Leonidas Terzis

AIRLINE PILOTS
INTERVIEW COURSE

Textbook

GRAFIMA PUBLICATIONS
© Leonidas Terzis

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this

publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or

transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the
provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 2121/1993, or under
the terms of any license permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency, Stratigou Exadactilou 5, Thessaloniki, 54635.

Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work
in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 2121/1993.

First published 2015 by

GRAFIMA PUBLISHING LTD
Stratigou Exadactilou 5, Thessaloniki, 54635
and Athens companies and representatives
throughout the world.

ISBN: 978-960-93-7044-8

Hardcover designer: Spyros Kambosoulis

A catalogue record for this book is available

from the Hellenic National Library.

Copy-edited and typeset by Ioannis Tsahourides

in Thessaloniki, Greece.

Printed and bound in Greece by

GRAFIMA PUBLISHING LTD
Stratigou Exadactilou 5, Thessaloniki, 54635

AVAILABLE ON E-BAY, GOOGLE PLAY STORE, APPLE I-TUNES

 Contents
1. ABSTRACT

2. ABREVIATIONS

3. AERODYNAMICS

4. ENGINES

5. PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

6. LIGHTING

7. RADIO NAVIGATION

8. PERFORMANCE

9. OPERATIONS

10. FLIGHT PLANNING

11. METEOROLOGICAL PRODUCTS

12. FOG

13. ICING

14. WINDS

15. WEATHER
 1. Abstract
This textbook is addressed to qualified pilots intending to get employed to
an airline company. It is based on feedback concerning practices used by
airliners for screening pilots.

As such, basic aviation knowledge is considered a precondition and not an

aspiration, although some topics are ranged from light aircraft up to heavy
jet operations. It is mainly referred to topics that combined knowledge is
required.

It is not substituting the approved training bibliography and it is not

covering all aspects of aviation knowledge. Consequently, it is not to be
used for pilots training, but it is ideal for pilots preparation for airliners
screening.

In contrast to other similar books it doesn’t chatter. Felicity straight talk

and plain language is used in order to appear compatible to an airplane
flight manual. Efforts have been made to compress the script, instead of
stretch it for filling pages. Moreover, only approved definitions are used,
not argot.

For better understanding the text is organized in 15 chapters representing

individual areas of aviation. Within chapters the order of topics is arranged
in logic where previous topics provide background for the following.
Whenever a topic covers more than one aspect or query, more than one
head titles are provided. This also serves as a tool for fast learning.

Whenever feasible, pictures are provided. They actually are proposals of

what to draw upon a screening interview. As such, they are carefully
chosen to be convenient to duplicate.

Finally, you are strongly advised not to learn any topic by heart. Upon
interviewing, use this book as a guide line and evolve your answer using
your own expressions. This will provide the naturalism the airline
representative likes to see.

1-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Abbreviations

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

2. Abbreviations

2-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Abbreviations

ACARS - Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System

ACAS- Airborne Collision Avoidance System
ACU- Acceleration Control Unit
ADS- Automatic Dependent Surveillance
ADSB- Airborne Depended Surveillance Broadcast
AI – Altitude Indication
ALS – Approach Lighting System
AMSL - Above Mean Sea Level
ANP - Actual Navigation Performance
AR – Aspect Ratio
ARP – Aerodrome Reference Point
ASAS- Airborne Separation Assurance System
ASDA – Accelerate Stop Distance Available
ASR - Airport Surveillance Radar
ATIS – Automatic Terminal Information Service
ATS – Air Traffic Service

BEM-Basic Empty Mass

BCS - Back Course (ILS)
BFO- Beat Frequency Oscillator
BPR – By Pass Ratio
BRNAV- Basic RNAV

CAT - Category (ILS)

CAT – Clear Air Turbulence
CAVOK - Ceiling and Visibility OK
CDA – Continuous Descent Approach
CDFA – Continuous Descent Final Approach
CDI – Course Deviation Indicator
CDU - Control Display Unit
CL – Center Line
CLB – Climb
CMV - Converted Meteorological Visibility
CP - Critical Point
CPDLC- Controller Pilot Data Link Communication
CRZ – Cruise
CSU- Constant Speed Unit

DALR – Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

DER – Departure End (of the) Runway
DOM-Dry Operating Mass
DOW – Dry Operating Weight

2-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Abbreviations

EHSI - Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator

ELR- Environmental Lapse Rate
EPR – Engine Pressure Ratio
ET - Elapsed Time
ETOPS - Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards
EZFW – Estimated Zero Fuel Weight

FAP - Final Approach Point

FAT – Final Approach Track
FIS – Flight Information Service
FLAS- Flight Level Allocation Scheme
FMC- Flight Management Computer
FMS- Flight Management System
FOD - Foreign Object Damage

GA – Go Around
GC - Great Circle
GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite System
GP - Glide Path
GPS – Global Positioning System
GS – Glide Slope

HDG – Heading
HF – Human Factors
HF – High Frequency
HIALS - High Intensity Approach Lighting System
HIRL- High Intensity Runway Edge Lights
HOT – Hold Over Time (Anti-icing)
HPT – High Pressure Turbine
HSI – Horizontal Situation Indicator
HYD - Hydraulics

IAP - Instrument Approach Procedure

IAS – Indicated Air Speed
INS – Inertial Navigation System
IRS – Inertial Reference System
ITCZ – Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
IVSI- Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator

JAR - Joint Aviation Requirements

2-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Abbreviations

KTS - Knots

LD - Landing Distance
LDA – Landing Distance Available
LOC – Localiser
LNAV – Lateral Navigation
LVL - Level
LVP – Low Visibility Procedures
LVTO- Low Visibility Takeoff

MAA - Missed Approach Altitude

MALSF- Medium Intensity ALS with SFL
METAR – Meteorological Aerodrome Report
MIALS- Medium Intensity Approach Light System
MIRL- Medium Intensity Runway Edge Lights
MLS – Microwave Landing System
MLW – Maximum Landing Weight
MM – Middle Marker
MNPS- Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications
MOC – Minimum Obstacle Clearance
MORA – Minimum En-route Altitude
MSA – Minimum Sector/Safe Altitude
MTOW – Maximum Take Off Weight
MZFM- Maximum Zero Fuel Mass

NADP –Noise Abatement Departure Procedure

NAT – North Atlantic Tracks
NOTAM – Notices to Airmen
NPA – Non Precision Approach

OAT – Outside Air Temperature

OCA – Obstacle Clearance Altitude
OCH – Obstacle Clearance Height
OEI – One Engine Inoperative
OFP – Operational Flight Plan
OM-Operating Mass
OM – Outer Marker
OTS- Organized Track System

PAPI – Precision Approach Path Indicator

PAR - Precision Approach Radar
PCN - Pavement Classification Number

2-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Abbreviations

PET – Point Of Equal Time

PFD – Primary Flight Display
PL- Pay Load
PNR – Point of No Return
PPR - Prior Permission Required
PRNAV- Precision RNAV

QDM – Magnetic heading to a station

QDR – Magnetic Bearing from a station
QFE – Field Elevation (Pressure Setting)
QNH – Regional Pressure Setting

RA – Radio Altimeter
RA – Resolution Advisory
RAIL- Runway Alignment Indicator Lights
RAIM- Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
RCF- Reduced Contingency Fuel
REIL- Runway End Identifier Lights
RET - Rapid Exit Taxiway
RNAV - Area Navigation
RNP - Required Navigation Performance
RTO – Rejected Take Off
RVR – Runway Visual Range
RVSM - Reduced Vertical Separation Minima

SADLR – Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

SALSF-Short Approach Light System with SFL
SAT – Saturated Air Temperature
SALR- Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate
SFC- Specific Fuel Consumption
SFL- Sequenced Flashing Lights
SIGMET - Significant Meteorological Advisory
SRA – Surveillance Radar Approach
SSAFL- Simplified Short Approach Light System with SFL
SSR – Secondary Surveillance Radar
STAR – Standard Terminal Arrival Route
STD – Standard (Pressure Setting 1013mb)
SWC- Significant Weather Chart

TA – Traffic Advisory
TAF – Terminal Area Forecast
TAS – True Airspeed

2-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Abbreviations

TAT – Total Air Temperature

TCAS – Traffic Collision Avoidance System
TCH - Threshold Crossing Height
TL-Traffic Load
TL – Transition Level
TOC – Top Of Climb
TOD – Top Of Descent
TODA – Take Off Distance Available
TORA – Take Off Run Available
TP – Turbo Prop
TS - Thunder Storm
TSE- Total System Error
TT – Total Time
TWC – Tail Wind Component
TWY - Taxiway

UHF – Ultra High Frequency

U/S – Unserviceable
UL- Useful Load
UTC – Universal Co-ordinated Time (Zulu)

VASI - Vertical Approach Slope Indicator

VMD – Maximum Drag Speed
VMC – Visual Meteorological Conditions
VMCA – Minimum Control Speed Airborne
VMCG – Minimum Control Speed Ground
VL-Variable Load
VNAV – Vertical Navigation
VOR – VHF Omni Directional Radio Range
VRB – Variable
VS - Vertical Speed
VX – Best Angle of Climb Speed
VY – Best Rate of Climb Speed

WPT – Way Point

WX - Weather

XPDR - Transponder
XWC – Cross Wind Component

Z - Zulu Time (Same as UTC and GMT)

ZFM- Zero Fuel Mass

2-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

3. Aerodynamics

3-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

CONTENTS

Chord Line 3-5

Standard Mean Chord (SMC) 3-5
Angle of Incidence (Mounting Angle) 3-5
Angle of Attack What Determines Glide Range? 3-6
What Effect has Weight on Glide Range? 3-6
Drag 3-6
Minimum Drag Speed 3-6
Total Drag 3-6
Wing-tip Vortices 3-7
Span-wise Component 3-7
Winglets 3-9
Mass Definitions 3-9
ICAO Weight Categorization 3-10
Center of Gravity (CG) 3-11
What are the Factors of Center of Gravity (CG) Movement? 3-11
Center of Gravity Range 3-11
Nose/Tail Heavy Airplane 3-11
Effects of CG out of Range 3-11
Effects of CG on Staling Speed 3-11
All Moving Tailplane 3-11
Leading Edge Devices 3-12
Fixed Slats 3-13
Powered (Controlled) Slats 3-13
Automatic Slats 3-14
Slots 3-14
Leading Edge Nose Flaps 3-14
Krueger Flaps 3-14
Variable Krueger Flaps 3-14
Difference of Leading Edge Flaps and Slats 3-15
Plain Flaps 3-15
Split Flaps 3-16
Slotted Flaps 3-16
Double Slotted Flaps 3-16
Zap Flaps 3-17
Fowler Flaps 3-17

