability of the FLIR preflight and the FLIR's operation. Perform a
and turn on procedure and the BIT to complete system check out of the failure
quickly and easily bring the FLIR on indications while on the ground. Make
line and insure an operating system once qualitative comments as appropriate.
airborne.
4.2.1.6. Data Analysis and
4.2.1.2. General Presentation
As airplanes become more expensive, The time and complexity of the preflight
fewer and fewer will be available to procedures listed in the operator's

"Wolfe and Zissis provide a discussion of IR display issues [Ref. 31: Chap. 18]
236

checklist and FLIR turn-on/cool-

down/timeout procedure should be related
to the expected alert launch time
requirements and the overall operator
workload during the alert launch. The
BIT times and the amount of operator
interface required to perform the BIT
should be assessed in the same scenario.
Clarity of the BIT indications should be
related to the cockpit environment. The
BIT indications should be related to
actual FLIR degradation and verified by
ground technicians. Erroneous BIT false
alarms should be noted and related to
the probability of unnecessarily missed
sorties. Some turn on procedures are
strictly serial, requiring that turn on,
cool down and BIT be performed in a
specific order without overlap. The
turn on, cool down and BIT may be
individually quick and easy, but
together, may delay alert launches. In
this case, relate the total of all the
times to the requirement to make alert
launches in a timely manner.

4.2.1.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are presented as cards
55 and 56.
 237

CARD NUMBER
PREFLIGHT/TURN ON
CLARITY OF CHECKLIST INSTRUCTIONS:

LOGICAL SEQUENCE OF CHECKLIST:

THOROUGHNESS OF CHECKLIST:

SYSTEM STATUS/COOLDOWN/TIMEOUT COMPLETE INDICATIONS:

FLIR TIMEOUT TIME

FLIR COOL DOWN TIME

TOTAL PREFLIGHT TIME INCLUDING COOL DOWN/TIMEOUT

Card 55: Preflight/Turn On Data Card

238

CARD NUMBER
BUILT IN TESTS
INITIATION PROCEDURES:

RUN/FINISH INDICATIONS:

BIT FAILURES AND QUALITATIVE FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE

FLIR/RESULTS OF GROUND MAINTENANCE CHECKS:

Card 56: Built In Tests Data Card

 239

4.2.2. Controls and Displays This means

activation that the direction of
should conform to the
standards of common sense (turn the knob
4.2.2.1. Purpose to the right to turn on the system) and
to the standards set in references 12
The purpose of this test is to assess and 13 (which for the most part merely
the suitability and utility of the FLIR put on paper the standards of common
controls and displays for the assigned sense).
mission as an interface between the
operator and the FLIR system. The FLIR line of sight slew controls
often present a problem in selection of
4.2.2.2. General' 5 the correct operative sense. These
difficulties sometimes do not become
As good as many FLIRs are in generating apparent until the controls are
a visual representation of the IR scene, manipulated in a mission relatable
they have failed if the operator is not fashion. The operation of the controls
presented with a usable display or if should be clear, requiring a minimum of
the operator is not given adequate operator concentration and attention.
controls to operate the system. The This leaves the operator free to make
controls and displays must be usable in tactical decisions. The controls should
every conceivable flight regime, ambient be placed in logical functional groups,
lighting condition, weather condition, reducing the area of scan required to
and by aviators with the range of check the FLIR set up. The FLIR
anthropometric measurements for which controls should be integrated well into
the system was designed to operate. For the cockpit. This means that the FLIR
the modern fighter or attack airplane controls should operate harmoniously
this is usually all weather, day or with the other controls within the
night, around +9 to -4 gs, for the 3 to cockpit and without hindering the
98 percentile groups, and in a realistic simultaneous operation of other airplane
tactical environment filled with urgent systems. Mission relatable hand offs
decisions demanding the aviator'.s between the radar and FLIR and between
attention. For this reason, the the different stabilization modes of the
controls and display should require an FLIR should be performed.
absolute minimum of operator input or
interpretation and the information The integration must be evaluated during
imparted and required from the operator a mission relatable workload and while
should be kept at a minimum and simultaneously operating all the other
precisely what the aviator needs to airplane systems. This is important
execute the current phase of flight, since good FLIR work is usually just a
part of the mission. Lastly, the
Controls should be easily manipulated controls should provide good tactile
wearing the proper flight clothing. The feedback. For example, detents should
range of control (both the physical provide the proper amount of "click" and
range of movement of the knob, dial, all the knobs shouldn't feel exactly
lever, etc. and the range of effect that alike when reaching for a control with
the control has on the FLIR) and eyes on the FLIR display. Applying a
sensitivity should be compatible with little common sense and manipulating the
the expected flight regime. Controls controls in a mission relatable
that require manipulation while airborne environment usually uncovers most of the
should be reachable from the DEP, control human factors violations.
particularly if they must be activated
in a combat environment. As an example, Many modern aircraft have a large number
the FLIR targeting mode controls must be of the avionics controls included in the
reachable while performing high g Hands-On-Throttle-And-Stick (HOTAS)
maneuvers and while maintaining a body format, allowing manipulation without
position ready for a safe ejection. An releasing the throttle and stick. These
accurate FLIR update of the target implementations have their own human
position is essential for targeting factors challenges. Typical problems
inputs to the weapons release computers.
The operative sense must be correct.

"' For an introduction into controls and displays human factors, see references 20, 54 and 73.
240

include the mounting of too many for size in a relatable mission

controls in the available area, environment, accounting for this element
appropriate control sensitivity across of realism. The display should be
broad flight conditions and tactile positioned in a location suitable for
feedback considerations. the mission. As an example, a display
for a FLIR that includes targeting modes
The FLIR displays should be clearly should be high on the front panel, or
visible from the DEP in bright daylight even on the HUD, to allow the pilot to
as well as complete darkness. In bright glance down or look through the HUD and
daylight, the display must be usable gather the FLIR derived information
under all conditions of glare including while at the same time minimizing the
sunlight directly over the operator's time he or she spends with his or her
shoulder onto the display (a eyes in the cockpit and consequently
particularly serious problem for most away from his or her visual scan for the
displays). In the dark, the display target. As with controls, display human
should not be so bright that it factors problems typically surface by
distracts the operator or affects his or applying a little common sense while
her night vision. A good range of the using the FLIR in a mission relatable
brightness control that integrates scenario.
harmoniously with the rest of the
cockpit is required. The display 4.2.2.3. Instrumentation
resolution must be matched to the FLIR
resolution. The display should be able A tape measure and data cards are
to provide a "picture" quality required for this test. A voice
presentation that is similar in recorder is optional.
appearance to a visual scene, accounting
for the fact that the display is 4.2.2.4. Data Required
actually a visual representation of IR.
Record qualitative comments. Record the
The display must refresh itself quickly evaluator's anthropometric data and a
enough so that the symbology, list of personal flight gear worn. A
alphanumerics and video present an even description of the FLIR line of sight
and continuous display without orientation displays must be recorded.
noticeable flicker. Alphanumerics must The usable display area should be
be clear and legible. The messages measured. Location of the display from
should be short and easily understood the DEP should be measured if a
without excessive coding or operator qualitative problem is noted. Reach
interpretation. The information length of controls that are beyond the
displayed to the operator, including operator's reach while seated at the DEP
video, symbols and alphanumerics must be during any mission relatable scenario
sufficient for the current phase of must be noted.
flight while at the same time not
overloading the operator with 4.2.2.5. Procedure
information. This usually requires
tailoring the display to the specific Find the DEP as outlined in the radar
attack mode/mission/phase of flight, theory section. All ground and airborne
that is currently being used. The tests should be performed while at this
display should be assessed for the position and wearing a complete set of
information load in a mission relatable flight gear. Perform a system turn up
scenario to determine its utility as an on the ground outside of the hangar in a
aid in the combat environment. Since range of ambient lighting conditions
the display of FLIR information (bright daylight to darkness which may
approximates the visual world, the be simulated using a canopy curtain).
display should provide sufficient Manipulate all the controls noting the
information so that the FLIR does not factors discussed above. Measure the
disorient the operator as to the display usable area. Evaluate the
attitude of the aircraft. This usually display for the factors discussed above.
requires an easily visible and Note and measure the position and reach
interpretable display of the FLIR line to all controls and displays that pose a
of sight orientation, visibility or reach problem from the
DEP. During airborne testing,
It is unlikely that a display compatible manipulate the controls and make
in size, weight, power and cooling qualitative comments during mission
requirements with a tactical airplane relatable attacks and intercepts. Take
will be built in the near future that particular note during the extremes of
has too large of a usable display face. ambient lighting for displays and during
Thus, the display should be evaluated high g maneuvers for controls. Confirm
 241

the ground checks for reach and 4.2.2.7. Data Cards

visibility during these circumstances.
Check the extremes of control limits and Sample data cards are presented as cards
sensitivity. Repeat for each test 57 and 58.
flight.

4.2.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

Present a table of the operator's
anthropometric data and the personal
flight equipment worn during the tests.
Present the seat position as the number
of inches from the bottom of the seat
travel. Relate the sensitivity of the
controls to the tactical environment in
which they are to be used. For example,
an attack airplane's slew control may be
too sensitive to use for an accurate
update of the target position under
moderate g or turbulence making it
unusable while maneuvering for an
attack. Relate the accessibility,
placement and grouping of the controls
under mission relatable conditions. An
attack mode selector must be readily
accessible while scanning outside the
airplane and maneuvering violently.
Relate the control clarity, operative
sense and tactile feedback to a multiple
threat, combat scenario requiring the
operator to make quick tactical
decisions. If ambient lighting affects
the display in any way, relate this to
the limits of the possible combat
environments. Compare the display
resolution to the "picture" quality of
the IR scene.

Relate the information load presented

the operator to the combat scenario
discussed above and evaluate whether the
needed information is present and
whether too much information is
cluttering the display. This
information can include FLIR video,
alphanumerics or symbols. This concept
is closely related to the size of the
display face usable area. A large scope
can present more information without
cluttering the display and requires less
concentration to read and evaluate. The
refresh rate should be related to the
concentration required to evaluate a
lagging display. The utility of the
FLIR line of sight orientation displays
should be related to the likelihood of
the display disorienting the pilot and
causing him to make improper adjustments
to the aircraft's attitude. The display
position should be evaluated considering
the type of information involved, the
eye position required for using the
display and the display position's
effect upon scan.
242

CARD NUMBER

CONTROLS

CLARITY OF OPERATION:

ACCESSIBILITY (MEASURE REQUIRED REACH IF A PROBLEM):

OPERATIVE SENSE:

ADJUSTMENT SENSITIVITY:

RANGE OF ADJUSTMENT:

TACTILE FEEDBACK:

FUNCTIONAL LOCATION/GROUPING (SKETCH IF A PROBLEM):

INTEGRATION:

Card 57: Controls Data Card

 243

CARD NUMBER

DISPLAYS

(PERFORM IN BRIGHT DAYLIGHT TO DARKNESS.]

LOCATION QUALITATIVE COMMENTS (MEASURE LOCATION IF A

PROBLEM):

CONTRAST/BRIGHTNESS/GAIN CONTROLS (RANGE OF EFFECTIVENESS):

GLARE (BOTH FROM OUTSIDE AND INSIDE COCKPIT LIGHT SOURCES):

RASTER LINES/INCH

USABLE DISPLAY AREA _ X

RESOLUTION QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

REFRESH RATE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

LOCATION OF SYMBOLOGY/ALPHANUMERICS:

INTERPRETATION OF SYMBOLOGY/ALPHANUMERICS:

UTILITY OF FLIR LINE OF SIGHT ORIENTATION DISPLAYS:

INTEGRATION:

Card 58: Displays Data Card

244

4.2.3. Instantaneous Field of View horizontal (h) and vertical

measurements of the box formed by the
(v)

corners of the IFOV marked by the

4.2.3.1. Purpose assistant. Repeat for the NFOV. While
airborne, perform mission relatable FLIR
The purpose of this test is to measure navigation to the target area making
the IFOV of the FLIR in all field of qualitative comments on the utility of
view selections and to assess the the WFOV for navigation and orientation.
utility of the range of IFOV selections Use the fuselage stabilized and
for the assigned mission. geographically stabilized mode as
required during the test. Following
4.2.3.2. General navigation to the target area, make
qualitative comments concerning the
Most modern FLIRs are used for utility of the WFOV and NFOV for
navigation and targeting when visibility detecting and identifying the target and
is reduced. During navigation, a wide in the NFOV make comments concerning the
IFOV is desirable to provide as much of utility for making accurate updates of
a panoramic view as possible as the the cursors over the target position.
aircraft moves along its course. As a
targeting tool, a narrow IFOV with some 4.2.3.6. Data Analysis and
amount of magnification is desirable to Presentation
allow maximum accuracy in targeting
data. Target search requires something Use equation (28) to find the horizontal
in between to allow for a reasonable and vertical IFOV (IFOVh, IFOVJ) in both
search area while still providing enough NFOV and WFOV.
magnification to identify the target at
mission relatable ranges. Note that in IFOQ,=ar-ctW
the context used here, a narrow IFOV (33)
implies magnification of some portion of IFOV,=ctar |
the incoming IR scene.
4.2.3.3. Instrumentation
Relate the utility of the WFOV for FLIR
A tape measure and data cards are navigation to the possibility of pilot
required for this test. A voice disorientation as he or she attempts to
recorder is optional. navigate without enough of the outside
scene available for view and to the
4.2.3.4. Data Required possibility of impacting obstructions
outside of the field of view. Relate
Record the distance from the FLIR the utility of the WFOV and NFOV for
aperture to the wall. Record linear detecting and identifying the target to
measurements of the vertical and the probability of missed attacks and
horizontal field of views as marked on missed targets. Relate the utility of
the wall for each IFOV selection. the NFOV for targeting to the highly
Include qualitative comments concerning accurate updates required to place
the utility of the IFOV selections ordnance on a target.
during navigation, target search and
FLIR targeting. 4.2.3.7. Data Cards
4.2.3.5. Procedure
Sample data cards are provided as card
Park the test airplane with the nose 59.
pointed at a wall. Turn on and time out
the FLIR, focusing it onto the wall at a
point where the wall is perpendicular to
a line extending from the FLIR aperture.
Select the WFOV and have an assistant
place a chalk mark at the intersection
of the FLIR crosshairs. Close
communication will be required as the
assistant finds the location of this
point. Have the assistant then mark the
four corners of the IFOV of the FLIR in
a similar fashion. Use the tape measure
to determine the distance in inches from
the FLIR aperture to the crosshair
intersection mark (1). Measure the
 245

CARD NUMBER

INSTANTANEOUS FIELD OF VIEW (GROUND TEST)

(POSITION THE AIRCRAFT CLOSE TO A WALL AND POINT THE FLIR AT A SPOT WHERE THE WALL

IS PERPENDICULAR TO THE LINE FROM THE FLIR TO THE WALL. HAVE AN ASSISTANT MARK THE

CROSSHAIRS AND CORNERS.]

WFOV NFOV

DISTANCE FROM APERTURE

TO CROSSHAIRS MARK (1)

VERTICAL DIMENSION (v)

HORIZONTAL DIMENSION (h)

Card 59: Instantaneous Field of View Data Cards

246

CARD NUMBER TIME __ PRIORITY L/M/H

INSTANTANEOUS FIELD OF VIEW (AIRBORNE TEST)

[DESCEND TO FEET AGL AND SET MACH=-. SELECT WFOV AND THE FUSELAGE REFERENCED

STABILIZATION MODE, SWITCHING TO THE GEOGRAPHICALLY STABILIZED MODE AS REQUIRED.

START AT AND NAVIGATE INBOUND TO THE TARGET. FIND THE TARGET

USING THE WFOV AND IDENTIFY USING THE NFOV. USE THE NFOV TO PROVIDE TARGETING,

UPDATING THE FLIR CURSOR PLACEMENT AS REQUIRED. PERFORM A DELIVERY.

REPEAT WITH DIFFERENT DELIVERY MODES AS TIME ALLOWS.]