3-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Double Slotted Fowler Flaps 3-17

Mach Number 3-18
Critical Mach Number (Mcrit) 3-18
Effects Upon Reaching and Passing Critical Mach Number (Mcrit)3-18
Mach Tuck 3-18
Mach Trimmer 3-18
Swept Wing 3-19
Argue in Favor and Against Swept Wing 3-20
Coffin Corner 3-20
Speed Stability 3-20
Speed Instability 3-20
Stall 3-21
Stalling Speed 3-21
Critical AOA 3-21
Center of Pressure Movement During Stall 3-21
How Can you Recognize a Stall? 3-21
Stall Recovery 3-21
How Can you be Warned for a Stall? 3-22
Stick Shaker 3-22
Stick Pushers 3-22
Superstall (Deep Stall) 3-22
Factors Affecting Stall Speed 3-22
How is Weight Affecting Stall Speed? 3-22
Discuss Stall in Respect to Wing Shape 3-23
Center of Gravity (CG) Movement in Swept Wing During Stall 3-23
Wing-tip Stall Prevention 3-24
Washout 3-24
Vortex Generators 3-24
Spin 3-25
Spiral Dive 3-25
Spin Recovery 3-25
Spin Prevention 3-25
Longitudinal Stability 3-26
Lateral Stability 3-26
Directional Stability 3-26
Spiral Stability 3-27

3-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Dutch Roll 3-27

Describe how Dutch Roll Develops 3-27
Dutch Roll Recovery 3-28
Methods for Curing Dutch Roll 3-28
Yaw Dampers 3-28

3-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Chord Line

Chord line is the imaginary line on an airfoil joining the leading edge and
the trailing edge.

Standard Mean Chord (SMC)

Standard mean chord is the ratio of wing area divided by wing span.

Angle of Incidence (Mounting Angle)

Angle of Incidence is the angle between the wing (or horizontal tail) chord
line and the axis of the fuselage.

Angle of Attack

Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the oncoming flow.

3-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

What Determines Glide Range?

What Effect has Weight on Glide Range?

Upon gliding, Thrust equals to zero and Weight is constant. Glide Range is
proportional to the ratio Lift/Drag. Weight has no effect at all.

Maximum range is obtained when the ratio Lift/Drag takes its maximum
value. This is achieved by flying a shallow glide angle of approximately 4°
AOA, which produces minimum Drag Speed (Vmd).

Note that a heavier aircraft will fly the same Glide Path as a lighter one, but
on a faster speed.

Drag

Minimum Drag Speed

Total Drag

Drag is an aerodynamic force, acting against the motion of an aircraft.

We can distinct two types of Drag:

 Parasite Drag
 Induced Drag

Parasite Drag is caused by the motion of the airplane through the air. It
increases with the square of speed (CAS2).

3-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Induced Drag is an aerodynamic force, caused by the production of Lift as a

side effect. It reduces when speed increases (1/CAS2). At stall speed it gets
maximized.

Total Drag is the sum of Parasite and Induced Drag.

Note in the diagram bellow, that Total Drag gets minimized in a medium
speed, where Parasite and Induced Drag are equal. This is called the
Minimum Drag Speed (Vmd) and provides maximum endurance.

Wing-tip Vortices

Span-wise Component

An airflow around a wing, produces higher air pressure in the lower surface
compared with the upper surface. This causes the air to flow from high
pressure area towards the low pressure area around the wing-tip, in order
to equalize the pressure difference. At the same time a span-wise
outboard flow (away from fuselage) on the lower surface is evidenced,
along with an inboard flow on the upper surface. The above described
airflows meet at the wingtip and create Wingtip Vortices. Wingtip Vortices
increase Induced Drag.

3-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

The above described span-wise airflow causes:

 reduced aileron efficiency

 wing-tip stall
 Induced Drug

In order to keep the airflow perpendicular to the leading edge, span-wise

airflow can be prevented by using:

 fences
 vortex generators

Wing-tip Vortex effect increases with:

 wing tip length

 AOA
 value of Lift Co-efficient (CL)
 altitude

Wing-tip Vortex effect can be reduced by using:

 modified wing tips (i.e. elliptical wings)

 wing tip tanks
 winglets

3-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Winglets

Winglets are aerodynamic devices installed at the wing tips. They shuffle
the confluence of low and high air pressure, upward away from the wing
tip. A portion of the wing-tip vortex rotates around from below the wing,
strikes the winglet and pushes the aircraft forward.

Winglets are exploiting the wing area where lift would otherwise be
destroyed because of wing-tip vortices. At the end, Lift is increased.
Reduction of the strength of Wingtip vortices, cause Induced Drag also to
reduce.

Mass Definitions

Basic Empty Mass (BEM) is the airplane mass plus:

 unusable fuel and fluids

 lubricating oil
 fire extinguishers
 emergency oxygen equipment
 pyrotechnics
 supplementary electronic equipment

3-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Variable Load (VL) is the sum of:

 Crew and crew baggage

 Catering and removable passenger service equipment
 Potable water and lavatory chemicals

Dry Operating Mass (DOM) is the total mass of the airplane including
Variable load but excluding usable fuel and Traffic Load.

Operating Mass (OM) is the DOM plus Takeoff Fuel (TOF) but without
Traffic Load. Sometimes it is named Wet Operating Mass (WEM).

Traffic Load (TL) or Pay Load (PL) is the total mass of passengers, baggage
and cargo. It is the load that produces revenues.

Useful load (UL) is Traffic load plus Fuel.

Zero Fuel Mass (ZFM) is DOM plus Traffic Load (TL), excluding Fuel.

Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM) is the maximum permissible mass of an

aircraft with no Fuel.

Take off Mass is the total aircraft mass at the start of the Take off Run.

Maximum Structural Take off Mass is the maximum permissible total

aircraft mass at the start of the Take off Run.

In sum:

 BEM + VL = DOM
 OM = DOM + TOF or OM = BEM + VL + TOF
 ZFM = DOM + TL or ZFM = BEM + VL + TL

ICAO Weight Categorization

Heavy (H) More than 136,000kg (30000lb)

Medium (M) 7,000kg to 136,000kg (15.500lb to 300.000lb)
Light (L) Less than 7,000kg (15.500lb)

3-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Center of Gravity (CG)

What are the Factors of Center of Gravity (CG) Movement?

Center of Gravity is the unique point that the vector of the weight of a
body acts. On an aircraft during the flight it is affected by:

 fuel consumption
 flap positions
 landing gear lowering
 crew and passenger movements

Center of Gravity Range

Nose/Tail Heavy Airplane

Effects of CG out of Range

Effects of CG on Staling Speed

All Moving Tailplane

There are forward and aft limits described in the flight manual, where the
Center of Gravity can be positioned. This is because of the limitations in
moment that the horizontal tailplane can produce, in order to balance the
moment produced by weight. If CG is out of limits, the aircraft may be out
of control.

If CG is close to the forward limit, the airplane is defined as Nose Heavy.

Stabilizer needs more down-force to balance the moment. Wing load is
also getting higher. Effects are:

 heavy stick forces

 excessive up trimming
 increased longitudinal stability
 reduced pitch up control, because aileron is already deflected up
 large induced drag (resulting in fuel penalty), due to excessive
aileron deflection

3-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

 increased stalling speed, due to higher wing load

 increased rotation speed

If CG is close to the aft limit, the airplane is defined as Tail Heavy. Stabilizer
needs less down-force to balance the moment. Wing load is also getting
lower. Effects are:

 light stick forces, extreme sensitivity in pitch control

 excessive down trimming
 longitudinal instability
 reduced pitch down control, because aileron is already deflected
down
 lower induced drag (resulting in fuel saving), due to less aileron
deflection
 reduced stalling speed, due to lower wing load (stabilizer lifts some
weight)
 rotation speed decreases

Be aware that that Center of Gravity may be initially within range at

takeoff and get out of range later, when fuel decreases.

An all moving tailplane is able to provide balance force for a large Center of
Gravity range, as well as for a large speed range. As this compensates
elevator trim, reduced trim deflections are required. As a result, trim drag
is reduced to minimum and fuel is saved.

Leading Edge Devices

Leading Edge Devices are aerodynamic surfaces mounted on the leading

edge of the wings, allowing for higher Angle of Attack. As a result, Lift
Coefficient (CL) gets higher value and Lift is increased. Leading Edge
Devices are used during takeoff and landing. Generally, there are 3 types:

 Fixed
 Powered (controlled slats)
 Automatic (automatic slats)

3-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Fixed Slats

Fixed Slats are mounted just ahead of the Leading Edge of a wing.

As they re-energize the airflow, more lift is produced by the wing as much
as 50%. However, at high airspeeds considerable Drag is produced. As a
result, Fixed Slats are considered efficient for slow airplanes only.

Because the center of lift is moving forward, the wing flies in very high
AOA. The use of Trailing Edge Flaps is neutralizing the ΑΟΑ problem.

Powered (Controlled) Slats

Powered (Controlled) Slats are mounted on the Leading Edge of a wing and
can be mechanically deployed or stowed at the pilot’s discretion. They are
used when flying in high AOA (landing, maneuvers etc.)

A further distinction to Sealed or Slotted Slats may be realized, in respect

to the flow of air over the Leading Edge.

3-13
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Automatic Slats

Automatic Slats are mounted on the Leading Edge of a wing and can be
automatically deployed or stowed. They are held in the stowed position by
air pressure. Whenever the Angle of Attack gets increased and the wing
feels less air pressure over the Leading Edge, a Spring pushes the Slats to
the deployed position.

Slots

Slots are a different type of Leading Edge Device that allows for higher
Angle of Attack. They are actually spanwise gaps in each wing just after the
Leading Edge, aiming to re-energize the air flow. As much as 40% more lift
is produced by the wing. However, at high airspeeds considerable Drag is
produced. As a result, Slots are considered efficient for slow airplanes only.

Leading Edge Nose Flaps

Leading Edge Nose Flaps are increasing the wing Camber and keep the
Chord almost constant (only a little bit shorter). When deployed the
Coefficient of Lift gets increased resulting in higher Lift.

Krueger Flaps

Variable Krueger Flaps

Leading Edge Krueger Flaps are usually mounted between the fuselage and

3-14
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

the closest engine, where the wing is thick. Usually they have the shape of
the letter «J». Upon extension, a portion of the lower wing is rotated out in
front of the main wing leading edge. The rest of the wing doesn’t change.
Krueger Flaps vastly increase Camber. Chord remains almost constant. Lift
gets increased as much as 50%.

In some designs they may be deployed in various increments (Variable

Krueger Flaps). However, in very low settings they compromise Lift.

Difference of Leading Edge Flaps and Slats

Leading Edge Flaps and Slats both change the shape of the wing when they
are deployed. They both increase the Coefficient of Lift, so that the
airplane can fly slower. However, when Slats are deployed the Chord line is
getting longer, while when Leading Edge Flaps are deployed the Chord line
remains almost constant (only a little bit shorter).

Plain Flaps

As the definition suggests, Plain Flaps are the simplest design of flaps. It is
actually the Trailing Edge of a wing that is hinged. When deployed the
Camber increases, but the Chord is getting shorter, compromising the
efficiency. As a result Lift is increased as much as 50%. When fully
deployed, Drag increases considerably. Center of Gravity moves forward.

3-15
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Split Flaps

In a Split Flap design, the lower surface of the Trailing Edge is hinged.
When deployed the Camber increases, but the Chord remains the same,
giving a better efficiency than the Plain Flap. As a result, Lift increases as
much as 60%.

Slotted Flaps

Double Slotted Flaps

In a Slotted Flap design, when extended, a part of the airflow under the
wing is directed over the flap, re-establishing a laminar airflow. As a result,
Lift increases as much as 65%. They do not produce as much Drag as the
Plain Flaps.

In some designs there are two flaps mounted into the Trailing Edge. When
extended, a part of the airflow under the wing is directed over both of the
flaps. As a result, Lift increases as much as 70%.

3-16
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Zap Flaps

Zap Flaps are a complicated design where the flap extends backwards and
progressively downwards. Camber and Chord line are getting increased,
resulting in very high efficiency. Lift is increased as much as 90%. When
fully extended, Drag gets vastly increased.

Fowler Flaps

Double Slotted Fowler Flaps

Double Slotted Fowler Flaps, is the most complicated but efficient design
of flaps. When retracted, the flaps are partly stowed into the Trailing Edge.
When extended, they move initially backwards increasing the wing surface.
Afterwards, they move backwards and progressively downwards. In an
intermediate position a part of the airflow under the wing is directed over
one of the flaps. When fully extended the airflow from under the wing is
directed over both of the flaps. Camber and Chord line are getting
increased, resulting in a very high efficiency. Lift is increased as much as
100%.

3-17
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Mach Number

Mach Number is not a speed actually, but the ratio of True Air Speed (TAS)
of an object to the Local Speed of Sound (LSS). Since temperature reduces
with altitude, LSS also reduces.

M = TAS / LSS

Critical Mach Number (Mcrit)

During flight, the wing experiences higher airspeeds than the rest of the
aircraft, due to its cambered upper surface. When the airflow at the wing
reaches the speed of sound, Drag increases dramatically, setting a barrier
at the aircraft speed. This is the Mach Critical (Mcrit) and expresses the
aircraft’s speed, not the wing’s speed.

Effects Upon Reaching and Passing Critical Mach Number (Mcrit)

Mach Tuck

Mach Trimmer

Upon reaching Mcrit:

 a shock wave emerges resulting in buffet

 control surfaces are ineffective
 a nose pitch down (Mach Tuck) is experienced
 drug is increased

Upon passing Mcrit the center of pressure moves backwards. The aircraft
experiences a nose down pitching moment. Stick have to be moved from
forward to neutral and then to aft position. This is the Mach Tuck.

A Mach Trimmer application automatically stabilizes the aircraft upon

Mach Tuck. Mach Trimmer is actually a mode of pitch trim.

3-18
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Swept Wing

Argue in Favor and Against Swept Wing

Swept Wing is met in high performance aircraft, where Mcrit is limiting the
air speed. When sweeping a wing by an angle of A, the component of air
velocity perpendicular to the leading edge (VcosA), is smaller than the
chord wise resultant (V). Since the wing is responsive to VcosA, it believes
it is flying slower than it actually does. Thus, the aircraft can fly faster and
still have subsonic airflow over the wing. Mcrit is delayed to a higher Mach
Number.

On top of the ability of flying faster, Swept Wings contribute to fuel

efficiency and improve stability and turbulence characteristics.

On the other hand, they present a reduced Lift Coefficient (CL) resulting in
increased stall speed (extensive use of flaps is needed). Speed instability is
developed when flying slower than Minimum Drag Speed (Vmd). Also,
more outboard airflow is evidenced, resulting in wing-tip stall, which in
turn result in pitch up.

3-19
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Coffin Corner

Coffin Corner is the altitude that defines an aircraft’s absolute ceiling.

Imposing a safety margin, the operating ceiling is defined.

When climbing on constant Mach number, CAS decreases to a point of

reaching the stall speed, causing a low speed buffet. On the other hand, on
a given altitude, Mach number can be increased to the point of reaching
Mcrit, again causing a high speed buffet. The Coffin Corner is where the
altitude is bounded from one side by the low speed buffet and from the
other side by the hi speed buffet.

Speed Stability

Speed Instability

Speed Stability is the tendency of speed to return to a preceding value,

after being disturbed. This happens when flying faster than Minimum Drag
Speed (Vmd). An increase in speed result in an increase in drag, causing the
speed to return to the preceding value. Conversely, a decrease in speed

3-20
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

result in a decrease in drag, causing the speed to increase and return to

the preceding value.

Speed instability is the tendency of speed to continue diverging, after

being disturbed. This happens when flying slower than Minimum Drag
Speed (Vmd). A decrease in speed result in an increase in drag, causing a
further decrease in speed etc. Conversely, an increase in speed result in a
decrease in drag, causing a further increase in speed etc.

As speed gets faster above Minimum Drag Speed (Vmd), Speed Stability
gets increased. Conversely, as speed gets slower bellow Vmd, Speed
Stability gets decreased.

Stall

Stalling Speed

Critical AOA

An aircraft stalls when the boundary layer of the streamlined airflow

abrupt from the wing surface and gets turbulent. Stall takes place at a
specific Angle of Attack, called the Critical Angle of Attack. The
corresponded airspeed is called Stalling Speed (Vs).

Center of Pressure Movement During Stall

How Can you Recognize a Stall?

Stall Recovery

Upon stall the Center of Pressure moves forward and Lift is drastically
reduced. Stall is recognized from Buffet and Stick Shaking (caused by the
separated turbulent airflow passing over the tailplane). It is very crucial to
recover. This can be achieved by lowering the nose in order to reduce the
AOA and increase the power setting in order to increase speed.

3-21
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

How Can you be Warned for a Stall?

Stick Shaker

Stick Pushers

Electrically driven artificial stall-warning devices called Stick Shakers, are

used for stall warning. They are triggered when speed reaches 1.05 Vs.
Stick Pushers (if any) are also triggered to push the control column forward
in order to prevent stall.

Superstall (Deep Stall)

An aircraft is considered to be Superstalled, when it is unable to recover

from a stall, because the tailplane is exposed in turbulent airflow and
becomes unable to produce lift. This symptom is usually met in a high T-tail
design having rear fuselage mounted engines. Since the initial turbulent
airflow from the wing does not pass over the high T-tail, there is no pre-
stall stick shaking to warn for the upcoming stall. Upon stall, the aircraft
pitches up because the wing-tips are stalling first. This places the aircraft
deeper into stall.

Factors Affecting Stall Speed

How is Weight Affecting Stall Speed?

Weight: a heavier aircraft require greater lift and demonstrate an

increased Vs. For constant CL, speed has to be increased to produce
additional lift.

3-22
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Wing shape: the greater the camber, the higher the maximum CL. Camber
changes with slots.

Aircraft configuration: by lowering the flaps, CL increases, allowing for

lower Vs.

Power: the airflow provided by engine over the wing (propeller driven
aircraft only), delays the abruption of the boundary layer and decreases Vs.

Maneuvers: as load factor increases upon maneuvering, Vs also increases.

CG position: it engages the use of tailplane for lifting some weight, causing
the alternation of load factor, which in turn affects Vs.

Wing Contamination: accumulated ice or snow increase the total aircraft

weight, resulting in an increased Vs. Lift Coefficient (VL) gets reduced,
because the airflow disturbed by contamination is not as laminar, as on a
clean wing.

Discuss Stall in Respect to Wing Shape

Center of Gravity (CG) Movement in Swept Wing During Stall

Elliptical Wing: due to constant CL, stall starts uniformly along the span.
There is little warning for the upcoming stall.

Rectangular Wing: stall starts at the wing root, where CL is higher. Ailerons
remain effective.

Tapered Wing: stall starts at the wing tips, resulting is loss of ailerons.

Swept Wing: stall starts at the wing tips, resulting in loss of ailerons. CG
moves rapidly forward, causing a pitch-up. At that time, the inner wing
downwash falls on the tailplane, producing a further pitch-up.

3-23
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Wing-tip Stall Prevention

Washout

Vortex Generators

Wing-tip Stall is prevented by:

Washout: it is the twist of wing from root to tip. The angle of Insidence at
the tip, is less than angle of Insidence at the root.

Fences (Boundary Layer Fences): they are chordwise fences on the upper
wing surface, restricting the outward flow.

Vortex Generators: they are small upright aerofoils mounted on the upper
wing surface, keeping the boundary layer attached on the wing and the
wing tips.

Sawtooth Leading Edge: it creates a vortex ahead of the leading edge over
the wing, enhancing the boundary layer at the wing tips.

3-24
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Spin

Spiral Dive

Spin is a type of stall where the aircraft rotates:

 around a vertical axis and
 around itself

For a Spin to develop (intentionally or unintentionally), sufficient Yaw

under Stall conditions must occur. Upon stall, one wing stalls deeper than
the other, causing the aircraft to roll in the direction of the down-going
wing. As the inner wing is more stalled, it produces more drag, which in
turn produces a yaw that further aids the Spin.

Spin is likely to develop upon landing, at the time of overshooting the turn
to final excessive rudder is applied to increase the rate of turn and at the
same time the aircraft comes to a stall.

Note that Spiral Dive differs from a Spin because neither wing is stalled
(Angle of Attack is low) and airspeed is high. Furthermore, the aircraft
recovers by responding to flight control inputs, while recovery from a spin
requires a set of specific actions.

Spin Recovery

Spin Prevention

Typical Spin Recovery actions are:

 control column forward to unstall the wings
 rudder opposite to yaw
 when airspeed increases return to straight and level flight using
coordinated rudder and aileron inputs

In order to prevent Spin, wings are designed to have a washout to delay

flight ailerons stall and tailplanes are designed not to reduce the effective
area of the fin. Also, keeping the Center of Gravity movement within
approved limits, is considered essential for Spin Recovery.