COMMENTS:

Card 59: Instantaneous Field of View Data Cards (Continued)

 247

4.2.4. FLIR Slew Limits 4.2.4.5. Procedure

Park the airplane with the fuselage
4.2.4.1. Purpose reference line perpendicular to a wall.
Turn on and time out the FLIR. Use the
The purpose of this test is to measure plumb bob to find and mark a point on
the vertical and horizontal slew limits the ground directly below the swivel
of the FLIR and the utility of these point of the reticle. Slew the FLIR
limits for providing a target display fully left. Have an assistant adjust
while the aircraft maneuvers to the the position of the plumb bob until it
target and for searching a sufficiently corresponds with the vertical crosshair
wide area around the aircraft ground of the FLIR. Mark the point where the
track and attitude. plumb bob reaches the ground. Note that
close communications are required
4.2.4.2. General between the evaluator in the aircraft
and the assistant. Repeat for the right
The IFOV defines the area of the scene slew limit. Stretch a cord from the
that the FLIR can display at a given mark on the ground below the FLIR to the
instant. There will be some physical left mark and to the right mark. Use
limits over which the gimballed ball the protractor to measure the angle
containing the FLIR reticle can be between the two cords. Next, slew the
slewed, thus limiting the search volume FLIR fully down and have the assistant
of the FLIR and the angles from the mark the intersection of the crosshairs
fuselage reference line that a scene can on the ground. Stretch a cord from the
be displayed. These limits are usually direction of the center of the FLIR
defined both vertically and horizontally reticle swivel point to the point on the
and for tactical aircraft are typically ground. Have the assistant use the
100" left and right, 20" up and 90" down level to adjust the protractor
as measured from the fuselage reference perpendicular to local vertical and
line. A final constraint on the scene's measure the angle from the string to
volume that can be displayed is the area local vertical (down). Repeat for the
masked by the aircraft fuselage and upper slew limit point, marking the
other obstructions. This last point on the wall ahead of the aircraft
constraint will be evaluated during the and using the level, protractor and
field of regard test to follow. The string to measure the angle from
symmetry of the display, that is, the horizontal as defined by the level.
correct alignment of the physical limits
with the fuselage reference line, will While airborne, perform mission
be determined during the FLIR pointing relatable attacks against a simulated
accuracy test. The slew limit tests ground target, jinking as would be
will provide only the total angle required during an attack and
between the left and right and up and maneuvering to perform a weapons
down slew limits, delivery. Note if the FLIR slew limits
are reached while slewing the FLIR to
4.2.4.3. Instrumentation maintain contact with the target.
Repeat for a variety of maneuvering
A protractor, plumb bob, cord, tape weapons deliveries.
measure, level -and data cards are
required for this test. A voice 4.2.4.6. Data Analysis and
recorder is optional. Presentation

4.2.4.4. Data Required Add the upper and lower slew limit
measurements to obtain the vertical slew
While on the ground, record the angle limits. Relate the slew limits to the
from the position of the display necessity to jink inbound to the target
crosshairs with the FLIR slewed to avoid enemy defenses as well as to
completely to the left to the position the requirement to maneuver during
of the crosshairs with the FLIR slewed various weapon deliveries such as iron
completely to the right. Record the bomb lofts and to the necessity to
angle from the position of the display maintain FLIR contact with the target
crosshairs with the FLIR slewed fully up during the deliveries.
and the angle of the crosshairs from
vertical with the FLIR slewed fully 4.2.4.7. Data Cards
down. Make qualitative comments
concerning the utility of the slew angle Sample data cards are presented as card
limits while performing mission 60.
relatable evasive maneuvers and attacks.
248

CARD NUMBER

FLIR SLEW LIMITS (GROUND TEST)

(POSITION THE AIRCRAFT WITH THE FUSELAGE REFERENCE LINE PERPENDICULAR TO A WALL.

HAVE AN ASSISTANT USE A PLUMB BOB TO MARK DIRECTLY BELOW THE CENTER OF THE RETICLE

BALL SWIVEL POINT, THE POINT ON THE GROUND BELOW THE LEFT AND RIGHT SLEW LIMITS AND

THE POINT ON THE WALL AND FLOOR FOR THE UPPER AND LOWER SLEW LIMITS. USE CORDS TO

MEASURE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE LEFT/RIGHT LIMITS AND THE ANGLES FROM LOCAL

VERTICAL FOR THE UPPER AND LOWER LIMITS.]

LEFT TO RIGHT ANGLE

UPPER LIMIT ANGLE

LOWER LIMIT ANGLE

Card 60: FLIR Slew Limits Data Cards

 249

CARD NUMBER TIME __ PRIORITY L/M/H

FLIR SLEW LIMITS (AIRBORNE TEST)

(DESCEND TO __ FEET AGL AND SET MACH=-. ACQUIRE THE TARGET AND HEAD

INBOUND, SELECTING THE NFOV AND UPDATING THE CURSOR PLACEMENT AS NECESSARY. PERFORM

MISSION RELATABLE JINKING INBOUND AND THEN PERFORM A DELIVERY. NOTE IF

THE FLIR REACHES THE SLEW LIMITS. REPEAT FOR THE AND

DELIVERIES.]

TYPE DELIVERY

POINT IN DELIVERY WHERE THE LIMITS ARE REACHED:

DISPLAYED FLIR POSITION

VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL

TYPE DELIVERY

POINT IN DELIVERY WHERE LIMITS REACHED:

DISPLAYED FLIR POSITION

VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL

Card 60: FLIR Slew Limits Data Cards (Continued)

250

4.2.5. Slew Rates target.

utility Record
of comments
the slew rate concerning
limits as the
the
aircraft flies over the target at
4.2.5.1. Purpose mission relatable weapons release
altitudes and performs post release
The purpose of this test is to determine maneuvers, for maintaining the FLIR
the vertical and horizontal maximum slew alignment with the target.
rates of the FLIR and to evaluate the
effects these rates have upon the 4.2.5.5. Procedure
utility of the FLIR for quickly pointing
to the direction of a target and then Measure the slew angular limits as
maintaining an orientation towards the described earlier. While on the ground,
target as the host aircraft maneuvers or slew the FLIR to a full left angular
flies in close proximity to the target. limit. Slew to a full right angular
limit as quickly as possible using the
4.2.5.2. General stop watch to measure the time. Repeat
in the opposite direction. Slew the
The FLIR slew rates are important for FLIR to the full down position and
three reasons. First, the operator will measure the time required to slew to a
want to rapidly point the FLIR in the full up position. Repeat for a full up
direction of targets of opportunity or to a full down position. Close
towards objects that catch his or her coordination will be required between
attention. Next, as the aircraft the operator and an assistant if the
maneuvers towards its maximum limits, operator is unable to accurately observe
the angles from the fuselage reference the FLIR pod slew.
line to the target may change rapidly.
The FLIR will have to slew rapidly to During mission relatable attacks,
keep up with the aircraft rates. perform evasive maneuvers inbound to the
Finally, as the aircraft approaches the target. Evaluate the utility of the
target, the angles from the fuselage FLIR slew rates for maintaining
reference line to the target will have orientation over the target position.
to eventually change, unless the pilot Attempt the test first in a geostable
flies a collision course to the target. mode and if problems are noted repeat in
Many types of ordnance require targeting a manual fuselage referenced mode.
data even as the aircraft passes the Overfly the target at a mission
target and leaves the area. Even for relatable minimum altitude for weapons
unguided ordnance, the operator may want delivery and then perform mission
to continue viewing the target after an relatable post-flight maneuvers.
overflight to assess the damage. For a Evaluate the utility of the FLIR slew
given aircraft groundspeed, the closer rates for maintaining alignment with the
the aircraft passes to the target, the target for post-release weapons guidance
higher the slew rates that will be and post-attack damage assessment.
required to keep the FLIR aligned onto Perform the test first in a geostable
the target. mode and if problems are noted perform
the test in a fuselage referenced manual
4.2.5.3. Instrumentation mode. Repeat the attack using different
attack modes as time allows.
A stop watch and data cards are required
for this test. A voice recorder is 4.2.5.6. Data Analysis and
optional. Presentation
4.2.5.4. Data Required Divide the horizontal slew angular
limits by the number of seconds required
Record the time for the FLIR turret to to slew from left to right and from
slew from full left to full right and right to left to get the slew rate in
full right to full left. Record the degrees per second. The two
time to slew from full up to full down measurements should be fairly close or a
and full down to full up. List problem in the slewing mechanization may
qualitative comments concerning the by indicated. Repeat for the upper and
utility of the FLIR for quickly slewing lower angles. There might be a slight
from a target near one slew angular difference in these two rates due to the
limit to the opposite slew angular effects of gravity, depending upon the
limit. Make comments concerning the slewing mechanism. Note that these are
utility of the slew rate limits as the average slew rates and may vary at
aircraft performs evasive maneuvers different points during slewing;
within the aircraft angular slew limits however, in most situations where large
for maintaining alignment with the slew rates are operationally required,
 251

large angular changes are also required

and the average time found here is
mission relatable. Relate the effects
of the slew rate to the requirement to
quickly slew to a target of opportunity
that catches the operator's eye in time
to set up an attack. Relate the slew
rates to the requirement to keep the
FLIR aligned on the target during
ingress evasive maneuvers and while
passing the target for post-release
weapons guidance and damage assessment.
If problems are not noted during the
geostable attacks, the slew rates are
adequate; however, if problems are
noted, the test must be repeated in the
fuselage referenced mode to insure the
noted drifts are not a result of the
geostable mode implementation.

4.2.5.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are presented as card
61.
252

CARD NUMBER

SLEW RATES (GROUND TEST)

[FOLLOWING THE SLEW ANGULAR LIMITS TEST, MEASURE THE TIME REQUIRED TO SLEW FULL LEFT

TO RIGHT AND FULL RIGHT TO LEFT. MEASURE THE TIME TO SLEW FULL UP TO DOWN AND FULL

DOWN TO UP.]

LEFT TO RIGHT SEC

RIGHT TO LEFT SEC

UP TO DOWN SEC

DOWN TO UP SEC

Card 61: Slew Rates Data Cards

 253

CARD NUMBER __ TIME __ PRIORITY L/M/H

SLEW RATES (AIRBORNE TEST)

(DESCEND TO __ FEET AGL AND SET MACH=-. ACQUIRE THE TARGET AND HEAD

INBOUND SELECTING THE NFOV, GEOSTABLE MODE. PERFORM MISSION RELATABLE JINKING

INBOUND AND THEN PERFORM A DELIVERY WITH POST-DELIVERY EVASIVE MANEUVERS.

NOTE IF THE FLIR REMAINS ALIGNED OVER THE TARGET TO THE SLEW ANGULAR LIMITS. IF

PROBLEMS ARE NOTED, REPEAT IN A FUSELAGE REFERENCED MODE AND PROVIDE MANUAL

UPDATES.]

TYPE DELIVERY

POINT IN THE DELIVERY WHERE THE DRIFT OCCURRED:

DESCRIBE THE MANEUVER:

AIRSPEED

APPROXIMATE RANGE FROM TARGET

TYPE DELIVERY

POINT IN THE DELIVERY WHERE THE DRIFT OCCURRED:

DESCRIBE THE MANEUVER:

AIRSPEED

APPROXIMATE RANGE FROM TARGET

Card 61: Slew Rates Data Cards (Continued)

254

4.2.6. FLIR Pointing Accuracy angles. For the sample system, the FLIR
is aligned to the aircraft fuselage
reference line.
4.2.6.1. Purpose Park the airplane perpendicular
to a
The purpose of this test is to measure wall, with the nose pointed at the wall
the accuracy of the FLIR display and approximately 30 feet away. Use the
horizontal and vertical pointing angle plumb bob to mark a point on the deck
indications and their effects upon the with the chalk directly below the swivel
utility of the FLIR display for point of the FLIR reticle. Use the tape
orienting the operator to the actual measure to determine the distance from
position of the target relative to the the center of the FLIR reticle swivel
aircraft. point to the deck. Align the cord with
the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
4.2.6.2. General and on top of the chalk mark below the
FLIR. Extend the cord in front of the
Often the operator will want to slew the airplane to the wall. Mark this spot
FLIR to view in detail a target that has with chalk.
caught his or her attention visually.
Additionally, the operator may want to Use the plumb bob and tape measure to
visually find a target he or she has place a small, warm object above the
detected on the FLIR. For this reason, first spot on the wall at the same
the accuracy of the display of the FLIR height above the ground as the reticle
pointing angles is important. center. Have the operator place the
Additionally, the azimuth and elevation crosshairs over the target and record
scales are used in the measurement of the indications on the vertical and
the field of regard and must be verified horizontal scales. Use the protractor
prior to this important test. to swivel the cord at 30" increments to
the left to the angular limits of the
4.2.6.3. Instrumentation FLIR and then to the right. At each
point, use the plumb bob to place a
A piece of chalk, protractor, plumb bob, target at the same approximate height as
cord, tape measure and data cards are the first target and have the operator
required for this test. A voice place the crosshairs over the target and
recorder is optional. mark the position on the horizontal
scale. Use the cord and the protractor
4.2.6.4. Data Required to mark positions on the wall and the
floor at 10. above and 30" increments
Record the actual and displayed below the horizontal position from the
horizontal angle from the FLIR reticle FLIR swivel point. Mark points to the
to the test target over each 30' FLIR angular limits or as high up the
increment from the fuselage reference wall as practicable. At each point,
line to the left and right limit, place a warm target, have the operator
Record the actual and displayed vertical place the cursors over the target and
angle from the FLIR reticle to the test mark the position on the vertical scale.
target over each 30" increment from the
plane passing through the FLIR reticle While airborne, visually find targets of
center perpendicular to the local opportunity at various positions from
vertical to the upper and lower limit, the aircraft. Estimate the angles to
Record the angle from the horizontal the targets and slew the FLIR to the
plane to the fuselage reference line. estimated positions, acquiring the
Record qualitative comments concerning target. Next, find targets of
the utility of the FLIR pointing angle opportunity with the FLIR and then use
display accuracy for visually finding the scale positions to visually acquire
targets displayed at the FLIR crosshairs the targets. Qualitatively assess the
and for positioning the FLIR crosshairs utility of the indications for
over targets found visually, performing these visual tasks.
4.2.6.5. Procedure 4.2.6.6. Data Analysis and
Presentation
Obtain the angle of the fuselage
reference line from the horizontal plane Subtract the horizontal scale
while the aircraft is sitting on its indications from the measured horizontal
landing gear. The angle may be found target positions. For the vertical
within the aircraft engineering positions, add the angle of the fuselage
documents. The contractor for the reference line above the horizon (or
airframe will be able to supply these subtract for an angle below the horizon)
 255

to the measured positions of the target.

Subtract the vertical scale indications
from the adjusted, measured target
positions. For each scale, plot the
error versus the scale indications.
Relate the error to the utility of the
scale indications for visually finding
targets first noted using the FLIR and
for finding targets first noted visually
on the FLIR scene.

4.2.6.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are presented as card
62.
256

CARD NUMBER

FLIR POINTING ACCURACY (GROUND TEST)

(POSITION THE AIRCRAFT PERPENDICULAR TO THE WALL AND 30 FEET AWAY, NOSE ON. MARK

THE POSITION BELOW THE FLIR SWIVEL POINT. MARK THE EXTENSION OF THE FUSELAGE

REFERENCE LINE (FLR) ON THE WALL AND THE VERTICAL POINT ON THE WALL LEVEL WITH THE

RETICLE. SLEW THE CROSSHAIRS OVER THE POINT AND MARK THE SCALES. REPEAT AT 300

INCREMENTS TO THE LEFT AND THE RIGHT. OVER THE NOSE OF THE AIRCRAFT, MARK POINTS

100 ABOVE AND 300 BELOW THE HORIZON LINE AND REPEAT.]

FRL POSITION ABOVE/BELOW HORIZON

CENTERLINE/LEVEL /

HORIZONTAL SCALE

LEFT 300 RIGHT 300

600 600
900°______ 900°______

1200 1200

1500 1500

1800 1800

2000 2000

VERTICAL SCALE

ABOVE 100 BELOW 300

200 600

900
6:°Pii
Acrya
Cd

Card 62: FLIR Pointing Accuracy Data Cards

 257

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

FLIR POINTING ACCURACY (AIRBORNE TEST)

[CLIMB TO FEET AGL AND SET KIAS. VISUALLY FIND TARGETS OF OPPORTUNITY AND

SLEW THE FLIR TO THEIR POSTIION, ACQUIRING THEM ON THE FLIR IN THE WFOV. FIND

TARGETS ON THE FLIR AND ATTEMPT TO ACQUIRE THEM VISUALLY. QUALITATIVELY EVALUATE

THE UTILITY OF THE SCALE ACCURACY.]