3-25
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Longitudinal Stability

Longitudinal Stability is the aircraft’s tendency to recover, after a

disturbance in Pitch. Level position is restored due to the pitch moment
produced on the elevator upon its Angle of Attack change.

Lateral Stability

Lateral Stability is the aircraft’s tendency to recover, after a disturbance in

Roll. There are 4 characteristics that contribute to Lateral Stability:

Wing dihedral: the lower wing experiences an increased Angle of Attack,

due to sideslip. As a result, greater lift is produced on the lower wing,
causing a rolling moment that restores the aircraft to its level position.

Swept wing: due to sideslip, the lower wing imposes a longer effective
span into the airflow and produces greater lift. Besides, while the effective
chord decreases, the aspect ratio increases and more lift is produced. The
greater lift of the lower wing, produces a rolling moment that restores the
aircraft to its level position.

High wing: upon banking, the spot where lift force acts gets offset from CG
and moves towards the direction of the turn. A rolling moment is
produced, that restores the aircraft to its level position.

High rudder: when an aircraft sideslips, the fin is perpendicular to the side
movement. A rolling moment is produced over the fin, that restores the
aircraft to its level position.

Directional Stability

Directional Stability is the aircraft’s tendency to recover, after a

disturbance in Yaw. The original flight path is restored due to the Yaw
moment produced on the fin upon its Angle of Attack change.

3-26
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Dorsal and Ventral fins are contributing to Directional Stability. However,

they have a negative effect to lateral stability.

Spiral Stability

Spiral Stability is the aircraft’s tendency to return in straight and level

flight, when ailerons are released after a coordinated turn. If lateral
dominates over directional stability (wings dominate over fin), the aircraft
returns in straight and level flight. Conversely, If directional dominates over
lateral stability (fin dominate over wings), the aircraft nose falls into the
turn, leading to a spiral dive.

Dutch Roll

Dutch Roll is an aircraft corkscrew motion, produced by rolling and yawing

oscillations having the same frequency, but not the same phase. It is
associated with swept wing jet airplanes, where lateral dominates over
directional stability.

Describe how Dutch Roll Develops

An induced right yaw (left sideslip), will cause the left wing to advance and
also to offer a greater span to the airflow, producing more lift than the
right wing. Imbalanced lift develops into a roll. This effect is similar to that
of dihedral. At this time, drag at the advancing wing is substantially
increased, due to the larger areas exposed to the airflow, resulting in an
opposite yaw. The right wing in turn is now advancing and producing more
lift than the left, reversing in turn the roll direction.

This is an on-going sequence. The roll movement is more evident. In

extreme conditions, pitch fluctuations may occur.

3-27
Airline Pilots Interview Course Aerodynamics

Dutch Roll Recovery

Recovery from Dutch Roll can be achieved with action over the lateral axis.
That is, by applying aileron opposite to the movement.

Waiting for the motion to dump out, is another option.

Methods for Curing Dutch Roll

Yaw Dampers

Dutch Roll is a side effect of excessive lateral stability. It can be

compromised by reducing the domination of lateral over directional
stability. One formula is to replace dihedral with anhedral wings, while
increasing the fin size, is another. Note that both formulas tend to
decrease aircraft's spiral stability.

Moreover, Yaw Damper systems are using gyros to sense variations in

aircraft lateral stability and deflect mechanically the rudder, preventing
Dutch Roll.

3-28
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

4. Engines

4-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

CONTENTS

Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) 4-4

Why are Jets Efficient at High Altitudes on High rpm Settings? 4-4
Why is a Jet Aircraft operated as High as Possible? 4-4
Step Climbs 4-4
Why Jets are Considered Efficient for Long and for Turboprops
for Short Distant Operations? 4-5
Critical Engine 4-6
P-Factor 4-6
Crosswind Effect on Critical Engine 4-6
Vmcg Demonstration 4-6
Jet Engine 4-8
Turbojet Engine (or Gas Turbine Engine) 4-8
Turboprop Engine 4-9
High By-pass (Turbofan) Engine 4-10
Triple Spooled Engine 4-10
Bypass Ratio 4-10
Fan Engine 4-10
Turbofan Engine Advantages 4-10
Turbojet and Turbofan Engine Noise Production 4-11
Shear Effect 4-11
Why are Turbofan Engines Less Noisy Than Turbojets? 4-11
Flat Rated Engine 4-11
What is the Practical Use of Flat Rating an Engine? 4-11
Gross Thrust 4-12
Why is Jet Thrust Considered to be Constant When Speed
Varies? 4-12
Intake Momentum Drag 4-12
Ram Effect 4-12
Net Thrust 4-12
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) 4-12
What is the Use of Engine Pressure Ratio? 4-12
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) 4-13
What is the Use of Exhaust Gas Temperature? 4-13
Compressor Stall 4-13
Auto Igniters 4-14

4-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

Hung Start 4-14

Hot Start 4-15
Wet Start 4-15
Fire Detection and Fire Protection 4-16
Loop 4-16
Thermocouple 4-16
Bi-metallic Switch 4-16
Surge 4-17
Variable Angle Inlet Guide Vanes 4-17
Variable Angle Stator Blades 4-17
Bleed Air Valves 4-17
Acceleration Control Unit (ACU) 4-18
Advantages of Propeller Driven Aircraft 4-18
Disadvantage of Propeller Driven Aircraft 4-18
Constant Speed (Variable Pitch) Propeller 4-18
Constant Speed Unit (CSU) 4-19
Propeller Governor 4-19
Fixed Pitch Propeller Disadvantage 4-19
Propeller Feather 4-19

4-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) is the fraction of the Fuel Mass needed to
provide the net thrust divided by Time. Mass of Fuel is used rather than
Volume, because it is independent of temperature.
It is used to describe the fuel efficiency of an engine with respect
to thrust output.

Why are Jets Efficient at High Altitudes on High rpm Settings?

Why is a Jet Aircraft operated as High as Possible?

Drag is a function of Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) which in turn is a function

of air Density. It decreases as altitude increases. It is minimized at the
service ceiling where EAS is getting its lowest value, although Mach
number retains a high constant value. Thrust required is also minimized,
because it equals to Drag. Therefore, the aircraft is flying fast consuming
less fuel.

When flying close to service ceiling where air Density is decreased, a 90-
95% thrust setting is needed in order to respond to cruise speed thrust
requirements. Fuel consumption is little because it is proportional to the
little mass of air flowing through the engine. On top of that, engine Specific
Fuel Consumption (SFC) is optimized at 90-95%, due to internal
aerodynamic design. It is actually designed to match to the flight
conditions discussed above, where Drag is minimum.

Step Climbs

As an aircraft flies at its optimum altitude, weight reduces due to fuel

consumption. This causes Drag to reduce, causing in turn airspeed to
increase. In order to keep airspeed constant, Thrust (and RPM) is
progressively reduced. For the engine to remain within its designed
optimum Thrust (RPM) limits, the altitude must constantly increase. Since
this is not practical due to traffic conditions in airspace, a series of gradual

4-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

altitude gains are used as a compromise. They are called Step Climbs and
are commenced after an ATC approval.

The extra fuel consumed for the Step Climb is saved later when descending
on idle power.

Why Jets are Considered Efficient for Long and for Turboprops for Short
Distant Operations?

Short distant operations are usually flown in medium altitudes, while long
distant are flown in high altitudes. Potential high flight altitudes may be
limited by short distance available for climbing. Jet engines are designed to
perform better in high altitudes where air is less dense and a 90-95% thrust
setting is required. In contrast, propellers perform better in low altitudes,
compromising turboprop engines efficiency in medium altitudes.

Moreover, slow turboprop airspeeds correspond to straight wings, while

high jet airspeeds correspond to swept wings. Because of higher Lift
Coefficient (CL), straight wing turboprops are capable to operate from
short and climb restricted airfields.

4-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

Critical Engine

P-Factor

Crosswind Effect on Critical Engine

Vmcg Demonstration

Critical is defined the engine whose failure causes the most negative effect
on aircraft performance. On propeller aircraft, it relates to yawing moment
after an engine failure and determines the Minimum Control Speed on
ground (Vmcg) and air (Vmca).

For clockwise propeller rotation, the No1 engine slipstream falls sideways
over the left side of the fin. For a No2 engine failure, this helps to balance
the moment produced by the No1 engine. But for a No1 engine failure, it
makes things worst. A stronger moment produced by the rudder is now
required, meaning a faster Minimum Control Speed. Thus, No1 engine is
the critical engine.

Moreover, thrust developed on the down-going propeller blade is higher.

This is because the down-going blade is experiencing a higher AOA, due to
the slight nose-up pitching angle that an aircraft sustains, especially in slow
airspeeds. Because of the longer arm, a higher moment is produced over

4-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

No2 engine, compared with No1 engine. Consequently, for a No2 engine
failure the aircraft is yawing less than for a No1 engine failure. For a No1
engine failure, the rudder is required to produce a stronger moment, in
order to by balance the moment produced by No2 engine. This is the P-
Factor and result in No1 engine to be defined as critical.

For a No2 engine failure, a left crosswind assists to balance the moment
produced by the No1 engine. But for a No1 engine failure, it makes things
worst. This effect must be considered upon landing with an engine failure.

For determining the Minimum Control Speed (Vmc), full rudder must be
applied, straight flight must be maintained and up to 50 bank towards the
good engine may be used. Throttling a good engine is not allowed in this
demonstration. When air is denser (at low altitude and cold airports)
engine thrust rises, causing more intensive yaw. A faster Vmc is needed, for
the rudder to be able to balance the yaw.

Moreover:

 For counter-rotating propellers as well as for jet aircraft, there is

no critical engine defined from the above conditions. Thrust is
symmetrical.

4-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

 The Critical engine may be also defined because of driving a

hydraulic pump for boosting flight controls. Failure of this engine
has a more negative effect than failure of the other.
 Aircraft having a front-rear engine configuration may still have a
critical engine, when failure of one engine affects climb
performance more than failure of the other engine.

Jet Engine

Jet or Duct Engine, is the simplest form of engine having no moving parts
at all. It is actually a duct with a diverging entry and a converging exit.
When air enters the engine, it slows down and pressure rises. At that point
it is sprayed with fuel and ignited, causing an increase of energy. Gases are
expanding through the converging exit, propelling the engine according to
Newton’s 3rd law.

Jet engine’s major disadvantage is the need for providing initial forward
motion by other propulsive means.