COMMENTS:

Card 62: FLIR Pointing Accuracy Data Cards (Continued)

258

4.2.7. Field of Regard aircraft flaps to a position consistent

with a high speed attack. This usually
requires full up flaps. The aircraft
4.2.7.1. Purpose should be loaded with drop tanks and
external ordnance if normally carried
The purpose of this test is to plot the during an attack. Use a blank
field of regard for the FLIR and to rectilinear plot to mark the positions
assess its utility for detecting targets of the corners of the obstructions. Use
at mission relatable angles from the the positions derived from the vertical
aircraft centerline, and horizontal FLIR position scales to
determine the corresponding positions
4.2.7.2. General marked on the horizontal and vertical
scales of the plot. Sketch the
The IFOV tests determined the angular connecting lines and verify the picture
measurements of the unscanned FLIR on the plot corresponds with the
display, while the slew limits tests display. Label the obstructions to
determined the maximum angles over which visibility. Note the positions where
the center of the FLIR display could be the landing gear would be absent when
slewed horizontally and vertically. A airborne. These can be deleted from the
third limitation to the areas over which plot if desired.
targets can be detected and displayed is
the portion of the aircraft structure When airborne, during mission relatable
that obstructs the FLIR display. The attacks, note the effects of the
graphical depiction of these obstructions upon FLIR utility for
obstructions and limits is the ingress navigation, target detection and
rectilinear plot which has linear scales target visibility during evasive
of 180' left and right and 90" up and maneuvering before delivery and during
down from the center of the FLIR post-delivery maneuvers. Repeat the
display. Figure 16 is a sample test using different attack modes as
rectilinear plot. For the sample time allows. The tests should be
system, the center of the rectilinear performed with mission relatable
plot will be placed over a line parallel external drop tanks and carrying mission
to the fuselage reference line and relatable real or inert ordnance.
translated to the center of the FLIR
slew axis since this is the line upon 4.2.7.6.Data Analysis and Presentation
which the crosshairs are centered when
set at zero and zero on the pointing Transpose the plot of the obstruction
angle scales. The pointing angle scales points to a second rectilinear plot,
will be used to quickly determine the applying the corrections in horizontal
angles to the obstructions but will be and vertical azimuth indications found
corrected for alignment errors using the during the pointing accuracy tests. Add
plots derived in the pointing angle the visibility limitations imposed by
accuracy tests. the horizontal and vertical scan angle
limits as appropriate. Re-sketch the
4.2.7.3. Instrumentation obstructions and add the obstruction
A blank rectilinear plot and data cards labels. The landing gear may be left in
or taken out as desired. Relate the
are required for this test. A voice size and placement of the obstructions
recorder is optional, to FLIR visibility to the limitations
they impose upon finding targets of
4.2.7.4. Data Required opportunity around the aircraft and to
the necessity to perform FLIR updates
Record the angular positions of the while also flying evasive maneuvers into
corners of each obstruction to FLIR the target area that may place the
visibility derived from the FLIR target into a blind area of the FLIR.
display. Draw a sketch connecting the Additionally, relate the size and
plotted positions of the obstruction placement of the obstructions to the
corners. Make qualitative comments requirement to maintain FLIR updates
concerning the utility of the FLIR field after weapons delivery for post-release
of regard for detecting the target and guidance and post-attack damage
keeping it in view during evasive assessment.
maneuvers and during post-delivery
maneuvers. 4.2.7.7.Data Cards

4.2.7.5. Procedure Sample data cards are provided as card

63.
Following the FLIR pointing accuracy
test, set WFOV for the FLIR and set the
 259

%Z

Uj -N

w CM

cc

• CO
z- -- C)
U..

cc

0 C
. 0 0)
e "

Fiue6 Sml RcilnarPo ,e w

(8S:33U::D)0) NOIIVA3:I7=

Figure 16: Sample Rectilinear Plot

260

CARD NUMBER

FIELD OF REGARD (GROUND TEST)

FLAP SETTINGS EXTERNAL CONFIGURATION:

CD
0

0
cmJ

IC

0) c)cr)0)

0 0 o 0 0 0'

(S33H030) NOIIVA313

Card 63: Field of Regard Data Cards

 261

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

FIELD OF REGARD (AIRBORNE TEST)

[DESCEND TO _ FEET AGL AND SET MACH=-. ACQUIRE THE TARGET AND HEAD

INBOUND, SELECTING THE NFOV AND GEOSTABLE MODE. PERFORM MISSION RELATABLE JINKING

INBOUND AND THEN PERFORM A DELIVERY WITH POST-DELIVERY EVASIVE MANEUVERS.

NOTE IF THE TARGET BECOMES OBSCURED BY AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES. REPEAT IN THE

ATTACK MODE.]

TYPE DELIVERY

POINT IN DELIVERY WHERE TARGET LOST:

STRUCTURE OBSCURING TARGET:

DESCRIBE MANEUVER:

TYPE DELIVERY

POINT IN DELIVERY WHERE TARGET LOST:

STRUCTURE OBSCURING TARGET:

DESCRIBE MANEUVER:

Card 63: Field of Regard Data Cards (Continued)

262

4.2.8.Line of Sight Drift Rate test for at least 10 minutes. Repeat in

the geostable referenced mode.
4.2.8.1.Purpose During mission relatable navigation to
the target area and attacks, assess the
The purpose of this test is to measure utility of the FLIR for maintaining the
the rate at which the FLIR line of sight operator selected orientation. Assess
drifts and to assess the effects that the effects that the fuselage referenced
the drift rate has upon the utility of drift rate has upon the utility of the
the FLIR for maintaining the selected FLIR for navigation and scanning for
orientation. targets of opportunity and the effects
4.2.8.2.General that the geostable drift rate has upon
the utility of the FLIR for maintaining
alignment over the target position
While using the fuselage referenced during an attack. Pay particular
stabilization mode, the FLIR line of attention to the effects of the required
sight may drift from the selected FLIR updates upon operator workload.
angles. During the geostable mode, the
INS may contribute to the total drift; 4.2.8.6.Data Analysis and Presentation
however, the drift inherent in the
fuselage referenced mode will still be Convert the linear horizontal and
present. vertical drift distances to angles using

4.2.8.3.Instrumentation the equation below:

A tape measure, square, stop watch and d=ift

data cards are required for this test.
A voice tape recorder is optional. d=ac 1
4.2.8.4.Data Required &,ft,=measuredhoizontl dift
drift=measuredverdcal drift
Record the elapsed time and horizontal i=distancetoimtialcrosshairposition
and vertical drift distance for both the dnrft=horizonta! drift angl
fuselage referenced and geostable dif=venca driangk
stabilization mode. Measure the
distance from the reticle to the
crosshair position on the wall at the Plot the horizontal and vertical angular
start of the test. Record qualitative drift values versus time for each mode.
comments concerning the utility of the Analyze the plots for trends. Over the
FLIR for maintaining an operator short time periods that are
selected fuselage referenced
orstbiiztin
oa eorahi orientation
pin, operationally significant to FLIR
or stabilization to a geographic point. systems, the trend will likely appear
4.2.8.5.Procedure linear. The slope of the line will
provide the drift rate. The difference
in the drift rates between the fuselage
Park the airplane with the nose pointed and geostable referenced modes will be
at a wall and approximately 30 feet INS induced. Note that the drift rates
away. Use the tape measure and square INS iedsed. Nce tha t drift
the
to draw a line on the wall parallel to may be self canceling. Relate the drift
the loo aa
floorthe and
and bsectng
bisecting ine
line rates to the
attention workload
required and operator
to maintain FLIR
perpendicular to the first. Place the orientation.
intersection of the lines at any
convenient point on the wall, 4.2.8.7.Data Cards
approximately perpendicular to the FLIR
reticle. Measure the distance from the Sample data cards are provided as card
FLIR reticle to the intersection of the 64.
lines. Time out the FLIR, select NFOV
and fuselage referenced mode and place
the crosshairs over the intersection of
the lines. Start the stop watch and
have an assistant mark the point at
which the crosshairs are aligned at one
minute intervals. Close communications
between the operator and assistant will
be required. Use the square to measure
and record the horizontal and vertical
component of the drift. Continue the
 263

CARD NUMBER

LINE OF SIGHT DRIFT RATE (GROUND TEST)

(POSITION NOSE ON TO A WALL AND 30 FEET AWAY. MARK A HORIZONTAL AND A BISECTING

VERTICAL LINE ON THE WALL. SELECT THE FUSELAGE REFERENCED MODE AND NFOV, PLACING

THE CURSORS ON THE INTERSECTION OF THE LINES. MARK THE CROSSHAIR POINT EACH MINUTE

AND MEASURE THE DRIFTS. REPEAT FOR THE GEOSTABLE MODE.)

DISTANCE TO CROSS ON WALL

MODE: FUSELAGE REFERENCED

TIME (MIN) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

HORIZONTAL

VERTICAL

NOTE: GEOSTABLE

TIME (MIN) [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

HORIZONTAL

VERTICAL

Card 64: FLIR Line of Sight Drift Rate Data Cards

264

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

LINE OF SIGHT DRIFT RATE (AIRBORNE TEST)

[DESCEND TO __ FEET AGL AND SET MACH=-. HEAD INBOUND TO THE TARGET

USING THE FLIR IN THE FUSELAGE REFERENCED MODE FOR NAVIGATION AND LOOK FOR TARGETS

OF OPPORTUNITY. ACQUIRE THE TARGET AND PLACE THE CROSSHAIRS ON TOP. UPDATE AS

REQUIRED DURING A MODE ATTACK. NOTE THE FREQUENCY OF FLIR UPDATES AND

THE EFFECTS UPON THE OPERATOR'S WORKLOAD AND ATTENTION. REPEAT AS TIME ALLOWS.]

ATTACK MODE

UPDATE FREQUENCY

COMMENTS:

Card 64: FLIR Line of Sight Drift Rate Data Cards (Continued)
 265

4.2.9.FLIR Resolution this feature which makes the target

appear as if it were at a great
distance. The parabolic mirror directs
4.2.9.1.Purpose the IR onto the FLIR reticle. The
spatial frequency of the target is
The purpose of this test is to approximated by the equation below.
qualitatively and quantitatively assess [Ref. 37: pp. 4.48-4.49].
the cutoff spatial frequency, minimum FL,
resolvable temperature differential, SF=-
airspeed versus spatial frequency W,1
response and the line of sight jitter of Sfspatial frequency of the target
the FLIR. FL,=focal length of th collimator (folded path length from
target to mirror)
4.2.9.2.General W1,=widh o on bar and one space in target template
00)
The FLIR resolution quantitative test
involves a combined ground and airborne
procedure that dictates the measurement
of four separate performance parameters The airborne quantitative procedure
simultaneously. The parameters include requires the use of a full size target
the cutoff spatial frequency, minimum consisting of alternating heated and
resolvable temperature differential, non-heated panels. Figure 18 [Ref. 37:
line of sight jitter and airspeed versus p. 4.46b] shows a sample ground target.
spatial frequency response. This test Note that many other targets, using both
procedure requires more instrumentation active and/or passive elements, are
and ground support than any other test available at various facilities.
of this book. For this reason, a
qualitative procedure, using a minimum Rather than changing the shape of the
of assets is also provided. In keeping panels, the aircraft is flown towards
with the stated goal of testing with a the target to provide a change in the
minimum of expense, instrumentation and spatial frequency. The temperature
flight time, the qualitative assessment differential of the bars is controlled
is performed first. If problems are within a window of from 0.5" to 10"
noted, the entire quantitative test centigrade. The temperature is then
procedure is then performed to support measured to about 0.05" centigrade
the qualitative assessment with measured accuracy using a radiometer. For the
parameters. airborne target, the spatial frequency
of the target at a given range from the
The ground procedure requires the use of target becomes: (Ref. 37: pp.
a collimator with a heated bar target. 4.46-4.47].
The collimator is a device designed to
make a small ground target appear to the =,
FLIR as if it were a larger target at a S,
much greater distance. Figure 17 W11
(Ref. 37: p.4.49a] depicts a typical R,=range from the target
collimator/bar target combination. The
assembly consists first of a temperature
controlled block which can be varied in The range between the aircraft and the
temperature from -20" to +20" centigrade ground bar target can be supplied by one
at approximate steps of 0.2' centigrade. of two methods. Typically, a ground
The temperature is measured by a based radar is used to provide space
radiometer to an accuracy of about 0.05" positioning data on the test aircraft.
centigrade. In front of the temperature This is then time correlated with
controlled block is placed a template of observations made within the aircraft to
equally spaced and equal sized slots and determine range to the target at the
bars. The template is made of aluminum times of interest. (Ref. 37: pp.
and approximates ambient temperature. 4.46-4.47]. This method requires
The spatial frequency response of the extensive range radar instrumentation.
target is varied by placing different An alternative, and less costly option,
sized templates on the collimator. Next is available if an air to ground radar
is a planer mirror used to fold the IR is available within the test aircraft
path onto the parabolic mirror. It is capable of tracking the IR target.
the nature of a parabolic mirror that Range is derived from the radar.as FLIR
light emanating from the focal point of observations are made. The sample test
the mirror is reflected outward along procedure described below uses the range
parallel lines. The template is located radar derived space positioning data.
at the focal point of the mirror. It is
266

Ba
ag T-plat Opia Collbraor Car

T-p-rtur • Planar Mirro

Parabolic Mirror

Figure 17: Typical Collimator/Bar Target Combination (Ref. 39:p.4.49a]

Minimum resolvable temperature The cutoff spatial frequency is a

differential (MRAT) is the FLIR measure of the angular resolution of the
equivalent of radar minimum signal to FLIR. Real FLIR cutoff spatial
noise ratio. MRAT is a function of the frequencies are limited by a number of
characteristics of the target, effects including optical aberrations,
background clutter, transmittance of the diffraction effects, the detection
atmosphere, range to the target, element field of view, electronic
characteristics of the sensor and the effects and display limitations. These
signal to noise necessary for desired effects are present during ground
levels of detection versus false alarms. testing with a stationary FLIR. [Ref.
Additionally, MRAT is affected by less 37: pp. 3.22-3.23]. Additionally, LOS
quantitized variables such as the dwell jitter affects the cutoff spatial
time in a scanning system, optical frequency of an airborne FLIR and is
resolution, signal processing caused by airframe vibrations and other
inaccuracies and display effects. The sources of LOS instabilities. (Ref. 37:
large number of variables, some of which p. 3.24]. LOS jitter effects can thus
are not easily measured, requires be measured indirectly by determining
empirical testing to determine a value the cutoff spatial frequency on the
for MRAT. (Ref. 37: pp. 3.15-3.19]. ground and then in the air and comparing
the two. Figure 19 (Ref. 37: p. 4.28b]
is an empirically derived plot of ground
 267

E/O Target (Array)

SNTarget
/ Element (Bar)

Black Face HEATER STRIPS ON WHITE PANELS

ROTATES ± 120o
White Face

Figure 18: Sample Heated Ground Bar Target [Ref. 37: p.4.46b]

divided by airborne cutoff spatial spatial frequency. As the FLIR scans

frequency versus the root mean square over a cold bar, the FLIR sees the cold
(rms) value of the LOS jitter. [Ref. 37: bar and in addition more than half of
p. 4.28b]. the hot bars on either side. The net
effect is that the total appears hotter
One important complication of the than the average of the hot and cold
measurement of cutoff spatial frequency bars and the operator is shown the
should be discussed. Three situations conflicting scene of hot bars where cold
will be used as examples. In the first bars should be and cold where hot should
case, the target has a spatial frequency be. Additionally, the apparent number
much lower than the cutoff spatial of bars will be reduced. These effects
frequency of the FLIR. As the FLIR are depicted in figure 20 part c and are
scans the bar target, the FLIR sees the theoretically repeated at multiples of
hot and the cold bars with only short the cutoff spatial frequency with
periods where the IFOV covers both. The corresponding reductions in the number
response is shown in figure 20 part a. of bars. Fortunately, the effect is
In the next case, the target spatial rarely seen in application beyond the
frequency is equal to the FLIR cutoff first interval. The effect is easily
spatial frequency. In this case, the countered during tests by closely
response, as shown in figure 20 part b watching the targets and ensuring that
is flat since the IFOV covers equal data is taken at the first point where
amounts of hot and cold bars. The third the response becomes level, as in figure
case is not as intuitively obvious. In 20 part b, and by watching the shape,
this case, the target spatial frequency polarity of the target (white or black
is slightly higher than the cutoff bars) and number of bars. [Ref. 37: pp.
 268

101

100
10-1 100 101
RMS value of sensor LOS jitter (radians)/SFcog

SFog=cutoff spatial frequency measured while airborne; includes LOS

jitter (cycles/radian)
SFcoa=CUtoff spatial frequency measured on the ground; does not
include LOS jitter (cycles/radian)

Figure 19: Line of Sight Jitter [Ref. 37:p. 4.28b]

3.27-3.29b]. The test is performed in testing, the airspeed versus spatial

four parts. First a qualitative frequency response curve is first
assessment is made of the FLIR to determined. A rough plot of the range
determine if the FLIR airborne minimum when the bars become visible (not the
resolvable differential temperature and false bars described earlier) versus
cutoff spatial frequency (angular airspeed can be plotted while airborne
resolution) are adequate for the to determine the optimum airspeed. The
mission. If not, the time and money evaluator may opt to merely use the
must be spent to quantify the normal ingress and attack speed for all
deficiencies. While on the ground, the further testing; however, in this
collimator is used to determine a plot procedure the optimum speed will be
of resolvable differential temperature used. Next, the ground based bar target
(RAT) versus target spatial frequency is used to determine the airborne values
(SF,). The plot will by asymptotic on of RAT versus SF,. These values are
the vertical and horizontal axes as plotted coincident with the ground
shown in figure 21 [Ref. 37: p. 4.28a]. values as shown in figure 22 to
The horizontal asymptote provides the determine airborne SF, and MRAT. The
ground MRAT and the vertical asymptote airborne and ground MRAT are
provides the ground cutoff spatial theoretically the same. The difference
frequency (SF.). During airborne in airborne and ground SF, (SF., SF•)
 269

U.. target

hot cold hot cold hot

R SF

Scanned Dimension

a) RSF =response of scanning FLIR with target spatial

frequency much lower than FLIR cutoff spatial frequency

RSF

Scanned Dimension

b) RSF =response of scanning FLIR with target spatial frequency

equal to FLIR cutoff spatial frequency

Scanned Dimension

RSF
c) RSF =response of scanning FLIR with target spatial frequency
slightly greater than FLIR cutoff spatial frequency
Figure 20: FLIR Spatial Frequency Response

are due to LOS jitter. As mentioned SF. and SF. values derived above.
earlier, the rms value of LOS jitter is Equation 32 shows the relationship
derived by entering figure 19 with the between the cutoff spatial frequency of
270

the FLIR and the expected angular visibility. With the target temperature
resolution. [Ref. 37: p. 4.26-4.28b]. set high, record the range at which the
targets just become distinguishable for
a range of airspeeds around the normal
SF. (3) ingress and attack airspeeds. At the
r=anguWrresobuionofth FUR optimum airspeed, record the range at
SF =cumwff spaal fequney which the bars just become
distinguishable, for decreasing
temperature differentials.
4.2.9.3.Instrumentation
4.2.9.5.Procedure
Data cards and an optional voice
recorder are required for the airborne Prior to flying the qualitative portion
qualitative portion of this test. A of the test, select mission relatable
collimator with bar targets, radiometer, targets near the minimum expected
data cards and optional voice recorder temperature differential. Additionally,
are required for the ground test. A select warmer mission relatable targets
heated, ground based bar target, within the test area. Record the
radiometer, ground based space atmospheric conditions as listed above.
positioning radar, data cards and Descend to a moderately low altitude of
optional voice recorder are required for approximately 5,000 feet AGL and set a
the airborne range test. mission relatable ingress and attack
airspeed. Qualitatively assess the
4.2.9.4.Data Required utility of the FLIR for detecting and
imaging the low AT targets and the
During the airborne qualitative test, detailed features of the warmer targets.
record the ambient temperature, relative If problems are noted during the
humidity and a complete description of qualitative tests perform the ground and
any visible moisture or smoke in the airborne quantitative tests.
test area including haze, fog, rain or
clouds, along with the maximum and Before the ground quantitative test,
minimum cloud layer altitudes and record the atmospheric conditions as
visibility. Record qualitative comments listed above. Check the contractor
concerning the visibility of objects documentation and determine the
close to the ambient temperature such as theoretical cutoff spatial frequency.
cold soaked aircraft and parked cars Select an initial bar target with a
(static display airplanes and junk yards spatial frequency well below the
if you want to make sure they are cold expected cutoff spatial frequency. The
soaked), abandoned buildings or trees, spatial frequency of the targets can be
Record qualitative comments concerning determined using equation 30. Selection
the spatial resolution of hotter of the initial target and the interval
objects. The visibility of objects, for the next targets require some
cargo, hatches or even portholes on a intuition of the expected cutoff spatial
steaming ship, the windows and doors on frequency and MRAT. The technician that
trucks or houses, even the shape of will undoubtedly come with the
livestock in a field are possible collimator may be helpful. The plot of
indicators of spatial resolution RAT versus spatial frequency should be
(spatial frequency response). plotted as the data is taken to allow
Qualitatively assess the utility of the feedback in the selection of bar
FLIR MRAT and spatial frequency response targets. The plot should have enough
at a mission relatable airspeed for the data points at the correct intervals to
assigned mission. ensure that the asymptotes and the curve
are sufficiently defined. Starting at
During the ground portion of the the lower spatial frequency, decrease
quantitative test, record the ambient the AT until the bars just become
temperature and relative humidity. indistinguishable. Slowly raise the
Record the spatial frequency of each bar temperature until the bars just become
target used and the temperature distinguishable again and record the
differential at which the bars become radiometer derived temperature. Ensure
indistinguishable. During the airborne that the correct number of bars are
portion of the quantitative test, record present to show that the cutoff spatial
the ambient temperature, relative frequency has not been exceeded. While
humidity and a complete description of data is taken, generate a rough RAT
any visible moisture or smoke in the versus spatial frequency plot and select
test areas including haze, fog, rain or the next bar target as described above.
clouds along with the maximum and
minimum cloud layer altitudes and
 271

12 ...
Ground Test Data

10-

8-

6-

MRAT : x x x

1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6

SFtS

Figure 21: Ground Resolvable Differential Temperature Versus Spatial Frequency

Prior to the airborne quantitative test, pattern. 50 KIAS intervals are usually
record the atmospheric parameters listed sufficient. Generate a rough plot of
above. Use the ground test data for the the range versus airspeed. It may be
MRAT value to determine a bar spacing helpful to have the ground based
that will allow for visibility of the engineer marking the space positioning
target at beyond 5 nm. Choose a AT well data to make the plot. The plot should
above the MRAT found during the ground peak at some airspeed value. The
testing. Choose visual cues to allow interval can be reduced to refine the
for rapid alignment with the line peak value once a rough peak is found.
perpendicular to the target face at a Note that some aircraft generate a level
range longer than the breakout range curve. Perform the remainder of the
given the ground derived value of the airborne tests at an inbound airspeed
cutoff spatial frequency. equal to the peak airspeed found above
or if the plot is level, at the expected
Descend to the minimum altitude mission relatable ingress and attack
conducive to safe flight given the local speeds.
terrain and obstruction features, the
weather, performance characteristics of During the next portion of the test, the
the airplane and qualifications of the target temperature is reduced and
pilot. Make the initial inbound run at stabilized before each run. The data
an airspeed above the safe flying speed run is then made and the break-out range
and well below the normal mission noted as above. A real time plot is
relatable ingress and attack speed. made of the RAT versus spatial
Call a mark on the radio at the point frequency, as was done during the ground
where breakout occurs and have the test. The plot should appear similar in
ground tracking engineer mark the shape to the ground derived plot except
aircraft to target range at that point, the vertical asymptote should be at a
Take care to ensure that the correct higher spatial frequency. The spatial
number of bars are visible. Repeat at frequency can be derived using equation
increasing airspeeds to the aircraft 31. Adjust the target temperature to
sealevel airspeed or Mach limit if refine the curve and asymptotes as the
possible and at the same AT and bar
 272

12
Airborne Data Ground Test Datýa
10

8-

6-

M -- --------------------------------- --
-------------------------------------------

1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6

SFc. F0
SFt

Figure 22: Airborne and Ground Resolvable Differential Temperature Versus Spatial
Frequency

spatial frequency was used to refine the horizontal asymptote def ines the MRAT.
curve during the ground testing. For the airborne derived quantitative
data, use equation 31 to derive the
4.2.9.6. Data Analysis and Presentation spatial frequency at the measured break
out ranges. For the airspeed effects
Relate the qualitative assessment of the portion, plot the spatial frequency at
MRAT to the requirement to find and breakout versus the airspeed. Relate
attack cold soaked targets of the effects of airspeed on the FLIR
opportunity or cool operating targets. spatial frequency response to the
Relate the qualitative assessment of the requirement to have flexibility in
cutoff spatial frequency to the selecting airspeeds for navigation,
requirement to identify small targets ingress and attack. The optimum
such as jeeps or trucks at a sufficient situation is to have a level plot over
distance to allow set up and attack the entire range of expected operational
outside of shoulder fired surface to air airspeeds. The next best situation is
missile range and to the requirement to to have the best response (the peak of
view small details on targets as an aid the curve) over the most likely ingress
in positive target identification in and attack airspeed range. For the
time for set up and attack outside of constant airspeed portion of the test,
the expected defensive weapons range. plot the RAT versus the flight derived
Relate the observed atmospheric spatial frequency at breakout. Use the
conditions to the expected mission same plot used for the ground test
relatable atmospheric conditions, results. Derive the asymptotic values
of the MRAT and airborne cutoff spatial
For the ground derived quantitative frequency as from the ground test
data, use equation 31 to derive the results. The MRAT is theoretically
spatial frequency of the bar targets identical. The airborne cutoff. spatial
used. Plot the measured RAT versus the frequency will theoretically be lower
spatial frequency of each target. The than the ground results due to jitter
vertical asymptote defines the ground effects. Use the ground and flight
cutoff spatial frequency. The cutoff spatial frequency results to
 273

enter figure 19 to determine the rms

value of LOS jitter. Angular resolution
can be derived from the ground and/or
airborne cutoff spatial frequencies
using equation 32. Use the results from
the quantitative tests to back up the
results found during the qualitative
testing. Relate the observed
atmospheric conditions to the expected
mission relatable atmospheric
conditions.

4.2.9.7.Data Cards
Sample data cards are provided as card
65.
274

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

FLIR RESOLUTION (QUALITATIVE)

DESCEND TO __ FEET AGL, SET MACH=. OPTIMIZE THE FLIR DISPLAY USING TARGETS OF

OPPORTUNITY. SELECT THE GEOSTABILIZED REFERENCE MODE AND WHITE HOT OR COLD AS

REQUIRED. RECORD QUALITATIVE COMMENTS, REPEAT AS TIME ALLOWS.]

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

CLOUDS/VISIBILITY:

INITIAL POINT

COOL TARGET DESCRIPTION:

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

INITIAL POINT

COOL TARGET DESCRIPTION:

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

INITIAL POINT

WARM TARGET DESCRIPTION:

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

INITIAL POINT

WARM TARGET DESCRIPTION:

QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

Card 65: FLIR Resolution Data Cards

 275

CARD NUMBER

GROUND FLIR RESOLUTION (QUANTITATIVE)

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

BAR SPACING MEASURED RAT

Card 65: FLIR Resolution Data Cards (Continued)

276

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIRBORNE FLIR RESOLUTION AIRSPEED EFFECTS (QUANTITATIVE)

[DESCEND TO _ FEET MSL AND SET KIAS. PROCEED OVER THE IP TO THE TARGET. MARK

THE BREAKOUT POINT. REPEAT AT INCREASING, 50 KIAS INTERVALS. REDUCE THE INTERVAL

AS REQUIRED TO REFINE THE PEAK.]

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

CLOUDS/VISIBILITY:

INITIAL POINT

BAR TARGET LOCATION

AT BAR SPACING

AIRSPEED RANGE

PEAK AIRSPEED

Card 65: FLIR Resolution Data Cards (Continued)

 277

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

AIRBORNE FLIR RESOLUTION AT CONSTANT AIRSPEED (QUANTITATIVE)

(DESCEND TO FEET MSL AND SET KIAS. PROCEED OVER THE IP TO THE TARGET. MARK

THE BREAKOUT POINT. REPEAT AT DECREASING AT. ADJUST AT TO REFINE THE CURVE.]

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

CLOUDS/VISIBILITY:

INITIAL POINT

BAR TARGET LOCATION

BAR SPACING

AT RANGE

Card 65: FLIR Resolution Data Cards (Continued)

278

4.2.10.FLIR Maximum Range at the time of the test. Care should be

taken to perform the tests during
representative days. For example,
4.2.10.1.Purpose performing all the tests for a FLIR
designed for maritime use in northern
The purpose of this test is to determine Pacific weather, while based out of a
the maximum range at which a FLIR can dry desert area, would not be
detect the presence of a mission representative. Generally, a wide range
relatable target and then to determine of conditions over several flights is
the range that the target can be best. The final variable is the IR
identified. intensity of the target source. [Ref.
37: pp. 3.9-3.10]. For this test, a
4.2.10.2.General mission relatable target will be used
and completely described within the
As with radar testing, FLIR maximum results. This will allow the most
range can be defined a number of reliable relation of the results to a
different ways. For the purposes of realistically mission relatable
this test, two values will be determined environment.
based upon their tactical significance
to the sample system. First, the 4.2.10.3.Instrumentation
maximum range at which a mission
relatable target becomes visible on the Data cards are required for this test, a
display will be determined. This range voice recorder is optional.
is significant since it is the maximum
range at which targets of opportunity 4.2.10.4.Data Required
can be picked up for initial steering.
WFOV is normally used in this situation Record the temperature, relative
and will be the test mode. Next, the humidity and a complete description of
maximum range at which tactically any visible moisture or smoke in the
significant targets can be identified test area including haze, fog, rain or
will be determined. For ships, this clouds along with the maximum and
requires the determination of ship class minimum cloud layer altitudes and
and for land vehicles the type target, visibility. Record the maximum range at
such as tank or truck. This range is which the target is first discernable
important since in most cases it and the maximum range at which the
determines the range at which an attack target can be identified. Record a
can be committed. NFOV is normally used complete visual description of the
in this situation and will be the test target. Qualitatively evaluate the
mode. Since the FLIR determines bearing level of clutter detected around the
to the target only, an independent target.
source of target range is required for
the test. Most FLIR equipped platforms 4.2.10.5.Procedure
also have a radar. This will be the
source of range for the sample Obtain the test area surface
procedure; however, if the test platform temperature, relative humidity and
is not radar equipped, an alternate visibility along with the type of
source of range truth data will be obstructions to visibility from the
required. In most cases, this will local weather office. Record any
require space positioning data on both visible moisture such as rain, fog or
the test aircraft and target supplied by clouds noted along the sensor line of
a ground based test range radar, a sight during the test. Choose a
costly procedure available at very charted, mission relatable target, or
limited locations. visually find a target and fly outbound
until FLIR contact is lost. Turn
Maximum range is dependent on five basic inbound to the chosen target and detect
variables, three are functions of the it on radar. Fly inbound until the
FLIR design and two external to the target is first broken out on the FLIR
FLIR. The three internal to the FLIR display at WFOV. Note the radar derived.
include the system optics, the detector range. Switch to NFOV, updating the
performance and the signal processor cursor placement as required, to
signal to noise characteristics. These maintain the target on the display.
are under the control of the designer of Note the radar derived range at which
the system and their cumulative the target can be identified. The class
measurement is the goal of this test. of ship, type of surface vehicle (such
The fourth variable is the transmittance as tank, truck or train) or type of
of the atmosphere and can be documented structure (such as hangar, factory,
by recording the atmospheric conditions power plant etc.) must be discernable.
 279

Visually find the target and completely

describe it, including comments as to
whether the target is operating since
this may be an indicator of target
temperature. Qualitatively assess the
level of IR clutter around the target.
If possible, repeat the test during
varying atmospheric conditions and for
as wide a variety of mission relatable
targets as possible.

4.2.10.6.Data Analysis and Presentation

Relate the test day atmospheric

conditions to the conditions expected in
a mission relatable scenario. Relate
the type or class of target, size of
target and local clutter level, to the
expected mission relatable scenario.
Relate the maximum detection range to
the requirement to scan for targets of
opportunity early enough to steer in
their direction and set up for an
identification and subsequent attack and
to the range of detection of isolated
targets given approximate targeting
data. Relate the maximum identification
range to the requirement to maneuver for
an attack of the target after
identification and to the envelope of
the expected target's defensive sensors
and weapons. The FLIR identification
range, in most cases, should allow for
identification and attack prior to the
target being able to destroy the FLIR
platform.

4.2.10.7.Data Cards
A sample data card is provided as card
66.
280

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

FLIR MAXIMUM RANGE

(CLIMB TO FEET MSL AND SET KIAS. BEGIN OVERHEAD AND TURN TOWARD

THE TARGET. ACQUIRE THE TARGET ON RADAR AND STEER THE FLIR IN THE

TARGET'S DIRECTION IN WFOV. WHEN THE TARGET IS FIRST DISCERNABLE, MARK THE RADAR

RANGE. CONTINUE INBOUND IN NFOV. MARK THE RANGE WHEN IDENTIFICATION IS POSSIBLE.

REPEAT FOR THE AND TARGETS.)

CLOUD LAYERS:

VISIBLE MOISTURE:

TEMPERATURE

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

DESCRIBE TARGET 1:

DETECTION RANGE

IDENTIFICATION RANGE

DESCRIBE TARGET 2:

DETECTION RANGE

IDENTIFICATION RANGE

DESCRIBE TARGET 3:

DETECTION RANGE

IDENTIFICATION RANGE

Card 66: FLIR Maximum Range Data Card

 281

4.2.1l.Mission Utility and Integration distracting the evaluator from the

display or the outbound run can be used
4.2.1l.1.Purpose to record results. Multiple runs should
be performed using different radar modes
The purpose of this test is to and mode combinations in as many
qualitatively assess the overall utility different types of attacks as possible.
of the FLIR for the assigned mission and The most likely scenarios should be
the integration and compatibility of the performed first and the others performed
FLIR performance parameters, controls as flight time allows.
and display within the airplane.
4.2.11.3.Instrumentation
4.2.11.2.General
Data cards are required for this test.
The mission utility and integration test A voice recorder is highly recommended.
is the most important of the series.
During this test, mission relatable 4.2.11.4.Data Required
ingresses and attacks will be performed
to qualitatively assess the FLIR. The Record qualitative comments concerning
quantitative assessments of the previous the utility and integration of the FLIR.
tests will be used to back up and Record the effects of the parameters
justify the qualitative determinations determined in previous tests during the
made during the ingresses and attacks. ingresses and attacks as called for at
Utility refers to the overall usefulness the end of each test procedure.
of the FLIR as it is implemented, as an
aid to the mission. The FLIR parameters 4.2.1l.5.Procedure
must match the expected operational
requirements. Integration refers to the Select a mission relatable target in the
way the FLIR has been blended into the test area that allows for a 35 to 40 nm
entire airborne system. From the ingress to the target location. Descend
evaluator's stand point, this to a normal ingress and attack altitude
characteristic is intimately tied into and set an airspeed near the sea level
the area of human factors discussed in limit of the test airplane. Head
the radar theory section. Integration inbound to the target and select a
is particularly important to the FLIR. fuselage referenced stabilization mode
Due to the inherent shorter ranges of and WFOV for use in FLIR navigation.
FLIRs, the integration must be Perform FLIR navigation inbound (for
sufficient to ensure quick and effective instance following a river or ridge line
radar or navigation handoffs to the to the target) and search for the target
FLIR. The EO system's inherent angular with the FLIR. Update the FLIR pointing
accuracy can then be used to complement angle as required, switching to the
the other aircraft systems during geostable mode as desired. Find the
terminal phases of attack. target and select the geostable mode and
NFOV, updating the cursor placement as
Additionally, the FLIRs "picture like" required. Execute an iron bomb weapon
display makes it a natural adjunct for delivery. After overflight, turn
navigation and detection of targets of outbound, returning to FLIR navigation
opportunity. Integration between the and fly to the start point. Repeat the
aircraft navigation system, attack radar ingress and attack using different
and guided weapons is necessary in this delivery modes and if available,
case. different target types.
The qualitative assessments in mission 4.2.11.6.Data Analysis and Presentation
relatable scenarios specifically called
for in previous tests will also be Relate the qualitative deficiencies
performed during these ingresses and noted to their effects upon the
attacks. Care should be taken; however, performance of ingresses and attacks.
to ensure that the evaluator does not Note any limitations upon tactics
get too involved in recording imposed by the FLIR parameters, utility
qualitative comments to the detriment of or integration. The FLIR should not be
watching the progress of the ingress and driving tactics. Use the applicable
attack and evaluating the FLIR. A results from previous tests to support
conscious effort should be made not to the qualitative results.
get too involved in looking for
specifics on at least the first run to 4.2.11.7.Data Cards
ensure that an overall qualitative
assessment is made. A voice recorder A sample data card is presented as card
can be used to make comments without 67.
282

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

FLIR MISSION UTILITY AND INTEGRATION

[DESCEND TO _ FEET AGL AND SET MACH=-. SELECT FUSELAGE REFERENCED MODE AND WFOV.