Turbojet Engine (or Gas Turbine Engine)

The Turbojet or Gas Turbine Engine is a duct with a compressor,

combustion chamber, turbine and exhaust fitted in it. Air pressure is
increased by the compressor. Fuel sprayed and ignited in the combustion
chamber, raises the total energy. A portion of the energy is absorbed by
the turbine in order to rotate the compressor (linked by a shaft), while the

4-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

rest expands through the exhaust, producing thrust. Initial airflow is

provided by rotating the compressor using a starter.

Turbojet Engine has the disadvantages of high fuel consumption and noise.

Turboprop Engine

A Turboprop is actually a Turbojet Engine with the addition of a gearbox

and a propeller. The gear box reduces the engine RPM to a value suitable
for propeller rotation. It uses 90% of the engine power to rotate the
propeller and the compressor. It is efficient at low subsonic speeds and
demonstrates a low noise level.

4-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

High By-pass (Turbofan) Engine

Triple Spooled Engine

Bypass Ratio

Fan Engine

Turbofan Engine Advantages

A Turbofan is actually a Turbojet Engine with the addition of a multi-blade

Fan at the front of the engine, driven by a Shaft attached to the Turbine.
The Fan is also ducted, to protect its blade tips from supersonic airspeed.
The Fan may be Spooled with a stage of compressors, or may be
independent and driven by its own Turbine. In a Triple Spooled engine,
each compressor stage and the Fan, is driven at the optimum RPM by its
own Turbine, utilizing a three-shaft system.

After an initial compression by the Fan, a portion of the intake air bypasses
the core engine, while the rest of the air flows through the core like in the
Turbojet. The ratio of the two airflows defines the Bypass Ratio.

In low bypass engines hot and cold airflows are mixing thoroughly. In high
bypass engines the two airflows are discharged through separate nozzles,
in order to maximize the engine efficiency. In this case the engine is
defined as a Fan Engine.

4-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

The bypass airflow has a relative big volume, slow speed and low
temperature. Conversely, the core airflow has a relative small volume, a
high speed and high temperature. After the mixing of airflows, the
discharged air is colder and slower compared with a pure turbojet.
Operating the engine more intensively (in higher core temperatures) will
not result in excessive discharged airflow speed, but in bigger volume of air
having normal speed, resulting in better propulsion. This increases the
turbofans fuel efficiency considerably especially at speeds close to Mach 1.

Turbojet and Turbofan Engine Noise Production

Shear Effect

Why are Turbofan Engines Less Noisy Than Turbojets?

Turbojet and Turbofan engines exhaust air, displace ambient air having
very high difference in air velocity. This causes the Shear Effect that
generates noise. In Turbofan engines noise is reduced, because decreasing
discharged airflow speed, decreases shear effect also. On top of that, the
slow moving bypass airflow between the core airflow and ambient air,
decreases the Shear Effect further.

Flat Rated Engine

An engine is defined as Flat Rated when thrust remains constant for

temperatures bellow ISA + 15°C. For temperatures above ISA + 15°C, thrust
reduces as temperature increases, causing the climb mass to reduce also.

What is the Practical Use of Flat Rating an Engine?

Practically, Flat Rating an Engine is about reducing thrust to a point that a

guaranteed thrust can be maintained up to a certain temperature (ISA +
15°C). In addition, overstressing the engine when operating in extremely
low temperature conditions, is avoided.

4-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

Gross Thrust

Why is Jet Thrust Considered to be Constant When Speed Varies?

Intake Momentum Drag

Ram Effect

Net Thrust

The Thrust produced by a stationary aircraft, is called Gross Thrust.

As forward airspeed increases, the air velocity at the intake increases too,
while air velocity at the exhaust in any case remains constant.
Consequently, the difference of the two air velocities decreases as
airspeed increases. For the engine it feels like air velocity represents a
force that opposes thrust. This is called Intake Momentum Drag and it
decreases overall thrust with increase in speed.

Gross Thrust minus Intake Momentum Drag is called Net Thrust.

As forward airspeed increases, stagnation pressure at the intake increases

too, providing a larger mass of air at the intake per unit of volume. This
improved mass flow increases thrust with speed and is called Ram Effect.

In any case, the thrust loss due to Intake Momentum Drag, equals (more or
less) to the thrust gained by Ram Effect. Thus, Jet thrust is considered to be
constant when speed varies.

However, this is not the case in high bypass ratio engines. As they do not
benefit from Ram Effect, thrust reduces steadily as speed increases.

Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

What is the Use of Engine Pressure Ratio?
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) is the ratio of the turbine exhaust pressure, to
the compressor inlet pressure. On a Fan engine, it is the integrated turbine
exhaust pressure and fan outlet pressure, to the compressor inlet pressure.

4-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

The measurements are taken by probes and the ratio is displayed in the
cockpit on the EPR gauge. Engine Pressure Ratio is used for engine trust
setting.

On idle, EPR is very close to 1:1. When throttle opens, it initially reduces
due to engine’s slow response and rises afterwards.

Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)

What is the Use of Exhaust Gas Temperature?
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) is the gas temperature at the turbine. The
measurement is taken by probes (thermocouples) as close to the turbine
as possible and is displayed in the cockpit on the EGT gauge. It is used for
monitoring EGT limits.

Exhaust Gas Temperature is considered to be an important parameter, for

avoiding overstressing the engine on startup, accelerating/decelerating
and cruising. Dramatically high EGT for a short time may destroy the
turbine. Excessive EGT for a long time may shorten engine’s life.

Compressor Stall

The compressor is designed to perform ideally under a specific angle of

attack, mass of airflow, pressure ratio and RPM. If one of the above gets
disturbed, the angle of attack of the early compressor stages increases
critically, causing an airflow separation over the compressor blade(s) in the
same way as over any other aerofoil. This is called Compressor Stall and it
may:
 be self cleared
 continue on specific only blade(s) causing a "channel flow"
 spread to the hole compressor

A Compressor Stall is identified by:

4-13
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

 thrust loss
 increase in TGT
 engine vibration
 RPM fluctuation
 possible Flame Out

Auto Igniters

In order to guard against possible Flame Out upon a Compressor Stall or

disrupted airflow, Auto Igniters may be utilized. They are automatically
turned on to provide spark into the engine combustion chamber. The
system is triggered by the Angle of Attack probe, when it senses a critical
angle.

Hung Start

Hung Start is the case when after a normal ignition RPM does not increase
to idle, but remain in a lower value. Indications are:

 RPM stabilized bellow idle

 higher EGT for that RPM

Hung Start is caused by reduced airflow through the engine, evoked by:

 starter failure (slow RPM, early disengagement, shaft crack)

 compressor malfunction
 low air density (high altitude, high temperature)
 Insufficient fuel flow may also be a cause

The following actions must be applied:

 starting cycle - terminate

 fuel lever – cut off
 fuel pump – off
 motor the engine by the starter in order to vent the fuel

4-14
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

Hot Start

Hot Start is the case when Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) exceeds the
maximum allowable after light up. An untypical rapid rise of EGT is
indicated.

Hot Start is caused by a decreased airflow, evoked by:

 slow starter acceleration (starter failure or low voltage)

 blocked engine (by objects or ice)
 tailwind (slows compressor’s RPM)

or by increased fuel flow, meaning:

 early opening of fuel lever (fuel gets pooled)

 throttle open (excessive fuel flow)
 unvented fuel after a wet start (fuel pooled)

The following actions must be applied in order to keep EGT within limits:

 starting cycle - terminate

 fuel lever – cut off
 fuel pump – off
 motor the engine by the starter in order to vent the fuel

Wet Start

Wet Start is when an engine fails to start within a time limit and indicates:

 normal fuel delivery

 no EGT rise
 no increase of RPM over the starter’s maximum
 no ignition sound

Wet Start is caused by an ignition failure, meaning:

4-15
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

 ignition unit failure

 igniter plug failure
 low voltage

Since the engine gets pooled by fuel, the following actions must be applied
in order to vent the excess fuel:

 fuel lever – cut off

 fuel pump – off
 ignition off
 motor the engine by the starter

If the above actions are skipped and an engine start is attempted, an

engine fire plume or a loud bang will occur, that may damage the engine
blades.

Fire Detection and Fire Protection

Loop

Thermocouple

Bi-metallic Switch

Fire and Overheat is detected by two parallel Loop devices, consisting by a

wire inside a tube filled with a Thermistor material. Above a certain
temperature the material becomes a Conductor, initiating visual and aural
indications in the cockpit.

The system is controlled by a control box, that provides fire and overheat
indications as well as testing ability for loops (visual and aural) and the
system itself (visual only).

Fire is suppressed by a minimum of two fire extinguishers, able to shot in

any engine, thus providing at least two shots for one engine. Distinct
colored indications on the side of the fuselage, enunciate advertent use or
thermal expansion.

4-16
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

The APU has a separate but similar system, utilizing usually one only fire
extinguisher.

Moreover, Thermocouples or Bi-metallic Switches are used to monitor

overheat in other areas (i.e. EGT). A Thermocouple consists of two
connected dissimilar materials which produce voltage when heated, while
a Bi-metallic Switch bends when headed and contacts a switch.

Smoke Detectors are used in lavatories and cargo compartments.

Surge

Variable Angle Inlet Guide Vanes

Variable Angle Stator Blades

Bleed Air Valves

Surge is the phenomenon where air flow through the compressor becomes
choked and sometimes reverses direction. It is identified by:

 a large increase in TGT

 an instantaneous noise
 possible instantaneous flames at the inlet
 possible flame out

It takes place at low RPM and it is triggered by air attempting to expand

from the combustion chamber towards the compressor. First the later
compressor stages stalls, causing airflow to decrease. This in turn causes a
further expansion of the air up to the first compressor stage, where the air
is relieved and normal engine operation is restored.

Surge is prevented by using Variable Angle Inlet Guide Vanes and Variable
Angle Stator Blades, in order to keep the boundary layer attached on the
compressor blades. Also, Bleed Air Valves are fitted at some compressor
stages, in order to relieve excessive pressure.

4-17
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

If surge continues, an immediate engine shut down is advised because

compressor blades are suffering. Also, a flame out may occur due to
oxygen starvation caused by the reverse airflow.

Acceleration Control Unit (ACU)

Surge may take place upon rapid throttle opening, where excessive fuel
flow causes excessive gas temperature and pressure. Since the engine is
lagging to increase its RPM, the air gets expanded towards the compressor,
causing the surge as described above. Surge is prevented by the
Acceleration Control Unit (ACU), which regulates the fuel flow to go with
engine acceleration.