START AT AND FLY INBOUND TO THE TARGET, PERFORMING FLIR

NAVIGATION. ACQUIRE THE TARGET AND SWITCH TO GEOSTABLE MODE AND NFOV. PERFORM A

SIMULATED DELIVERY. TURN OUTBOUND AND NAVIGATE BACK TO THE START POINT.

REPEAT WITH THE TARGET AND DELIVERY.]

NOTES:

Card 67: FLIR Mission Utility and Integration Data Card

 283

4.2.12. Introduction to Advanced

Electro-Optical System Test
Techniques

Most of the electro-optical test

techniques presented here are inherently
instrumentation and asset intensive.
These requirements were discussed in the
respective test sections. An attempt
was still made to minimize the
instrumentation requirements in these
sections. On occasion, additional
assets should be considered, as
required. For instance, if the operator
actions, BITs and system faults are
available digitally, they can be
recorded and analyzed as described in
the Advanced Air-to-Air Radar Test
Techniques section, 2.3.20.

In general, each of the tests can be

better documented using a time stamped,
video recording of the FLIR display.
Video recording also allows the replay
and analysis of the display in a more
leisurely ground environment. In
addition, the FLIR performance can
change over the course of a flight. For
instance, target temperature
differentials with the ambient
background will change over time due to
the effects of the earth's heating and
cooling. The display can be replayed
and directly compared for changes. As
mentioned above, operator actions can be
time stamped and digitally recorded to
further document each test. Many of the
ground measurements are facilitated by
using specially constructed grids for
the various angular measurements
described in the previous sections.
On occasion, a more thorough
documentation and measurement of the IR
characteristics of the mission relatable
targets used for the airborne tests is
required. This usually requires
extensive, realtime measurements of the
target and environmental temperatures as
well as all target characteristics.
Another technique is to use specially
constructed and instrumented target
models which precisely document the
target characteristics and tend to be
highly repeatable. As with all of the
other tests described in this book, the
judicious use of instrumentation and
additional assets should be researched
and considered when necessary. The
appropriate, advanced reference
documents described in Chapter 1 or an
experienced tester should be consulted
as necessary.
284

5.0. STORES MANAGEMENT SET to provide store status, inventory and

configuration to the aircraft mission
TESTING computer. The SMS is generally the only
aircraft subsystem which is electrically
linked to the onboard stores. Any other
5.1. Introduction to Stores subsystem resident in the airplane must
communicate to onboard stores through
Management Set Theory the SMS. With newer aircraft,
incorporating data busses to transmit
information throughout the avionics
5.1.1. General suite, this is a logical approach to the
architecture, since it ensures that any
safeguards designed to avoid inadvertent
The introduction of increasingly complex release or jettison cannot be overridden
air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons by another system.
requires modern combat aircraft to
provide a vast array of varying signal In older aircraft, or those which
sets to enable effective employment of require less robust systems, the SMS is
these weapons. This function is often a simple system of switches and
normally performed by a Stores wires to provide release signals to fire
Management Set (SMS) or a Fire Control a gun or operate bomb racks. The
Set (FCS). For simplicity, the term SMS capabilities and architecture of the SMS
will be used to describe all systems are driven by the types of stores to be
providing these functions. An SMS can accommodated and the mission of the
be defined as a system which provides aircraft. The test techniques to be
the necessary physical and electrical discussed are applicable to all SMSs,
interfaces for control, normal firing regardless of the configuration or
and/or release and jettison of airborne requirements of the system.
stores and weapons. The SMS is a system
peculiar to military aircraft as the Although each SMS will embody an
vast majority of non-military aircraft architecture unique to its host
have no capability (or requirement) to aircraft, most systems will have a
accommodate releasable stores. Although minimum of four basic components: (1)
the bulk of the SMS testing must be controls and displays, (2) a Stores
completed during the Validation and Management Processor (SMP), (3) station
Verification (V & V) of software, much decoders, and (4) stores or bomb racks.
of the work must be accomplished after As the controls and displays are unique
installation into the intended platform. in both configuration and function,
This is due to the fact that the depending upon the host aircraft, they
majority of the software V & V is will be discussed in depth later.
performed using simulations of the Noticeably absent from the list of SMS
various aircraft subsystems, none of components are the power supplies for
which will completely simulate the each component. It should suffice to
actual hardware once installed. Since mention that all electrical devices and
this book specifically excludes a processors require some sort of energy
discussion of software testing, the to function and SMS components are not
remainder of this section is devoted to unique in this manner.
a treatise of the techniques for
performing tests of the fully integrated The SMP is the heart of the SMS and
SMS. Note also that this document will receives information from the aircrew
not discuss the test techniques via a mission computer, armament control
associated with stores separation, panel, or switch position, as to the
aerodynamic effects, static and dynamic desired store type or station to be
structures or targeting accuracy. controlled or released, the release
quantity and interval, and/or the mode
5.1.2. Stores Management Set of the store. In aircraft which
incorporate a data bus architecture, the
Architecture SMP is generally the sole component of
the SMS to communicate on the avionics
Although all combat aircraft contain bus. Accordingly, it serves as the only
means of passing information from the
some form the
accomplish of necessary
SMS, these systems
functions in aircraft to the stores
TeSPcnrl h ees onboard.
loaded fsoe
varying manners. In most modern The SMP controls the release of stores
aircraft, the SMS is a fully digital, by sending coded signals to each station
software-driven system designed to not inthe proper sequence and at the proper
only provide the aforementioned interval for the desired release. These
functions of weapons control, but also signals are coded in either the time
 285

and/or frequency domain and serve as an fails to function. The auxiliary mode
added safety measure to effectively is normally designed for emergency
eliminate the ability of a simple short situations.
or electromagnetic incompatibility to
cause inadvertent release of a store. Other features which may be found on
The SMP also ensures that the proper bomb racks are positive arm latches,
signal set is sent to each weapons bail bars, arming solenoids and
station in accordance with the store electrical arming receptacles. Positive
loaded on that station. These signals Arm Latches (PALs) and bail bars are
could range from a query to determine designed to provide secure hook-up
the level of fuel in an external tank to points for arming wires and umbilical
the two way communication necessary to retaining lanyards. Although the PAL
prepare, fire and guide a fiber optic will normally only perform the former
link missile. function, it is not uncommon for a bail
bar to perform either function. Arming
The decoders are switches which provide solenoids are designed to hold or
the necessary voltage to the Cartridge release arming wires to provide the
Actuated Devices (CADs) in each bomb capability for armed or safe release of
rack to release the loaded store. There weapons, respectively. The electrical
are two decoder architectures that are arming receptacle is designed to
used or accommodate this function. In provide weapons incorporating electrical
one method, each decoder is connected to fuzes, normally general purpose bombs,
the SMP by a separate wire or wire with an electric pulse at release to
bundle. Although this method is very establish the mode in which the fuse
simple, it requires the use of several will operate. Figure 23 depicts a block
signal paths and many wires to achieve diagram of a generic SMS.
the desired level of redundancy to
ensure store release upon command. The 5.1.3. Controls and Displays
second method is to place each of the
decoders on a data bus and communicate
with them using address labeled codes. The controls and displays of the SMS are
Upon receiving the proper code, the designed considering the number of
decoder energizes the CADs, which in aircrew operating the platform and the
turn results in store release. Because required interfaces for the types of
of the amount of energy required to fire stores to be employed. In general,
the CADs in a timely fashion, the control and display requirements are
decoder will normally draw the required divided into the following categories:
current from a high energy electrical SMS BIT, store inventory and status,
bus. In some aircraft all control store selection, weapons solution
commands are also sent to the loaded display, store control, safe and arm,
store via the decoder. In these cases, and release/fire consent. The first
however, the decoder serves only as a four functions are requirements
conduit for the signal and does not accomplished through the use of
normally perform any switching multifunction or heads-up displays and
functions. keyboards in most modern aircraft. The
last three functions are usually
The bomb racks provide the structural performed through the use of cockpit or
interface between the aircraft and the aircrew accessible switches, with at
loaded store. These devices are least one of them being guarded to
generally designed with one or more provide an extra measure of safety.
hooks which attach to the lugs of the
loaded store. The racks also have one BIT is normally automatic with
or more ejector feet designed to push provisions for manual initiation.
the store away from the airplane at Because a failure of the SMS can lead to
release. Most racks are gas operated, potentially catastrophic consequences,
in that the CADs, once fired, provide it is paramount that this function be
high pressure gas which is used to open extremely reliable. Not only should the
the hooks and provide energy to extend BIT check the integrity of the SMS
the ejector feet, thus releasing the itself, but also the health of the
store. Most racks also incorporate stores loaded onboard the airplane. The
safety features, such as locking BIT should ascertain to what degree the
mechanisms, which physically prohibit system loaded stores are usable, and
store release regardless of whether the clearly communicate this information to
CADs fire or not, and auxiliary CADs the aircrew.
which are designed to open the hooks
(but not operate the ejector feet) in Store inventory may be accomplished in
the event that the normal release method one of two methods: (1) the aircrew or
286

Controls & Displays

I~ckil ~ intenance Decoder ___ Weapons
Computer-P- - Station
SlWeapons

i a Stores
Fmission Sr be Management DScoderk
presentrdependingouponI!3:1Stat~ion3 Weapons
Compute Processor

maintenance personnel may "tell" the SMS employed, this is normally done through
what store is loaded, or (2) the SMS selection of a weapon type on most
will query the store to identify itself, airplanes. For jettison, and on many
The former method is generally necessary older airplanes for employment,
for weapons that are unable to selection of the station on which the
communicate with the SMS, such as store resides is the method used. On
general purpose bombs, cluster munitions some aircraft, a single purpose Armament
and other so called "dumb" weapons. Control Panel (ACP) is used to select
Smart weapons used to communicate with stores for employment and/or jettison.
the airplane, such as guided missiles, The method used for store selection
may employ the latter. Because it is should be commensurate with the
often impossible or impractical for the criticality of employment. For example,
SMS to determine the initial store air-to-air weapons are often employed in
inventory, this data is often input by a reactionary manner, Consequently,
maintenance personnel or the aircrew selection of air-to-air weapons should
themselves via an inventory panel or be extremely convenient. This is why
display. Store status includes any most airplanes possessing an air-to air
report which describes the readiness of capability use the Hands-On-Throttle-
the store to be delivered or jettisoned, And-Stick (HOTAS) philosophy, where the
or whether a malfunction has occurred pilot need never remove his hands from
that will prevent the delivery of the the throttle or stick to employ an air-
store. For example, if a normal release to-air weapon. By contrast, air-to-
of a missile is attempted and not surface weapons are mostly employed in a
achieved, the SMS should inform the planned and methodical way, allowing the
aircrew that the missile is hung, or aircrew sufficient time to use an ACP or
that a required interlock has not been an SMS page on a multi-function display.
met. Accordingly, if the aircrew has
selected a weapon and that weapon The weapons solution display, although
requires a finite amount of warm-up or normally provided to the aircrew via the
preparatory time, this should also be airplane's Mission Computer (MC), is
communicated to the aircrew. also SMS related for it is the SMS which
informs the MC as to the weapon
Store selection is the designation of a selected. In the case of unguided
store to be released, fired or munitions, such as air-to-air guns or
jettisoned. If a weapon is to be general purpose bombs, the weapons
 287

solution normally would be a HUD cue of requires a specific electrical signal

where the weapon(s) will impact. For set for proper operation. Consequently,
many smart weapons, the SMS provides the the SMS must be designed to provide the
interface that tells the aircrew whether necessary electrical interface to
the target has been acquired by the "speak" with each of the stores. In the
weapon. This display can be as simple strike fighter and ASW example, the
as a marker on the HUD to inform the strike fighter might be required to
pilot of the direction in which the provide signals to perform BIT on all
seeker head of the weapon is looking. "smart" stores, monitor fuel remaining
Weapons with imaging seekers require a in external tanks, accept video
cockpit display of the seeker head's information from different weapons and
image to be presented to the aircrew. provide electrical power for weapon
operation, to name a few. The ASW
Store control provides pointing commands aircraft may not have a requirement to
for weapons seeker heads or podded perform any of these functions, but
sensor systems and is usually instead it might have to input initial
accomplished through a joystick or other target information to the torpedoes,
tactile device. It might also involve a such as search depth or target
determination of the mode in which a signature, provide safety interlocks to
store is released. If, for example, an prevent weapons release with the bomb
air-to-air missile can be launched in bay doors closed and other functions
two different modes, say autonomous or foreign to the strike fighter.
command guided, the SMS must provide the
means to establish in which mode the Another key element relevant to the
missile will be released, mission, which affects the design of the
SMS, is the crew size. The strike
Safe and arm is usually accomplished fighter is designed to perform its
through a separate switch and provides mission in an environment which would
an added safety measure to prevent quickly overload the crew if the SMS
accidental release or firing of a were not highly automated. The modern
weapon. This switch is normally guarded threat environment requires the strike
and positioned in such a way as to fighter to perform a high speed, low
preclude accidental selection of the altitude interdiction mission with the
ARMED position. pilot assuming duties of terrain
masking/avoidance and air-to-air radar
Release/fire consent is usually sanitization. Concurrently, the
accomplished through a button or trigger operator is assessing the electronic
depressed by the aircrew to commit the order of battle and surface to air
desired weapon to the intended target. threats, as well as performing target
In keeping with the HOTAS philosophy, acquisition and rudimentary navigation.
the pilot normally employs weapons with The SMS in this airplane must provide
stick-mounted controls. Jettison, weapons selection with the touch of a
however, is almost always accomplished single button, with near instantaneous
via an instrument panel mounted switch. feedback. The operator typically moves
a cursor to overlay a cross hair on the
5.1.4. Missions sensor display onto the intended target,
and within seconds the store is released
and the airplane egresses from the
The mission of the aircraft necessarily target area.
defines the requirements of the SMS.
For example, an all-weather, two seat Conversely, the multiplace ASW aircraft
strike fighter capable of delivering a operates for extended periods of time in
wide range of air-to-air and air-to- regions far from any counter-air threat.
ground ordnance would require a vastly The entire focus of the crew is on the
different SMS than an Anti-Submarine prosecution of the submarine, with only
Warfare (ASW) aircraft carrying i0 cursory monitoring of navigation and
aircrew designed to deliver torpedoes fuel onboard. Consequently, the SMS in
and general purpose bombs from a bomb the ASW airplane might be designed to
bay. require inputs from several of the
aircrew to deliver a weapon. One
To illustrate the differences in crewmember opens the bomb bay doors.
requirements, consider the two counter- Another insures that the proper target
examples contrasted above. Although the data has been provided to the torpedo.
physical interface between the aircraft Yet another insures that all interlocks
and store, normally consisting of a rack are met before releasing the weapon.
and some sort of electrical cabling, may The SMS in each airplane requires a
or may not remain the same; each store totally different level of integration
288

and automation and must be evaluated 5.2.1.6. Data Analysis

accordingly.
The voltage, current and duration of
5.2. Stores Management Set Test each firing pulse must be sufficient to
perform the intended function, i.e.,
Techniques release pulses should be able to fire
CADs in the bomb racks, electrical
fuzing pulses should be of the correct
5.2.1. Stores Management Set voltage and polarity and motor fire
pulses should be of sufficient energy to
InLegration Ground Tests start the intended rocket motor. Fire
pulses should be sufficient and
5.2.1.1. Pconsistent regardless of the number of
Purpose stations selected. Intervals between
release pulses should be in accordance
The purpose of this test is to measure with that selected in the cockpit.
the SMS firing pulse, release imnterval Release pulses should arrive ONLY at
and physical interface compatibility those stations selected and in the
with the host aircraft and to assess the correct order in accordance with an
effects that these parameters have upon established protocol or an order which
the utility of the SMS. was available for selection in the

5.2.1.2. General cockpit. The time from the release

command to the arrival of the fire pulse
at the selected station(s) should an be
The evaluator must ensure that the SMS commensurate wth the sson
will provide the proper signals to each intended stores to be employed. All
ineddsostob emly. Al
store in
stouiremint accordance
aordane withd the
with the couplers should fit snugly and without
requirements of the store and the undue effort. Umbilicals should mate
desires of the aircrew. These tests properly when using inert stores.
provide the required data to verify that Relate improper weapons commands to the
these requirements and desires are met. likelihood of a hang-fire, inadvertently
5.2.1.3. Instrumentation activating the wrong store, or a missed
target as appropriate. Relate poor
Test kits/weapons simulators and coupler and umbilical fits to the
electrical test equipment are required. possibility of damaging the connector
The specific equipment is chosen to suit racks or stores.
the SMS under test and the particular 5.2.1.7. Data Cards
stores to be carried by the airplane.
5.2.1.4. Data Required A sample data card is presented as card
68.

Record the fire pulse voltage, and

current and duration for each discrete
signal to be provided to the station for
release and motor fire. Record the time
difference between the arrival of the
firing pulse at each station and the
cockpit initiation of release. Document
comments concerning the fit of the
electrical interfaces with the test
equipment couplers.
5.2.1.5. Procedure
Connect the weapon test kit and the
electrical test equipment to the
station(s) to be tested. Ensure that
all stations to be tested report a store
aboard (normally, hooks closed will
accomplish this). Provide the SMS with
an inventory corresponding to the test
kits attached to each station. Input a
desired interval between releases.
Select the weapons or stations to be
activated and command release of those
stations. Repeat for all likely station
and store combinations.
 289

CARD NUMBER

INTEGRATION GROUND TEST

STORE STORE VOLTAGE CURRENT PULSE TIME OF

STATION SIMULATED (V) (A) LENGTH ARRIVAL
(MSEC) (MSEC)

REMARKS:

Card 68: Integration Ground Test

290

5.2.2. Preflight and Built-In-Tests Perform a preflight BIT,

total BIT time and indications.
noting
Note
the

any correlation between the BIT

5.2.2.1. Purpose indications and the SMSs operation.
Perform a complete system check out of
The purpose of this test is to assess the failure indications. Make
the suitability of the SMS preflight and qualitative comments as appropriate.
turn on procedure and the BIT to quickly
and easily bring the SMS system on line 5.2.2.6. Data Analysis and Presentation
and insure an operational system. The time and complexity of the preflight
5.2.2.2. General procedures listed in the operator's
checklist and SMS turn on/timeout
As airplanes become more expensive, procedure should be related to the
fewer and fewer will be available to expected alert launch time requirements
accomplish each mission, amplifying the and the overall operator workload during
loss of individual airplanes to inflight the alert launch. The BIT times and the
failures. Quick, accurate ground amount of operator interface required to
preflight tests are essential to perform the BIT should be assessed in
determine system status while repairs the same scenario. Clarity of the BIT
can still be performed. A quick indications should be related to the
response/alert time is also important cockpit environment. The BIT
and so these checks must be expeditious indications should be related to actual
and must allow the operator to prepare SMS degradation and verified by ground
for the mission with a minimum of technicians. Erroneous BIT false alarms
distractions. Limited airplane should be noted and related to the
availability also implies the need for probability of unnecessarily missed
quick turnarounds to send the same sorties. The time and effort to perform
aircraft out for successive missions, a change in the store load
This necessitates a very short preflight initialization data should be related to
and turn on procedure that can be the necessity to make real time changes
accomplished safely and thoroughly in the mission and loads for the
before a hurried combat mission. SMS aircraft.
systems have the added requirement that
the modification of the store load 5.2.2.7. Data Cards
initialization data must be easy and
quick since the modification is Sample data cards are presented as cards
typically necessitated by a rapid 69 and 70.
mission driven load modification or
stores failure.
5.2.2.3. Instrumentation

A stop watch, data cards and stores

and/or stores test sets to simulate
stores are required for this test. A
voice tape recorder is optional.

5.2.2.4. Data Required

Qualitative comments, time to complete
the preflight/turn on, time to complete
the BIT and time to store the load
initialization data is required. A
record of BIT indications is required.
Note the effort required to alter the
store load after initialization.
5.2.2.5. Procedure
Perform a normal system preflight and
turn on before each test flight using
the published system check list. Note
the times for SMS stores initialization,
the external and internal preflights and
the total system preflight time up to
the ready for operate indications.
 291

CARD NUMBER

PREFLIGHT/TURN ON

CLARITY OF CHECKLIST INSTRUCTIONS:

LOGICAL SEQUENCE OF CHECKLIST:

THOROUGHNESS OF CHECKLIST:

SYSTEM STATUS/SMS TIMEOUT COMPLETE INDICATIONS:

TIME TO PERFORM EXTERNAL PREFLIGHT OF SMS

TIME TO PERFORM INTERNAL PREFLIGHT OF SMS

TIME TO STORE LOAD INITIALIZATION DATA

TOTAL PREFLIGHT TIME INCLUDING TIMEOUT

TIME TO MODIFY STORE LOAD INITIALIZATION DATA

EFFORT TO CHANGE STORE LOAD INITIALIZATION DATA:

Card 69: Preflight/Turn On Data Card

292

CARD NUMBER

BUILT IN TESTS

INITIATION PROCEDURES:

RUN/FINISH INDICATIONS:

TIME TO PERFORM SMS BIT

BIT FAILURES AND QUALITATIVE FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF

SMS/RESULTS OF GROUND MAINTENANCE CHECKS:

Card 70: Built In Tests Data Card

 293

5.2.3. Controls and Displays maneuvers and while maintaining a body

position ready for safe ejection. The
operative sense must be correct. The
5.2.3.1. Purpose direction of activation should conform
to the standards of common sense (turn
The purpose of this test is to assess the knob to the right to turn on the
the suitability and utility of the SMS system) and to the standards set in
controls and displays for the assigned references 13 and 14 (which for the most
mission as an interface between the part merely put on paper the standards
operator and the aircraft stores. of common sense). The operation of the
controls should be clear, requiring a
5.2.3.2. General 1' minimum of operator concentration and
attention. This leaves the operator
The controls and displays must be usable free to make tactical decisions. The
in every conceivable flight regime, controls should also be placed in
ambient lighting condition, weather logical functional groups, reducing the
condition, and by aviators with the area of scan required to check the SMS
range of anthropometric measurements for set up.
which the system was designed to
operate. For the modern fighter or The SMS controls should be integrated
attack airplane this is usually all well into the cockpit. Correct
weather, day or night, around +9 to -4 integration requires that the controls
gs, for the 3 to 98 percentile groups, should operate harmoniously with the
and in a realistic tactical environment other controls within the cockpit and
filled with urgent decisions demanding without hindering the simultaneous
the aviator's attention. For this operation of other airplane systems.
reason, the controls and display should Integration must be evaluated during a
require an absolute minimum of operator mission relatable workload and while
input or interpretation and the simultaneously operating all the other
information imparted and required from airplane systems. Typically, the
the operator should be a minimum and majority of the SMS manipulations should
precisely what the aviator needs to be performed before the workload for the
execute the current phase of flight, mission peaks to allow real-time use of
the other systems.
The SMS is typically required at the
very peak of the pilot workload. The Lastly, the controls should provide good
SMS is used just at weapons delivery, tactile feedback. For example, detents
when both the defensive and offensive should provide the proper amount of
requirements are at a maximum, and "click" and all the knobs shouldn't feel
during emergencies when stores have to exactly alike when reaching for a
be quickly jettisoned. For this reason, control with the pilot's attention
it is preferable to perform SMS setup elsewhere. Applying a little common
and optimization on the ground at engine sense and manipulating the controls in a
start or during a relatively low mission relatable environment usually
workload portion of the flight. uncovers most of the control human
factors violations.
Controls should be easily manipulated
wearing the proper flight clothing. The The SMS status displays should be
range of control (both the physical clearly visible from the DEP in bright
range of movement of the knob, dial, daylight as well as complete darkness.
lever, etc. and the range of effect that In bright daylight, the display must be
the control has on the SMS) and usable under all conditions of glare,
sensitivity should be compatible with including sunlight directly over the
the expected flight regime. Controls operator's shoulder onto the display (a
that require manipulation while airborne particularly serious problem for most
should be reachable from the DEP, displays). In the dark, the display
particularly if they must be activated should not be so bright that it
in a combat environment. As an example, distracts the operator or affects his or
the chaff and flare controls must be her night vision. A good range of
reachable while performing high g

"16Foran introduction into controls and displays human factors, see references 20, 54 and 73.
294

brightness control that integrates by applying a little common sense while

harmoniously with the rest of the using the SMS in a mission relatable
cockpit is required. scenario.
The display resolution must be adequate. 5.2.3.3. Instrumentation
The display must refresh itself quick
enough so that the symbology, A tape measure and data cards are
alphanumerics and video present an even required for this test. A voice
and continuous display without recorder is optional.
noticeable flicker. There should be no
visible delay between the update of the 5.2.3.4. Data Required
SMS data and the update of the
symbology, graphics and alphanumerics. Record qualitative comments, the
For example, the display should update evaluator's anthropometric data and a
rapidly following operator inputs or list of personal flight gear worn. The
after stores are launched or jettisoned, number of display raster lines per inch
reflecting the new status. should be obtained from the SMS
technical manual. The usable display
Alphanumerics must be clear and legible. area should be measured. Location of
The messages should be short and easily the display from the DEP should be
understood without excessive coding or measured if a qualitative problem is
operator interpretation. The noted. Record the reach length of
information displayed to the operator controls that are beyond the operator's
including graphics, symbols and reach while seated at the DEP during any
alphanumerics must be sufficient for the mission relatable scenario.
current phase of flight while at the
same time not overloading the operator 5.2.3.5. Procedure
with information. This usually requires
tailoring the display to the specific Find the DEP as outlined previously.
attack mode/mission/phase of flight, All ground and airborne tests should be
that is currently being used. The performed while at this position and
display should be assessed for the wearing a complete set of flight gear.
information load in a mission relatable Perform a system turn up, on the ground
scenario to determine its utility as an outside of the hangar, in a range of
aid in the combat environment. The use ambient lighting conditions (bright
of graphics to show loads and daylight to darkness which may be
configurations of stores is particularly simulated using a canopy curtain).
useful in SMS displays. A line drawing Manipulate all controls noting the
with recognizable stores attached to the factors discussed above. Measure the
appropriate stations provides a very display usable area. Evaluate the
compact and easily interpreted display for the factors discussed above.
presentation. Measure and note the position and reach
length to all controls and displays that
It is unlikely that a display compatible pose a visibility or reach problem from
in size, weight, power and cooling the DEP. During airborne testing,
requirements with a tactical airplane manipulate the controls and make
will be built in the near future that qualitative comments during mission
has too large of a usable display face. attacks and intercepts. Take
Almost all displays are too small for particular note during extremes of
the task and as such should be evaluated ambient lighting for displays and during
for size in a relatable mission high g maneuvers for controls. Confirm
environment, accounting for this element the results of the ground tests while
of realism, airborne. Check the extremes of control
limits and sensitivity. Repeat for each
The display should be positioned in a test flight.
location suitable for the mission. As
an example, an SMS display which must be 5.2.3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation
manipulated in real time to select the
correct mix and mode for chaff and Present a table of the operator's
flares should be high on the front panel anthropometric data and the personal
or on the HUD to allow the pilot to make flight equipment worn during the tests.
the selections, while at the same time Present the seat position as the number
minimizing the time he or she spends of inches from the bottom of the seat
with his or her eyes in the cockpit and travel. Relate the sensitivity of the
consequently away from a visual scan for controls to the tactical environment in
the threat. As with controls, display which they are to be used. Relate the
human factors problems typically surface accessibility, placement and grouping of
 295

the controls under mission relatable

conditions. A chaff and flares mode
selector must be readily accessible
while scanning outside the airplane and
maneuvering violently. Relate the
control clarity, operative sense and
tactile feedback to a multiple threat,
combat scenario requiring the operator
to make quick tactical decisions. If
ambient lighting affects the display in
any way, relate this to the limits of
the possible combat environments.

The display resolution should not hinder

the legibility of the graphics, symbols
and alphanumerics. Relate the
information load presented the operator
to the combat scenario discussed above
and evaluate whether the needed
information is present and whether too
much information is cluttering the
display. This concept is closely
related to the size of the display face
usable area. A large display can
present more information without
cluttering the display and requires less
concentration to read and evaluate. The
refresh rate should be related to the
concentration required to evaluate a
flickering display. The display
position should be evaluated in the
context of the type of information
displayed, the eye position required for
using the display and the display
position's effect upon the scan of other
displays, instruments and the outside
world.

5.2.3.7. Data Cards

Sample data cards are presented as cards
71 and 72.
296

CARD NUMBER

CONTROLS

CLARITY OF OPERATION:

ACCESSIBILITY (MEASURE REQUIRED REACH IF A PROBLEM):

OPERATIVE SENSE:

ADJUSTMENT SENSITIVITY:

RANGE OF ADJUSTMENT:

TACTILE FEEDBACK:

FUNCTIONAL LOCATION/GROUPING (SKETCH IF A PROBLEM):

INTEGRATION:

Card 71: Controls Data Card

 297

CARD NUMBER

DISPLAYS

(PERFORM IN BRIGHT DAY TO DARKNESS]

LOCATION QUALITATIVE COMMENTS (MEASURE LOCATION IF A

PROBLEM):

CONTRAST/BRIGHTNESS/GAIN CONTROLS (RANGE OF EFFECTIVENESS):

GLARE (BOTH FROM OUTSIDE AND INSIDE COCKPIT LIGHT SOURCES):

RASTER LINES/INCH:

USABLE DISPLAY AREA X

RESOLUTION QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

REFRESH RATE QUALITATIVE COMMENTS:

LOCATION OF SYMBOLOGY/ALPHANUMERICS/GRAPHICS:

INTERPRETATION OF SYMBOLOGY/ALPHANUMERICS/GRAPHICS:

INTEGRATION:

Card 72: Displays Data Card

298

5.2.4. M i s s io n Utility and 5.2.4.3. Instrumentation

Integration Data cards are required for this test.
A voice recorder is highly recommended.
5.2.4.1. Purpose 5.2.4.4. Data Required
The purpose of this test is to Record qualitative comments concerning
qualitatively assess the overall utility the utility and integration of the SMS.
of the SMS for the assigned mission and Record the effects of the parameters
the integration and compatibility of the determined in previous tests during the
SMS parameters, controls and display intercepts and attacks as called for at
within the airplane. the end of each test procedure.

5.2.4.2. General 5.2.4.5. Procedure

The mission utility and integration test For the air-to-air portion of the
is the most important test of the evaluation, place the target beyond the
series. During this test, mission maximum detection range for the radar
relatable ingresses, weapons deliveries, for the mode being used. Place the
intercepts and attacks are performed to target 1,000 feet above the test
qualitatively assess the SMS. The airplane for the first run. Use the
quantitative assessments of the previous most likely, long range intercept mode
tests are used to support and justify for the first run and the rest in order
the qualitative determinations made of priority as time allows. Use a
during the ingresses, weapons medium to wide scan angle limit and a
deliveries, intercepts and attacks. long range scale with a two to four bar
pattern to simulate a search for an
Utility refers to the overall usefulness inbound threat. Call for the target to
of the SMS as it is implemented, as an turn inbound and turn the test airplane
aid to the mission. The SMS parameters towards the target. Use a mission
must match the expected operational relatable subsonic intercept speed for
needs. Integration refers to the way the first run (usually Mach (M) 0.85 to
the SMS has been blended into the entire 0.9 for both the target and test
airborne system. From the evaluator's airplane is adequate). It is important
standpoint this characteristic is to use enough speed, since the closure
intimately tied into the area of human rate will affect the evaluation of the
factors. SMS and the workload required to select
and deliver weapons. Perform a normal
The qualitative assessments in mission intercept, optimizing the range scale,
relatable scenarios specifically called scan angle limits, antenna elevation
for in the previous tests are also angle etc. until the target is confirmed
performed during these evaluations, and an STT is acquired. Select and
Care should be taken; however, to ensure perform a simulated launch of the long
that the evaluator does not get too range, medium range and short range
involved in recording qualitative front profile weapons as the launch
comments to the detriment of watching envelope for each is reached. Continue
the progress of the intercept and inbound and convert the intercept to an
evaluating the SMS. A conscious effort astern attack of the target as the
should be made not to get too involved target continues to fly straight and
in looking for specifics on at least the level. Use the ACM modes during the
first run to ensure that an overall conversion and simulate the selection
qualitative assessment can be made. A and firing of weapons, paying particular
voice recorder can be used to make attention to the required workload upon
comments without distracting the the tactics used for each weapon.
evaluator from the performance of the
run or the outbound run can be used to If two targets are available, use them
record results. both on at least one intercept and then
split them onto two stations, switching
Multiple runs should be performed using from one to the other (three in a
different SMS selections in as many barrel) to maximize the number of
different types of attacks as possible intercepts during the flight. If time,
(including supersonic runs, if fuel and airspace permit, perform one
applicable, to assess the utility of the supersonic intercept to minimize the
SMS in highly time critical attacks and time available to make the required
intercepts). The most likely scenarios manipulations of the SMS. If time
should be performed first and others permits, allow the target to maneuver up
performed as flight time allows.
 299

to 30" and 5,000 feet (excluding 1,000

above or below the test airplane
altitude) off of the planned track
without informing the evaluator of the
maneuver beforehand, to simulate a
moderately "jinking" target. Record
qualitative comments concerning the
utility of the SMS for the assigned
mission, including the effects of the
parameters determined during previous
tests and the overall integration of the
SMS into the airplane.