Advantages of Propeller Driven Aircraft

Propeller Driven Aircraft enjoy the following advantages:

 Extra Lift is produced by the propeller slipstream

 Stall Speed is slower, due to extra lift described above
 Rudder efficiency is increased (especially at low speeds), due to
propeller slipstream
 Immediate engine response (especially at low RPM settings)

Furthermore, because propeller driven aircraft are utilizing slow airspeeds

and straight wings:

 Speed Stability during approach is increased

 Momentum is decreased (due to slow airspeeds)

Disadvantage of Propeller Driven Aircraft

Propeller RPM is limited to the point where blade tips become sonic and
compressibility is evident. This in turn limits the thrust produced, which
finally limits aircraft airspeed.

4-18
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

Constant Speed (Variable Pitch) Propeller

A Constant Speed (Variable Pitch) Propeller is a variable pitch propeller

which automatically changes its blade pitch in order to maintain a
preselected engine RPM, throughout a variety of power settings. It serves
for the engine to deliver its power efficiently through a range of speeds. In
other words, the engine runs continuously at its optimum RPM no matter
what speed the aircraft is flying.

Constant Speed Unit (CSU)

Propeller Governor

A Constant Speed Unit (Propeller Governor) is a pitch change mechanism

ought to maintain a preselected engine RPM. It is controlled by oil flowing
in or out a mechanism that moves a piston, which in turn changes the
propeller pitch angle.

Fixed Pitch Propeller Disadvantage

A propeller produces forward trust by displacing air to the rear. As

airspeed increases, less air is displaced. This is so because an increase in
airspeed causes the blade Angle of Attack to decrease.

A Fixed Pitch corresponds to one and only optimum airspeed. Flying slower
or faster reduces propeller’s efficiency. Since efficiency at slow takeoff
speeds cannot be compromised, Fixed Pitch propellers are designed to
perform well at slow and medium airspeeds only.

Propeller Feather

A propeller mounted on an inoperative engine produces a considerable

Drag. By turning the blades as far as the Mean Chord Line gets parallel to
the airflow, Drag gets minimized. A feathered propeller does not windmill.

4-19
Airline Pilots Interview Course Engines

4-20
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

5. Pitot Static System

5-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

CONTENTS

Pitot Static System 5-3

Air Speed Indicator (ASI) 5-3
Air Speed Indicator Errors 5-3
Airspeeds 5-4
Pressure Altimeter 5-4
Servo Assisted Altimeter 5-5
Altimeter Codes 5-5
Q Codes 5-5
Pressure Altimeter Errors 5-5
Height Change With Altitude 5-6
Altitude Corrections for Temperature 5-6
Altitude Corrections for Wind 5-6
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) 5-6
Vertical Speed Indicator Errors 5-7
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) 5-7
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator Disadvantage 5-7
Pitot Static System Blockage 5-7
Mach Meter 5-8
Mach Meter Errors 5-8

5-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

Pitot Static System

Pitot Static System is consisted by Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter and VSI.

Measurements are taken by:

 Pitot Tube that is mounted in the free stream airflow and

measures Dynamic (Ram) Pressure.
 Static Ports that are mounted where airflow is streamlined and
measure Static Pressure.
 Two Static Ports are used (one on each side of the fuselage) in
order correct for side slip.

Air Speed Indicator (ASI)

Airspeed Indicator indicates Dynamic Pressure converted to airspeed,

instead of actual airspeed. Static Pressure is fed into a Static Port Casing,
while Total Pressure is fed through the Pitot Tube into a Sealed Diaphragm.
The Sealed Diaphragm moves the Airspeed Indicator Pointer.

Air Speed Indicator measures the difference of Total and Static Pressure:

Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure – Static Pressure

Air Speed Indicator Errors

Air Speed Indicator errors are:

 Instrument error
 Pressure error
 Density error

5-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

Airspeeds

IAS (Indicated Airspeed): It is not actually an airspeed, but a dynamic

pressure indication.

CAS (Calibrated Airspeed): It is an airspeed reading corrected for

instrument and position errors. It is corrected by the Air data Computer
(ADC). Alternatively, a correction table is set in the Aircraft.

EAS (Equivalent Airspeed): It is an airspeed reading corrected for

Compressibility. It becomes considerable above FL100 and over 200kn.

TAS (True Airspeed): It is an airspeed reading corrected for Air Density. For
computing it, typically 2kn per 1000ft are to be added on CAS.

GS (Groundspeed): It is an airspeed reading that represents the aircraft

speed in relation to ground. It takes wind into account.

Pressure Altimeter

Pressure Altimeter indicates Static Pressure converted to altitude, instead

of actual altitude. Static Pressure is fed through a Static Port and through a
flow restrictor, into a case. Enclosed there is a Sealed Capsule containing
ISA conditions, which expands or compresses with height. The Sealed
Capsule moves the Altimeter Pointer. Indication might be corrected for
temperature.

For an aircraft climbing, the Static Pressure into the case drops, allowing
the Sealed Capsule to expand. The opposite applies for an aircraft
descending.

Mounted on the altimeter is a calibration devise that is used to set current

barometric pressure in order to set the datum.

5-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

Servo Assisted Altimeter

In some altimeters an electrical devise may link the pointer to the sealed
capsule, instead of a mechanical link. This is the Servo Assisted Altimeter
and it is more accurate compared with the mechanical altimeter.
Instrument error and time lag error, are erased.

Altimeter Codes
Q Codes
QNH: is a setting that makes the altimeter to read altitude Above Mean
Sea Level (AMSL). When on ground, the altimeter reads airfield elevation.

QFE: is a setting that causes the altimeter to read Height above the highest
point of reference of the airfield. However, for precision approaches the
reference point is the touchdown point.

QFF: is a setting that causes the altimeter to adjust its best performance at
MSL, instead of the station elevation. It is only used for meteorological
calculations.

QNE: is not a setting but an altimeter reading when Standard Pressure

(1013hPa) is set on the subscale.

Pressure Altimeter Errors

Pressure Altimeter errors are:

 Instrument error
 Position error
 Barometric error
 Density error

5-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

 Time lag error

Height Change With Altitude

At sea level height changes 27ft per 1hp. However, at 40.000ft it changes
100ft per 1hp.

Altitude Corrections for Temperature

In extreme low temperatures, the actual altitude can be much lower than
the indicated. In order to ensure adequate terrain clearance:

 Add 10% to MOCA and MORA, when temperature is ISA-15°C to

ISA-30°C
 Add 20% to MOCA and MORA, when temperature is ISA-31°C to
ISA-50°C

Altitude Corrections for Wind

In extreme high wind velocities, the actual altitude can be much lower than
the indicated. In order to ensure adequate terrain clearance:
 For wind velocity up to 30kt, no change
 For wind velocity more than 30kt, add 500ft to MOCA and MORA
for every 10kt
 Maximum correction is 200ft

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) actually indicates the rate of change of

atmospheric pressure converted to vertical speed. Static Pressure is fed
through both casing and through a flow restrictor into a capsule. The
capsule moves the pointer. The indication might be corrected for
temperature. Due to excessive lag of the device, readings are available
after 3 to 5 seconds.

5-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

Note than for small rates of climb or descend, the scale of VSI is more
detailed.

Vertical Speed Indicator Errors

Vertical Speed Indicator errors are:

 Time lag error

 Pressure error

Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)

In order to compensate for time lag error, two spring loaded dashpots may
be mounted on the capsule, in order to sense climbs or descends through
inertia. Initially the reading is based on the springs and when the climb or
descend is established, the reading is based on the capsule.

Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator Disadvantage

The disadvantage of the springs on an Instantaneous Vertical Speed

Indicator, is that they react upon applying bank. When entering into a turn
IVSI reads climb, while exiting from a turn IVSI reads descend. When the
turn stabilizes, IVSI relaxes.

Pitot Static System Blockage

If the Pitot Tube becomes blocked:

 Air Speed Indicator (ASI) freezes at level flight

 in climb it would over read
 in descent it would under read

5-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

If Static Port becomes blocked:

 Altimeter freezes
 ASI reads correctly at level flight
 in climb ASI would under read
 in descent ASI would over read
 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) indicates 0

Mach Meter

By combining an Air Speed Indicator and a Pressure Altimeter into a single

device, Mach Number can be measured.

Static Pressure is fed through the Static Port into a case. This case contains:

 a sealed capsule under ISA conditions

 a sealed diaphragm fed by Total Pressure from the Pitot Tube
 a mechanical link that combines the above readings into one

Note that despite the Mach Number is a function of Temperature, there is

no device to import the temperature factor into the Mach Meter. This
factor is eliminated because of the interaction of Dynamic to Static
pressure:

Mach number = Dynamic Pressure / Static Pressure

Mach Meter Errors

Mach Meter errors are:

 instrument error
 position error

5-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Pitot Static System

5-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

6. Lighting

6-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

CONTENTS

Approach Lighting Systems 6-2

Runway Lighting System 6-4
CALVERT Lights Spacing 6-5
Runway End Identification Lights (REIL) 6-5
Threshold Strobe 6-5
Lighting Intensity Control When Airborne 6-5
Taxiway Lighting System Types 6-6
Runway Holding Markings CAT I 6-6
Runway Holding Markings CAT II, CAT III 6-6
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) 6-7
Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) 6-7
Runway Lights Abbreviations 6-8
Approach Lights Abbreviations 6-8

6-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

Approach Lighting Systems

Approach Lighting Systems provide guidance for pilots during instrument

approach, to align the aircraft with the centerline of the runway and to
establish vertical orientation. Many configurations are available, such as:
 ALSF I (Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights)
is used on Category I approaches
 ALSF II (Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights)
mode is used on Category II approaches
 SSALR (Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Runway
Alignment Indicator Lights). This is an economic mode of ASLF II,
used under improved visibility, where the side row barrettes are
not powered
 SSAL (Simplified Short Approach Lighting System) is an even more
simplified mode

6-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

Runway Lighting System

A typical Approach and Runway Lighting System is described below:

 CALVERT I/ICAO-1 HIALS: ICAO-compliant configuration 1, High
Intensity Approach Lighting System
 CALVERT II/ICAO-2 HIALS: ICAO-compliant configuration 2, High
Intensity Approach Lighting System

6-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

CALVERT Lights Spacing

A typical spacing for ALSF/CALVERT is:

 Runway edge lights are 30m apart
 Runway centerline lights are 15m apart
 Last 600m of runway edge lights are amber
 Last 900m of runway centerline lights are:
- red/white alternating (first 600m)
- plane red (last 300m)
 First 900m of touchdown zone is lighted

Runway End Identification Lights (REIL)

Threshold Strobe

Runway End Identification Lights (REIL) is a pair of synchronized flashing

lights located on both sides of the threshold. They are flashing at a
frequency of 60 to 120 flashes per minute. They may be unidirectional,
facing towards the approach area only, or they may be omnidirectional.
REILs are used to mark the approach end of a particular runway, especially
when the runway is not easily identified, due to surrounding terrain or
other lighting.