For the air-to-ground portion of the

evaluation select a mission relatable
target in the test area that allows for
a 35 to 40 nm ingress to the target
location. Descend to a low ingress
altitude and set an airspeed which would
normally be selected for an attack of a
defended target. Head inbound to the
target and select a radar mapping mode
with at least a 40 nm scale and a wide
scan pattern useful for radar
navigation. Perform radar navigation
inbound to the target (for instance
following a river or ridge line that
leads to the target) and search for the
target on the display. Perform
simulated deliveries of stand-off
weapons. Continue to update the antenna
elevation angle, display range and
antenna pointing angle to optimize the
display for navigation and target
search. When the target breaks out,
select the DBS modes and continue to
update the target position. Execute the
type weapon delivery most likely for the
test airplane and the type of target
selected. Turn outbound, selecting a
mapping mode and navigate outbound from
the target area to the start point.
Repeat the ingress and attack using
different delivery modes, weapons and if
available, different target types.
5.2.4.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

Relate the qualitative deficiencies

noted to their effects upon the
performance of the ingresses, weapons
deliveries, intercepts and astern
conversions. Note any limitations upon
tactics imposed by the SMS parameters,
utility or integration. Use the
applicable results from the previous
tests to support the qualitative
results.
5.2.4.7. Data Cards
Sample data cards are presented as cards
73 and 74.
300

CARD NUMBER TIME PRIORITY L/M/H

SMS AIR-TO-AIR MISSION UTILITY AND INTEGRATION

(POSITION THE TARGET ON THE NOSE AT NM AND 1,000 FEET ABOVE THE TEST AIRPLANE.

TURN THE TARGET AND TEST AIRPLANE TOWARDS EACH OTHER, ACCELERATING TO M=-. USE THE

MODE, WIDE SCAN ANGLE LIMIT, BAR PATTERN, AND NM RANGE SCALE. GAIN

AN STT AND CONTINUE INBOUND. SIMULATE A LONG RANGE MISSILE LAUNCH, A MEDIUM RANGE

HEAD-ON SHOT THEN A SHORT RANGE HEAD-ON SHOT. OFFSET THE TARGET AT 10 NM AND PERFORM

AN ASTERN CONVERSION. USE THE ACM MODES DURING THE CONVERSION. SIMULATE ASTERN

MISSILE AND GUN ATTACKS. MAKE NOTES CONCERNING THE MISSION UTILITY, INTEGRATION AND

THE EFFECTS OF SMS PARAMETERS. REPEAT WITH THE TARGET AT FEET AGL. REPEAT THE

TEST WITH THE TARGET AND TEST AIRPLANE AT M= .]

NOTES:

Card 73: SMS Air-To-Air Mission Utility And Integration Data Card
 301

CARD NUMBER TIME __ PRIORITY L/M/H

SMS AIR-TO-GROUND MISSION UTILITY AND INTEGRATION

[DESCEND TO FEET AGL AND SET MACH= . SELECT THE MAP MODE, NM RANGE SCALE

AND THE SCAN ANGLE LIMIT. START AT AND FLY INBOUND TO THE

TARGET AT AN INITIAL HEADING OF RADAR NAVIGATE TOWARD THE

TARGET AREA AND WHEN IN CONTACT WITH THE TARGET SELECT DBS. PERFORM A SIMULATED

STAND OFF WEAPON DELIVERY, THEN PERFORM A SIMULATED

WEAPON DELIVERY. TURN OUTBOUND AND NAVIGATE BACK TO THE START POINT. REPEAT WITH

DIFFERENT DELIVERIES AND TARGETS.]

NOTES:

Card 74: SMS Air-To-Ground Mission Utility and Integration Data Card
302

5.2.5. Introduction to Advanced these more advanced tests. The purpose

of this table is merely to emphasize the
Stores Management Set Test existence of these advanced techniques.
Techniques Further, this list is not exhaustive.
Many innovative uses of assets and
instrumentation exist. It is hoped that
As mentioned in Chapter 1, only the most the examples provided leave the reader
rudimentary form of the Stores with a taste of how the test can be made
Management Set test techniques are more rigorous through the judicious use
presented in this book. Chapter 1 of instrumentation. In application; the
details the reasons for this format; user must refer to the more advanced
however, in many applications, more documents referenced in Chapter 1 or
rigor, accuracy and documentation of solicit help from more experienced
results are required. Table VII testers.
outlines additional instrumentation and
assets which are typically applied in

Table VII: Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in

Advanced Stores Management Set Tests

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

IInstrumentation II

Stores Digital Recorder. If a data bus is used in the stores

Management Video recording of management architecture, the time
Set operator actions stamped bus activity is recorded in
Integration and stores order to compare to the actual
Ground Tests. stations, electrical signals sent to each
station as the tests are performed.
Digital data exchanged between the
Stores Management Set (SMS) and the
stores on each station are recorded.
Time stamped video is made of the
operator actions and displays for
correlation with the time stamped bus
activity. Video is made of the
activity on each station in order to
document coupler and umbilical
deficiencies.
Preflight and Digital Recorder. Typically records data from the data
Built-in- bus on which Stores Management Set
Tests. passes the BIT results and receives
results from the stores stations.
Allows precise documentation of test
results. Usually used in conjunction
with fault insertion tests.
Video recording of Provides automatic recording of what
display. the operator sees as the fault status
is displayed.
Controls and Video recording of Allows automatic documentation of
Displays. display. display problems as well as post-
flight analysis and evaluation.
Cockpit mock-ups, Typically used for in-depth ground
reconfigurable tests of human factors and in
cockpits and iterative cockpit design.
virtual cockpits.
Digital recording Can be used as a means of precisely
of operator recording operator selections to
actions. document noted problems and as a
means of performing operator tasking
analysis.
 Table VII:Additional Assets or Instrumentation for use in 303
Advanced Stores Management Set Tests

Test Additional Asset or Purpose/Benefit

Instrumentation

Mission Same as in the This test requires the largest amount

Utility and Stores Management of data to completely document the
Integration. Set Integration results. It is during this test that
Ground Tests. most of the unexpected problems are
found. In anticipation of having to
document these deficiencies, maximum
instrumentation are sometimes brought
to bear for this test in case
unforseen data are required in post-
flight analysis.
304

6.0. FLIGHT PLANNING Navigation test flyover data points pose

a particularly challenging flight
planning exercise. Since the flyover
As has been mentioned, many of the tests method requires that the tests be
can be conducted concurrently, or at performed at a very low altitude,
least on the same intercept, ingress or extensive planning is warranted to group
attack. In addition, some of the tests them together to preclude numerous
will be more important than others. climbs and descents. Usually it proves
Past performance of the system, the efficient to merely stay low for the
specific system design, and ground test duration of the navigation tests and to
results will point out the areas that work as many other low altitude data
require emphasis. Finally, points in as possible between flyover
climbs/descents, accelerations/ opportunities. Air-to-ground radar and
decelerations and positioning of targets FLIR data points are often compatible
and test airplanes requires fuel and with a series of flyover data points.
time and must be kept to a minimum.
Preflight planning is needed to insure After the runs have been designed, an
that all the data that can be taken on estimate should be made of the time
each run are planned for while at the necessary for set up and to perform the
same time not overloading the evaluator, tests. Armed with the time required for
Priorities must be set for each data each run, a timetable of the flight can
point so that if fuel/time run short, be drawn up and the maximum number of
the most important data points have been tests scheduled within the flight time
identified and can be obtained first. A and fuel constraints. The data cards
well thought out plan for the conduct of should be laid out in order, numbered,
the flight will maximize the data and the expected time into the flight at
obtained over a given flight and insure the beginning of each test placed on the
that the critical items are obtained card. This allows the evaluator to have
first. a running estimate of how effectively he
or she is managing the flight time
The first step in planning is to group available as the flight progresses. The
the data points that are compatible on evaluator should also mark the low and
concurrent runs. This must be done in high priority tests through some ranking
light of the type of run being scheme. The sample data cards are
performed, the characteristics of the provided with a priority Low/Medium/High
specific systems under test, and (L/M/H) selection. As time becomes a
airspace constraints of the test. As an problem, as indicated by the elapsed
example, for an air-to-air run against time since launch and the time estimate
two targets, a search mode maximum range on the data card, the low priority tests
data point could be taken concurrent should be skipped in preference to the
with a maximum acquisition range data high priority tests.
point. Then, as the targets continue
inbound they can maneuver for a range There is no single way to structure the
resolution data point, while the tests that will work for every
evaluator checks for ambiguous ranges situation. Common sense and an
and blind ranges. understanding of the requirements of
each test will define most of the
Airspeeds and altitudes should be chosen flight. Unfortunately, this portion of
that maximize fuel conservation without the test is often given a minimum of
destroying the mission relation of the thought in deference to "figuring it out
test. Where speed and altitude are not in the air." This mindset must be
critical to making the test mission avoided and the flight must be laid out
relatable, medium to high altitudes near beforehand. A successful test will
the maximum endurance airspeed should be almost always result. Success is best
chosen. As an example, the maximum insured by knowing the system, planning
range measurements can be made at a the flight and flying the plan.
maximum endurance airspeed since the
speed used will not affect the data. Safety must also be an important
Tests that require the target within 10 criteria in preflight planning.
to 15 nm can be performed outbound to Airspeeds, altitudes and rates of
the test area or following a converted descent/climb should be chosen not only
intercept. Tests should also be grouped for their utility in gathering data but
by altitude. Usually low (below 5,000 also for their effects upon safety. In
feet AGL), medium (10,000 to 20,000 feet aircraft where gross weight restricts
MSL) and high altitude (above 20,000 maneuvering, tests should be laid out
feet MSL) tests should be grouped such that high g data points are
together during the flight, performed after fuel is expended and the
 305

gross weight is within the required often similar or even identical and the
limits. The work load should be rough, hand-held data is still
budgeted so that the evaluator has collected. The data is then available
enough time available to properly for immediate use, without the
perform the test and still aviate, requirement for extensive data reduction
navigate, look for traffic, etc. and formatting usually needed after
Ideally, the test should be performed in automatic collection. This immediate
a dual piloted aircraft, allowing one feedback is used for adjusting of the
pilot to concentrate on the test while next test evolution or as a means for
the other flies the aircraft. With two focusing the data reduction effort on
pilots, proper crew coordination is an test events which are critical.
important safety concern.
The following case study is presented to
Where airborne targets are used, a face illustrate the implementation of the
to face brief prior to the test must be thought process used in developing the
required. The procedures for each test test procedures outlined in the previous
should be understood by all sections. This case study is a
participants. A procedure to straight-forward application of a couple
immediately terminate each test whenever of the test procedures outlined above
any participant notices any unsafe without the addition of extensive
condition must be thoroughly briefed, instrumentation requirements. The
scenario is contrived but illustrates
The test systems and safety of flight how the techniques above can be used to
systems required for each test and provide quick and supportable answers to
target aircraft must be outlined and real world questions where extensive
used as a criteria for test preparations and instrumentation are not
cancellation. It is much cheaper to possible.
cancel a test while on the ground than
in the air. 7.2. AIR-TO-GROUND RADAR
Time should be set aside during the RESOLUTION USING A MINIMUM
planning stage of any test for all the OF INSTRUMENTATION
participants to gather and discuss the
safety of flight issues. A simple but
effective procedure is to reserve a
short period of time (perhaps a half 7.2.1. Background
hour) during the planning process for
all participants to discuss possible This case study is intended to
safety issues, system failure modes or illustrate how the techniques outlined
accidents that could occur and to plan in the previous sections may be applied
how to react in their eventuality. A to quickly answer a question about the
half hour of planning is a small price technical performance of a radar. The
to pay for a safe test evolution, scenario is based upon a fictional
United States Navy F/A-XX aircraft with
7.0. CASE STUDY the APG-XX radar. The APG-XX radar has
been developed as an avionics upgrade to
the F/A-XX aircraft. The Navy program
7.1. INTRODUCTION manager, responsible for the development
1 Iand procurement of the upgrade, (PMA-
XXX) has heard via his program contacts
The previous sections provided a that the APG-XX radar is "not even
discussion of how to perform basic close" to meeting the air-to-ground
flight tests on air-to-ground radar, resolution specification. A
air-to-airand
optical radar, navigation, electro- specification is a design requirement
stores management set imposed upon the contractor as a means
systems. A basic assumption for the of defining the minimum acceptable
development of these techniques was that standards for the system
a minimum under
of instrumentation was development. PMA-XXX called your
available outside of the production department head and ordered a "quick
aircraft's complement of systems. In test" to determine the air-to-ground
implementation this is often the case. range and azimuth resolution of the
Scheduling or cost may limit the amount radar. You have been assigned as the
of instrumentation and support available project engineer.
to perform a test. Additionally, as The contractor has been prompted by PMA-
explained in Chapter 1, even when The contactor haseen ompte byngle
instrumentation allows extensive data XXX to make the back seat of the single
collection, the test techniques are prototype of this two seat strike
306

fighter available tomorrow to do a quick and range resolution limits are thus
evaluation of the air-to-ground radar required. The theoretical resolution
resolution as a "piggy back" test on a may be limited by either radar
contractor evaluation. The aircraft is performance or the display resolution.
currently in the custody of the The amount of time that a radar wave
contractor as the contractor engineers requires to travel one nautical mile is
interactively develop the radar. The defined in Chapter 2 and repeated below
contractor has further restricted your in equation 33. The pulse width is then
evaluation to 30 minutes. Data cards used to calculate the theoretical range
are required so that the project test resolution of the radar in all three
pilot can leave for the contractor air-to-ground modes.
facility in four hours.
Radar M•==12.36 c
As mentioned frequently in this book, an nm
in depth knowledge of the system is A-dBeam.Ma>4OmSa:
essential to the development of a good (2.29isec 12.36' Y!6000 _JA_|=1112ft
test. Here, a condensed description of " •A nml
Red Beam Map<40nm Sc4l:3
the radar is provided, including only
those facts germane to the test design (O.764Iism 12.36 ' Y6OOO-)=371 ft
process. DBS 1 and 2 (ame PM:

7.2.2. The Test Article 9

The APG-XX radar has three modes of Examining the results, it is important
operation, including REAL BEAM MAP, DBS to note that the theoretical range
1 and DBS 2. In the REAL BEAM MAP mode, resolution is independent of the range
the transmit pulse waveform has a pulse to the target; however, the aircraft
width of 0.764 psec at a 40 nm range must be close enough to the range
scale or less, uncompressed. In the 80 resolution array targets to allow
to 40 nm range scale, the pulse width is detection of the individual elements of
2.29 lisec, uncompressed. The antenna the array. The array may actually
beam width is 1.3" horizontally and is include elements of several different
spoiled vertically. The display radar cross sections and so the
resolution is 75 pixels per inch and the evaluator must be aware of the
range scales available include possibility of detecting some elements
80/40/20/10 anmwith automatic downscale of the array at different maximum ranges
available as the aircraft approaches any independent of the range resolution
point which is selected by the geostable characteristics of the radar under test.
cursors.
sis Figure 24 illustrates the calculation of
In the DBS 1 mode, the pulse width i the theoretical azimuth resolution of
0.306 psec, uncompressed at all DBS the radar. The azimuth resolution is
ranges. The beam width is the same as dependent upon the beam width of the
the REAL BEAM MAP mode beam width and radar antenna and upon the limitations
the DBS ratio is 10. The display of any schemes designed to improve the
resolution is the same as in the REAL azimuth resolution such as in the DBS
BEAM MAP mode and the display scale is a mode, as outlined in Chapter 2. Two
10 nm by 30" B scan format. The maximum values are significant. First, the
range is 40 nm in DBS 1 and the DBS radar angular resolution is required.
notch width is 7%. In the DBS 2 mode For the Real Beam Mode, this value is
the pulse width, beam width, DBS ratio, equal to the beam width of the radar,
display resolution, DBS notch width and which is 1.3. In the DBS modes the
maximum DBS range are the same as in DBS angular resolution is equal to the beam
1. The only difference between DBS 1 width divided by the DBS ratio. The DBS
and DBS 2 is that the DBS2 display is a ratio for the sample radar system is 10
two fold "blow up" of the DBS display for both the DBS 1 and DBS 2 modes and
making the DBS 2 display scale 5 nm by so the DBS 1 and 2 modes angular
15. resolution is 0.13%. As outlined in
Chapter 2, the azimuth resolution array
7.2.3. Theoretical Resolution is composed of fixed ground radar
reflectors and so the angular resolution
In developing the test scenario, it is value must be interpreted in terms of
important to first bound the test distance over the ground. The most
parameters by the maximum theoretical useful value is the theoretical range at
limits, and therefore make best use of which it is expected that a pair of
the test time. The theoretical azimuth resolution array targets of known
 307

separation will be distinguishable, or the theoretical display resolution limit

break out, as two distinct targets, for all of the possible range scales
defined as Rb. This value is calculated assuming that the theoretical limit is
as in equation 34. imposed by the requirement that the
targets be separated by at least one
pixel to be broken out. The results are
at breakout
==target
range included in table VIII.
R
S=across axis taret separation (8O,_ 106 7 A
0=angularresolution 6 in n) pixel

Figure 25 is a diagram of the fictional

resolution array. The azimuth
resolution targets are at the top of the
T shape. The widest azimuth target Table IX includes all of the theoretical
separation of 600 feet in figure 26 is radar and display range resolution
applied to equation 34 for the case of calculations and shows which is the
the Real Beam Mode and then for the DBS limiting factor for the total system
mode to get equation 35. Table VII performance. As shown, the radar is the
shows the results of similar limiting factor for all but the case of
calculations made for all the radar the Real Beam Mode and the 40 nm display
modes and for the three azimuth range. Table X repeats the comparison
resolution target separations of 600, for the theoretical azimuth resolution.
300 and 100 feet. In azimuth, the radar is the theoretical
limiting factor in resolution for all
but the 100 feet separation target and
Real Beam Example: the Real Beam Mode of operation.
s=600 ft. e=1.3o
' 600ft----1----.4.4m As mentioned
tan(l.3°) 6000---) resolution was above, the intheoretical
calculated order to
ninJ OS) bound the flight test requirements and
=.DBS awmp1: save test time. Analyzing the two
0=1.3% DES Patio=0 previous tables allows several
nýl.3-6 1a 44 conclusions to be drawn concerning when
!10) (6000mL the azimuth and range resolution targets
~10,nm) could first be broken out on a data run
inbound to the resolution array:
The radar design provides one set of In Real Beam Mode Expect:
theoretical resolution limits. The
display also has resolution limits. The *In Range:
most restrictive of the two sets of
limits is the true theoretical /80 to 40 nm no breakouts
resolution limit for the total system. /40 to 20 nm no breakouts
The display measures six inches across /20 to 0 nm one breakout
and six inches high for a total of 36
in 2 . The display resolution is 75 pixels *In Azimuth:
per inch in both directions. In the
Real Beam Mode of operation, the /80 to 4.4 nm no breakouts
possible range scales include 80, 40, 20 /4.4 to 2.2 nm two breakouts
and 10 nm in both directions. In DBS 1, /2.2 to 0 nm four breakouts
the B scan format display scale is 10 nm
by 30" and in DBS 2 the scale is 5 nm by In DBS l&2 Expect:
15%. Figure 26 illustrates the
implications of these values where it is *In Range:
noted that in theory, two targets must
be separated by at least one pixel to be (80 to 40 nm... Not Displayed
distinguishable on the display. In /40 to 0 nm two breakouts
practice, more pixels of separation are
typically required; however, this *In Azimuth:
conservative limit suits our purposes.
/80 to 40 nm....Not Displayed
Equation 36 is an example calculation /40 to 22 nm two breakouts
for the separation over the ground of /22 to 7.3 nm four breakouts
two pixels on the display for the Real /7.3 to 0 nm six breakouts in DBS
Beam Mode, 80 nm range scale display. 2 only, due to display resolution
This calculation was repeated to develop
308

minimum
angular resolution=1 .3 degrees separation
at breakout
beamwidth or 1 given
DBS atio specified
range

I I
range to target
Figure 24: Azimuth Resolution for Targets of Known Separation

Table VII: Theoretical Azimuth Resolution for all Air-to-Ground Radar Modes and
all Azimuth Resolution Target Separations

Target Separation Real Beam Breakout DBS l&2 Breakout

600 ft 4.4 nm 44 nm
300 ft 2.2 nm 22 rnm
100 ft 0.73 nm 7.3 nm

Notes: (1) DBS 1&2 have the same azimuth resolution since they have the same
angular resolution and DBS ratio.
(2) The maximum display range for the DBS modes is 40 nm.

Table VIII: Theoretical Display Resolution

Scale (nm) Resolution (ft)

80 1067
40 533
20 267
10 133
5 67
 309

A• 600 ft A 300 ft A 100 ft A 100 ft A 300 ft A 600 ft A

5O ft
A
100 ft

A
200 ft

500 ft A 300 square meter

cross section

i
A 1500 square meter
cross section
360/180 degrees
magnetic centerline

Figure 25: Fictional Air-to-Ground Resolution Array Diagram

Table IX: Comparison of Radar and Display Theoretical Range Resolution

Scale Mode Radar Display Limiting

(nm) Resolution (ft) Resolution (ft) Factor

80 Real Beam 1112 1067 Radar

40 Real Beam 371 533 Display
20 Real Beam 371 267 Radar
10 Real Beam 371 133 Radar
10 DBS 1 148 133 Radar
5 DBS 2 148 67 Radar
310

Table X: Comparison the Radar and Display Theoretical Azimuth Resolution

Target Mode Target Scale/ Limitation

Separation Breakout (nm) Display
(ft) Resolution
(nm/ft)

600 Real Beam 4.4 10/133 Radar

300 Real Beam 2.2 10/133 Radar

100 Real Beam 0.73 10/133 Display

600 DBS 1 44 10/133 Radar

300 DBS 1 22 10/133 Radar
100 DBS 1 7.3 10/133 Display
600 DBS 2 44 5/67 Radar
300 DBS 2 22 5/67 Radar
100 DBS 2 7.3 5/67 Radar

Notes: (1) Assumes that the display automatically downscales as the aircraft
approaches the target.
(2) The DBS 1&2 radar parameters are the same and so the theoretical
radar resolution is the same.

7.2.4. Designing the Test a view looking down upon the array
depicting the horizontal beam width
limits of the array in terms of the
In general, a radar will never exceed magnetic bearings to and from the array
the theoretical limits of resolution as center as well as the array centerline
calculated above. Assuming the system magnetic bearing. As mentioned, figure
was designed to meet the system 28 depicts the vertical beam width
specification, it is almost certain that limits of the array in terms of aircraft
the theoretical limits encompass the altitude versus range from the array
specification. Bounding the test by the center. The pilot must ensure that the
theoretical limits then gives an aircraft remains within the airspace
efficient and sufficient check of the defined by the two magnetic bearings
parameter. In this case the theoretical from the target shown in figure 27 as
limits provide the maximum reasonable well as the range dependent altitude
range at which it is necessary to restrictions defined in figure 28. A
perform each test. Looking at the third restriction is also described in
results listed above, the first array Chapter 2, the DBS mode of operation has
target breakout in the Real Beam Map a notch over the nose of the aircraft
mode will theoretically occur in range through which the DBS radar detection is
at the edge of the 20 nm display range. not available. As mentioned above, this
The Real Beam Map resolution test will notch is 7" in width for the sample
then begin at 20 nm. In the DBS 1&2 radar. This means that the pilot can
modes the theoretical resolution limit never point the aircraft directly at the
predicts that targets will break out in array while testing the DBS modes and
both azimuth and range at the DBS 1&2 must "zigzag" inbound to the target
maximum operating range of 40 nm and so within the azimuth limits described
the DBS 1&2 resolution tests will begin above.
at 40 nm. The test resolution array is
presented in figure 27. Due to the In conversation with the test pilot, you
flight time constraints, a single data determine that 300 KIAS is the best
point will be taken per radar mode for a airspeed to perform the test. This
total of three runs inbound to the airspeed allows for moderate maneuvering
array. while simultaneously performing a
descent at a flight path angle of i0"
The reflectors, which make up the sample with horizontal. The pilot also
test resolution array depicted in figure mandates a 200 feet AGL minimum altitude
27 have a 15" horizontal beam width and for the test as well as VFR conditions.
a 6" vertical beam width within. which Due to high traffic density in the
the test must be performed. Figure 27 is
 311

I 75 PIXELS/INCH

5 NM
10 NMV
2O NM
40 NM
80 NMV

5/10/20/40/80 NM

Figure 26: Relationship of Display Dimensions, Scale Sizes and Pixel Grid

working area, he also requires that from the array to be determined as in

there be clear visibility for the entire equation 37.
descent to the array, with no cloud
layers along the route from the start of ALT=RANGE [ta*10°)]
the run to the array. The rate of 10 =center of array vertical beamwidth
descent in feet per minute will be )tt0n\:
limited to half the altitude in feet, ALT=(20n•0Xt°1O) 1 6OOO-L-) 37)

necessitating a small deviation from the ALT=21,2OOft

desired flight path angle during the at 40n,:
last part of the test, approaching the ALT=42,300ft
array. Maneuvering is limited to +3 g
and -0.5 g maximums and the pilot in the
front seat will act as the pilot at the A 300 KIAS airspeed is approximately 5
aircraft controls and will ensure he is nm per minute, requiring 4 minutes to
looking out of the aircraft for traffic complete the 20 nm data run and 8
at all times while the pilot in the back minutes to complete the 40 nm data runs.
seat conducts the test. The sample array is at sea level and so
at the 20 nm beginning range, the 21,200
Knowing that the vertical centerline of feet beginning altitude requires a
the resolution array is 10. above 12,200 ft/4 min=5300 feet/min rate of
vertical and that the airspeed over the descent to make the 10" glideslope. The
ground is approximately 6000 feet/nm rate of descent is the same for the 40
allows the starting altitude for the nm data run since the glide path angle
data runs beginning at 20 nm and 40 nm is the same. As a reminder, the flight
312

015-195 degrees magnetic 345-165 degrees

magnetic

15 degrees beamwidth

360-180 degrees
magnetic centerline
Figure 27: Radar Resolution Array Horizontal Beam Width

path angle will necessarily be deviated 7.2.5. Data Cards

from as the rate of descent is shallowed
at the lower altitudes and the minimum
altitude for the test is approached. Cards 75 through 82 are the data cards
provided to the project test pilot.
In discussion with the contractor, it is Card 1 provides the waypoint definitions
agreed that climb performance data may to load into the aircraft inertial
be taken after takeoff and up to the system to allow quick navigation from
beginning of the first data run and so the point of aircraft startup (waypoint
the contractor will not begin counting 0), to the initial point for the 20 nm
the 30 minutes of flight test time run (waypoint 1), to the center of the
available for resolution measurements array (waypoint 2) and finally to the
until the initial point for the first initial point for the 40 nm run
data run. As outlined above, one 20 nm (waypoint 3). Card 2 is a script for
run and two 40 nm runs are required. the takeoff and set up for the first
Beginning with the 20 nm data point, a data run and card 3 is the data card for
single 20 nm inbound run followed by two the 20 nm data run with the Real Beam
40 nm outbound and inbound runs are Map mode of the radar. Cards 4 through
required for a total of 180 nm. At 5 6 are the script and data cards for the
nm/min, the test will take 36 minutes next two runs while cards 7 and 8 depict
total, turning the aircraft back over to the horizontal and vertical layout of
the contractor over the resolution array the array and the flight path
at 200 feet AGL. This is 6 minutes? requirements. Card 9 is possibly the
longer than allotted by the contractor; most important card in that it provides
however, after making one last phone a full page of note taking space for
call, the contractor agrees to allow the incidental information.
extra 6 minutes.
 313

30,O00 upper limit 13 centerline

degrees 10 degrees

S20'00 / / / lower limit

~j20,000-

U 007 degrees
D
F-10,000-

10 20 30
RANGE (nautical miles)
Figure 28: Radar Resolution Array Vertical Beam Width
314

CARD NUMBER 1

WAYPOINTS

(0) N 38" 00' W 123" 00' HOMEPLATE

(1) N 38" xx' W 123" xx'

(2) N 38" yy' W 123" yy'

(3) N 38" zz' w 123" zz'

Card 75: Case Study Data Card 1

 315

DATA CARD 2

F/A-XX RADAR RESOLUTION TEST

-TAKEOFF AND PROCEED TO WP 1

-SET 300 KIAS

-CLIMB TO 21,200 FEET MSL

-CROSS WP 1 INBOUND TO THE ARRAY AT WP 2 HEADING 360"

-SET A 5300 FT/MIN RATE OF DESCENT AND REMAIN IN THE GLIDESLOPE

BAND

-PLACE THE RADAR IN THE REAL BEAM MAP MODE, BEGIN IN A 40 NM SCALE

-DESIGNATE THE ARRAY IN THE GEOSTABLE MODE AND EXPECT THE DISPLAY

TO AUTO DOWNSCALE

-KEEP THE ARRAY WITHIN 353" -007"

-OBSERVE A MINIMUM ALTITUDE OF 200 FEET AGL

-OVERHEAD THE TARGET, TURN OUTBOUND TO WP 3

Card 76: Case Study Data Card 2

316

DATA CARD 3

RUN NUMBER 1

REAL BEAM MODE

MAX NUMBER OF RANGE AT TARGET BREAKOUTS

RANGE TARGETS
2 4 6

NOTES:

Card 77: Case Study Data Card 3

 317

DATA CARD 4

-CLIMB TO 42,300 FEET MSL

-CROSS WP 3 INBOUND TO THE TARGET, WP 2, HEADING 360"

-SET 5300 FT/MIN RATE OF DESCENT AND REMAIN IN THE GLIDE SLOPE BAND

-SET THE RADAR TO DBS 1 MODE

-DESIGNATE THE ARRAY USING THE GEOSTABLE MODE

-KEEP THE ARRAY WITHIN 353" TO 007"

-KEEP THE ARRAY OUT OF THE NOTCH

-OBSERVE A MINIMUM ALTITUDE OF 200 FEET AGL

-OVERHEAD THE TARGET TURN OUTBOUND TO WP 3

-REPEAT IN THE DBS 2 MODE

Card 78: Case Study Card 4

318

DATA CARD 5

RUN NUMBER 2

DBS 1 MODE

MAX NUMBER OF RANGE AT TARGET BREAKOUTS

RANGE TARGETS

NOTES:

Card 79: Case Study Card 5

 319

DATA CARD 6

RUN NUMBER 3

DBS 2 MODE

MAX NUMBER OF RANGE AT TARGET BREAKOUTS

RANGE TARGETS
2 4 6

NOTES:

Card 80: Case Study Card 6

320

CARD NUMBER 7
ARRAY DIAGRAM

600 ft
A 600 ft A 300 ft A 100 ft A 100 ft A 300 ft A A
50 ft
A
1 ft
A

200

A 300 square meter

cross section
500 ft A 1500 square meter
15 degrees cross section

360-180 degrees
magnetic centerline

007-187 degree 353-173 degree

magnetic magnetic

Card 81: Case Study Card 7

 321

DATA CARD 8

ALTITUDE BAND

30,000 upper limit 13 centerline

degrees 10 degrees
a
CfD
; 20000TJ • / lower limit
S20,000-
" /7 degrees
0
S10,000--

10 20 30
RANGE (nautical miles)

5300 ' 300 KiAS

ON GLIDESLOPE

Card 82: Case Study Card 8

322

7.2.6. Summary During the development of the techniques

presented here, frequent license was
permitted in the selection of test
This case study has demonstrated a ranges, speeds, altitudes, etc. It
couple of important points. First, the cannot be overemphasized that the
simple techniques described in the details of the test must be specific to
previous sections are useful for real the needs of the system and platform
world application and are adequate for a under test. It is intended that the
wide range of quick measurements. What numbers presented will give the reader a
some of the tests lack in precision and flavor for the requirements of the
documentation, they make up in fictitious sample systems and platforms,
accessibility and ease of enabling him or her to then choose test
implementation. Adding more points and conditions for other systems.
instrumentation and complexity to the One final point must be stressed. Every
test changes the basic technique very detail of each individual test, as well
little and merely enhances the data as the order and precedence, must be
collection process with automatic and thought through and planned before the
sometimes more precise data. Second, flight and then the plan must be flown,
the case study demonstrated the if usable data is to be consistently
criticality of fully understanding the obtained.
workings of the system under test.
Without a thorough knowledge of the
theoretical resolution limits of the
radar under test, it may have been
necessary to test the resolution out to
the display limits of the radar, wasting
flight time and thus money.

8.0. CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
These test techniques should be used as
a generalized baseline for the
development of specialized tests for new
systems. A basic knowledge of system
theory and the characteristics of the
test article are assumed. All the
techniques presented are as simple as
possible and require a minimum of
outside assets. Better and more exact
methods exist; however, most merely
involve scaling up the techniques
presented here, usually in the form of
more sophisticated and precise truth
data (time/space positioning data,
telemetry, onboard instrumentation,
etc.). Using the methods presented
here, the test pilot should be able, in
just a few flights, to make a good
qualitative assessment of the system
under test and have adequate numerical
data to support his or her assessment.
Although not suitable in some test
programs, this level of data accuracy is
often sufficient. More important than
the exact test procedure presented, is
the methodical, common sense thought
process required for test planning.
Understanding the development of the
simple tests presented here for the
sample systems will enable the evaluator
to develop his or her own procedures for
systems and functions not covered by
this document.
 323

13. Department of the Navy Military

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