REILs are installed symmetrically 10m outside the respected runway edge
lights, in line with the threshold. Often, they mark a permanent or
temporary displacement of runway threshold.

Lighting Intensity Control When Airborne

At many airports the pilot is able to control the lighting intensity when
airborne. This is achieved by pressing the microphone button 7 times in a
row to increase the lighting intensity and 5 times to decrease the intensity
to medium.

6-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

Taxiway Lighting System Types

Two types of Taxiway lighting may be distinct:

 Green lights on the taxiway centerline

 Blue lights on both edges of the taxiway

Runway Holding Markings CAT I

Two yellow lines, one continuous and one broken, signify the boundary of
the runway. Beyond the line it is considered to be a runway area. No part
of the aircraft must come across the line without an ATC authorization.

Runway Holding Markings CAT II, CAT III

For CAT II and CAT III the boundary of the runway is marked by a yellow
ladder, placed further away from the runway. Beyond the line it is
considered to be a runway area. No part of aircraft must come across the
line without an ATC authorization.

6-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

The Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI), advices the pilot for Glide
Path deviations as depicted below. The system is adjusted to a specific
Glide Path angle (i.e. 3°).

Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)

The Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI), advices the pilot for Glide Path
deviations as depicted below. The system is adjusted to a specific Glide
Path ranging from 2,5° to 3°. If the angle is out of this range, it must be
noted.

For high cockpit aircraft, a 3 bar system is utilized. The range of the normal
angle of the Glide Path is 3° to 3,25°.

6-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

Runway Lights Abbreviations

 RL: Runway lights, intensity low or not specified.

 HIRL: High Intensity Runway Edge Lights, white. On instrument
runways amber replaces white on the last 2000ft or half of Runway
length, whichever is less.
 MIRL : Medium Intensity Runway Edge Lights.
 TDZ : Touchdown Zone Lights.
 HST-H: High Speed Taxiway turn-off with green centerline lights.
“H” indicates the Taxiway ID.
 CL : Standard Centerline Lights. White, red & white between
3000ft (900m) and 1000ft (300m) from the Runway end, red for
the CL (white), all lights white.
 CL (non-std): non standard, configuration unknown.
 CL (40W, 30R&W, 20R): non standard, configuration known.
 Spacing for Runway edge lights or Centerline lights may be
included in parenthetical value: HIRL (60m), CL (50ft).

Approach Lights Abbreviations

 ALS: Approach Light system. The color of the lights, if other

than white, is included.
 HIALS: High Intensity Approach Light System.
 M(I)ALS: Medium Intensity Approach Light System.
 SFL: Sequenced Flashing Lights.
 F: Condenser – Discharge Sequential Flashing Lights.
 ALSF-I: ALS with SFL
 ALSF-II: ALS with SFL and red side row lights at the last 1000ft
(300m). May be operated as SSALR when weather permits.
 SSALF: Simplified Short Approach Light System with SFL.
 SALSF: Short Approach Light System with SFL.
 MALSF: Medium Intensity ALS with SFL
 RAI: Runway Alignment Indicator
 RAIL: Runway Alignment Indicator Lights (SFL which are
installed only in combination with other light systems).

6-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

 REIL: Runway End Identifier Lights (threshold strobe).

 RLLS: Runway Lead-in Lighting System.
 SSALR: Simplified Short Approach Light System with RAIL.
 MALSR: Medium Intensity Approach Light System with RAIL.
 SALS: Short Approach Lighting System.
 SSALS: Simplified Short Approach Light System.
 LDIN: Sequenced Flashing Lead-in Lights.
 ODALS: Omni-directional ALS.
 VASI: Visual Approach Slope Indicator (L or R if one side only).
 AVASI: Abbreviated VASI.
 VASI (3 bar): VASI for high cockpit aircraft.
 T-VASI: Tee VASI.
 AT-VASI: Abbreviated Tee VASI.
 VASI (non-std): VASI, when known to be non standard.
 VASI / AVASI / NON STD: angles are shown when known to be less
than 2,5° or more than 3°. T-VASI / AT-VASI angles are shown at all
times. VASI (3 bar) descent angles are shown when other than
upwind angle 3.25°, downwind angle 3°.
 PAPI: Precision Approach Path Indicator (L or R if one side only)
 PLASI: Pulsating VASI (L or R if one side only). Normally single light
unit projecting two colors.
 TRCV: Tri-Color VASI (L or R if one side only). Normally single light
unit projecting three colors.
 TCH: Threshold Crossing Height. Height of the effective visual
glide path over the threshold.
 MEHT: Minimum Eye Height over Threshold. The lowest height
over the threshold of the visual on glide path indication.
 MEHT or TCH: is shown (when known) when less than 60ft for the
upwind bar of a VASI (3 bar) or less than 25ft for all other systems
including PAPI.

6-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Lighting

6-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

7. Radio Navigation

7-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

CONTENTS

Convergence 7-4
Rhumb Lines (Loxodrome) 7-4
Why Would Someone Fly a Rhumb Line Track? 7-4
Great Circles 7-4
Conversion Angle 7-4
Non Directional Beacon (NDB) 7-5
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) 7-5
NDB Range 7-5
Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) 7-5
NDB Errors 7-5
V Differences of a Conventional and a Doppler VOR 7-6
HF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) Principle of Operation 7-6
VOR Frequency Allocation 7-6
VOR Range Formula 7-7
Cone of VOR Silence 7-7
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 7-7
Principle of DME Operation 7-7
DME Error 7-8
DME Navigation 7-8
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) 7-8
Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) 7-8
Airborne Separation Assurance System (ASAS) 7-8
Airborne Depended Surveillance Broadcast (ADSB) 7-8
Instrument Landing System (ILS) 7-11
Principle of ILS Operation 7-11
ILS Coverage 7-12
Localizer Side Beams (Lobes) 7-14
Glide Slope False Beams (Lobes) 7-14
LOC Backcourse Approach 7-15
ILS Categorization 7-15
ILS CATII and CAT III Specification 7-16
Microwave Landing System (MLS) 7-16
Principle of MLS Operation 7-17
Time Division Multiplexing 7-17
MLS Coverage 7-17

7-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Autoland System 7-18

Advantages of MLS Over ILS 7-18
Multiplex Autoland System 7-19
Fail Passive Autoland System (land 2) 7-19
Fail Operational Autoland System (Land 3) 7-19
Holding Pattern 7-19
Holding Entry Procedures 7-20
Turning in the Holding 7-22
Holding Speeds (Maximum)/Times (Minimum) 7-22
ATC Clearance for Published Holding Patterns 7-22
ATC Clearance for Non Published Holding Patterns 7-23
GPS Navigation 7-23
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) 7-23
GPS Standalone Approach 7-23
Conventional Non Precision Approaches Performed by GPS 7-24
Flight Management System (FMS) 7-24
Flight Management Computer (FMC) 7-24
Control Display Unit (CDU) 7-24
Cost Index 7-25

7-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Convergence

Meridians are parallel when they cross the Equator, but they are coming
close and meet at the poles. The angle of two Meridians on a specified
latitude, is called Convergence.

Rhumb Lines (Loxodrome)

Rhumb Line (or Loxodrome) is a line crossing all Meridians in a constant

angle. Rhumb Lines lead eventually at a pole. However, on plane surfaces
they represent the shortest distance between two points.

Why Would Someone Fly a Rhumb Line Track?

It is inconvenient to continuously change bearings while travelling a Great

Circle route. This makes Rhumb Line navigation appealing. Also, over short
distances Rhumb Lines are considered to be identical to Great Circles.

Great Circles

Great Circle is the shortest course between two points on the surface of a
sphere. To follow a Great Circle, a constant change of heading is required.
Note that the Rhumb Line between two points is always closer to the
Equator compared to the Great Circle between the same points.

Conversion Angle

The angle difference between a Rhumb Line track and a Great Circle track,
is called Conversion Angle.

7-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Non Directional Beacon (NDB)

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
As the name implies, Non Directional Beacon (NDB) is a transmitter that
broadcasts signals with no inherent directional information. An Automatic
Direction Finder (ADF) installed on the aircraft, is needed to locate NDB’s
signal in order to navigate. NDB emits surface waves at the frequency band
of 190KHz up to 1750KHz. They are not subject of line of sight restrictions,
but they are more vulnerable to atmospheric interference compared to
VHF waves. They follow the curvature of the Earth, so they propagate
further especially at low altitudes. NDBs have a maximum theoretical range
of 300nm over land and 600nm over sea. A maximum system error up to
±5° is considered to be acceptable.

NDB Range

In terms of range and use, the following NDB types can be realized:
 Locator Beacon, short range (15 - 25 nm), it is used for approaches
 Route Beacons, used for navigation
 Long Range Beacons, used for transoceanic navigation

Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)

A Morse code modulated on the NDB carrier wave, provide station

identification. For NDB’s broadcasting unmodulated carrier waves, a Beat
Frequency Oscillator (BFO) mounted on the ADF, provide station
identification when switched on. After identification it must be switched
off.

NDB Errors

 Interference from other NDB’s

7-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

 Static (during thunderstorms)

 Night effect (RMI pointer wanders)
 Coastal refraction (bearings perpendicular to coast should be used)
 Mountain effect (signal bends around mountains)
 Quadrantal error (signal bends around aircraft’s metal)

VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) Principle of Operation

The VOR broadcasts a variable signal that contains encoded the difference
in azimuth of this signal from a reference signal. It also contains a voice
channel and a Morse coded station identification. The signal is rotated like
a beacon, 30 times per second. This signal is amplitude modulated (AM),
while the reference signal is frequency modulated (FM).

In terms of coverage, VORs are distinguished to Terminal, Low Altitude and

High Altitude VORs.

Differences of a Conventional and a Doppler VOR

The above discussed VOR modulations are currently concerned as
Conventional (CVOR). In the second generation, that of Doppler (DVOR),
the modulations are the opposite. In other words, the reference signal of
the VOR is amplitude modulated, while the variable signal is frequency
modulated. As FM signals are more reliable than AM, DVORs are more
accurate.

VOR Frequency Allocation

VOR broadcasts at the band of 108.0MHz to 117.95MHz (with 50KHz

spacing). Note that from 108.0 to 111.95MHz, the even digits are allocated
to ILS. Namely, 108.00, 108.05, 108.20, 108.25, and so on, are VOR
frequencies, while 108.10, 108.15, 108.30, 108.35 and so on, are ILS
frequencies.

7-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

VOR Range Formula

VOR range is subject to line of sight restrictions and depends on altitude

and terrain. In order for the system accuracy to be within reasonable limits
(normal accuracy is ± 5°), a Designated Operational Coverage (DOC) is
published for a specific VOR. The formula for the expected VOR Range is:

Distance (nm) = 1.23 √Receiver Height (ft) + 1.23√Transmitter Height (ft)

Cone of VOR Silence

VOR has a Cone of Silence of 50° of the vertical. The formula for the
expected VOR Cone of Silence is:

Radius of the Cone of Silence = altitude (nm) x Tan 50°

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is actually a secondary radar, that

measures the slant range of an aircraft from a ground based station. Range
is subject to line of sight restrictions. It is usually pared with VOR, ILS,
TACAN. Moreover, it serves to update in a very accurate manner the
present position of an FMS.

Principle of DME Operation

The DME is composed of a UHF transmitter/receiver (interrogator)
installed on the aircraft and a UHF receiver/transmitter (transponder)
based on the ground. It emits on the UHF band from 960 MHz to 1215
MHz. Up to 100 aircraft may be served simultaneously. When overloaded,
the ground station ignores the more distant interrogations. As an aircraft
tracking unit locks on a DME ground station, the aircraft Interrogates and
the ground station Replies. The time difference between Interrogation and
Reply is converted to distance.

7-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

DME Error

A maximum system error of ±(0.25 nm + 1.25% of the slant range) in 95%

of the time, is considered to be acceptable.

DME Navigation

Since DME provide range information in circles around the beacon, the use
of two systems can determine the position of two spots, where equal
distance from both beacons is measured.

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS)

Airborne Separation Assurance System (ASAS)

Airborne Depended Surveillance Broadcast (ADSB)

The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), also known as the
Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS), is an airborne system
independent from ground facilities, providing information about nearby
traffic (as far as 30nm) and maneuver advice against mid-air collisions. The

7-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Airborne Separation Assurance System (ASAS), operates under the same

principles, but regulates traffic from a longer distance in order to maintain
standard en route separation.

According to ICAO, all civil fixed-wing turbine engine aircraft, having a

maximum take-off mass in excess of 5700 kg, or a maximum approved
passenger configuration of more than 19, must be equipped with TCAS.

TCAS interrogates nearby aircraft Transponders and collects data

concerning their position and velocity. Therefore, a Mode C or Mode S
Transponder is required. A contained computer determines what vectors
constitute threat and accordingly generates visual and aural warnings and
vertical commands in order to avoid collision.

A typical range of TCAS is 14nm, with an accuracy of 14,5m. It is updated in

the rate of 1 second. As much as 30 aircraft may be processed
simultaneously. If the number of nearby aircraft is very high, TCAS range
may be reduced as low as 4,5nm. Considering airspeed, alerts are based on
time calculations, not on range calculations. No alerts are issued for
aircraft not equipped with TCAS.

When a threat is at 30 to 45 seconds away from conflict, a Traffic Advisory

(TA) is issued. A visual search for the Threat aircraft must be initiated, as
well as a preparation to respond to a potential Resolution Advisory (RA).
When a Threat is at 20 to 30 seconds away from conflict, a Resolution
Advisory (RA) is issued. All potential nearby threats are also considered.
The advised maneuver must be executed immediately. When a pilot
reports a maneuver due to a RA, the controller shall not attempt to modify
the aircraft trajectory, but shall provide relevant traffic information (if
possible). The controller remains responsible for establishing and
maintaining the relevant ATC separation as long as no RA is being followed
by the aircrew.

A Resolution Advisory (RA) should be disregarded only after the Threat is

identified and verified as no potential conflict traffic. However, the pilot is
obliged to report the RA to the ATC after the incidence and to report in
writing to the Civil Aviation Authority as well.

7-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

A normal Resolution Advisory recognition and response takes 5 seconds,

0,25g and a rate of climb of ±1500ft/min. If the pilot response to a
Resolution Advisory is delayed and accordingly a modified or strengthening
RA is issued (i.e. Increase Climb), a pilot response within 2,5 seconds with a
strength of ±0.35g is needed.

TCAS Aural messages and required actions are:

Message Action
TA Traffic Attempt Visual Contact
RA Climb Climb at 1500 to 2000ft/min
RA Descend Descend at 1500 to 2000ft/min
RA Increase Climb Climb at 2500 to 3000ft/min
RA Increase Descend Descend at 2500 to 3000ft/min
RA Reduce Climb Reduce Rate of Climb
RA Reduce Descent Reduce Rate of Descend
RA Climb-Climb Now Change from a Descent to a Climb
RA Descend-Descend Now Change from a Climb to a Descent
RA Maintain Vertical Speed Maintain current Vertical Speed
RA Level off Level off
RA Monitor Vertical Speed Remain in Level Flight
RA Crossing Continue with the associated RA
CC Clear of Conflict Return to previous ATC Clearance

TCAS Visual Symbols are:

Hollow White / Blue Diamond Not Threat Traffic
Solid White / Blue Diamond Proximity Traffic within 6nm, 1200ft
Solid Yellow Circle Traffic Advisory
Solid Red Square Resolution Advisory

There are four models of TCAS:

 TCAS I: provides Traffic Advisories (TA) only
 TCAS II: provides Traffic Advisories (TA) and Resolution Advisories
(RA) in the vertical plane only (bearing is also depicted but is
limited to information only). TCAS II v7.0, is sufficient for RVSM

7-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

 TCAS III: was envisioned to provide horizontal as well as vertical

maneuvering directives. Never got into production
 TCAS IV: the same as TCAS III, but uses the target’s Mode S to
collect more detailed information. Never got into production

Airborne Depended Surveillance Broadcast (ADSB) is similar to TCAS IV. It

displays the overall traffic information on a display mounted in the cockpit.
However, it is partially depended on ground facilities.

Instrument Landing System (ILS)

Instrument Landing System (ILS) is a widely used aid for precision

approaches. It consists of two transmitters providing azimuth (Localizer)
and vertical (Glide Path) guidance. In addition, a DME or up to three
Marker Beacons provide distance. Localizer, Glide Path and DME
frequencies are paired. ILS Frequencies are:
 Localiser broadcasts on the VHF band from 108MHz to 112MHz,
using the odd first decimals and the odd first decimals plus 50
(108.10MHz, 108.15MHz, etc). Note that the VOR broadcasts also
in the same band using the even decimals
 Glidepath broadcasts on the UHF band from 329.15MHz to
335MHz, at 150kHz spacing (329.15MHz, 329.3MHz, 329.45MHz,
etc)
 Marker Beacons broadcasts on 75MHz

Principle of ILS Operation

The Localizer transmitter is located 300m beyond the runway end, on the
center line extension. It transmits two overlapping lobes having the same
frequency but different modulation. The left lobe is modulated at 90Hz
while the right one at 150Hz. Keeping balanced the lobes when
approaching, centers the vertical indicator needle. A difference in the
balance, pushes the needle out of the center.

7-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

The Glide Path transmitter is located 300m beyond the threshold and
150m offset, in order to target the optimum touchdown point of the
runway. It transmits two overlapping lobs of same frequency but different
modulation. The upper lobe is modulated at 90Hz while the lower one at
150Hz. Keeping balanced the lobes when approaching, centers the
horizontal indicator needle. A difference in the balance, pushes the needle
out of the center. The Glide Slope angle may be adjusted from 2° to 4°.

ILS Coverage

Localizer coverage is:

 17nm, ±35° from centerline
 25nm, ±10° from centerline

7-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Glide path coverage is 10nm:

 ±8° from centerline
 0.45xGS up to 1.75°xGS from the horizontal

On an HSI a full scale deflection represents:

 2.5° on azimuth, meaning 0.5° for each dot (for VOR it is 2°)
 0.7° on glide path, meaning 0.14° for each dot

7-13
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Localizer Side Beams (Lobes)

Due to aerial characteristics, several weak False Localizer Beams (Lobes)

occur on both sides of the original one.

Glide Slope False Beams (Lobes)

Due to aerial characteristics, several False Glide Slope Beams (Lobes) occur
over the original one. They can be found in multiple angles of the original
beam. For a 3° Glide Path, they exist at 6°, 9°, etc.

7-14
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

The case of interception of a False Beam is easy to be detected, since the

angle of descend is excessive (i.e. it is double the normal, for a 6° Beam).
This can be avoided by intercepting the Glide Path from underneath.

LOC Backcourse Approach

Due to aerial characteristics, an opposite localizer transmission may be

received. There are no Glide Slope signals (if false GS signals are received,
they should be disregarded). Note that this is displayed on the HSI like a
mirror, where left is right and right is left. This is the LOC Back Course
Approach and it should not be used for approach.

Exceptionally, some airports especially in the US, authorize for the use of
the ILS Backcourse Approach. Over the charts it is symbolized by a half
solid feather. It is performed by turning away instead of towards the
Localizer. The reciprocal of the inbound course should be set on the
inbound track of the HSI in order to have right commands.

ILS Categorization

DH RVR
CAT I Down to 200ft (on Altimeter) 550m
CAT II Down to 100ft (on Radio Altimeter) 300m
CAT IIIa 0 to 100ft (on Radio Altimeter) 200m
CAT IIIb 0 to 50ft (on Radio Altimeter) 50-200m
CAT IIIc - -

7-15
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

 CAT I may be flown manually all the way

 CAT II must be flown by Auto Pilot down to DH and then may be
flown manually
 CAT III must be flown by Auto Pilot all the way

Note that the ILS Category must always match with the aircraft and aircrew
certifications.

ILS CATII and CAT III Specification

In a CAT II and CAT III ILS installation:

 the Control Tower monitors the transmitters outputs, as well as a
failure indication
 transmitters are shutdown automatically 2 seconds after they
sense a change on transmission
 RVR is measured by two transmissometers
 adequate approach lighting system is used on the runway

Moreover, the aircraft must be certified for CAT II or CAT III (a,b,c)
operations, as well as the flight crew.

CAT III operations can only be performed by aircraft having Autoland

capability. Three Auto Pilots must be used in parallel.

Microwave Landing System (MLS)

Microwave Landing System (MLS) is a digital approach aid providing

azimuth and vertical guidance like an ILS, but allows also for Curved
Approaches and multiple Glide Slope angles. An integrated Precision DME
provides distance. One only frequency in the SHF band is used, to produce
both azimuth and elevation signals, through the respected aerials. The
station identification code is also included in this signal. However, more
data (i.e. weather) may be also transmitted through.

7-16
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Principle of MLS Operation

Time Division Multiplexing

The azimuth signal scans in cycles, from one side of the centerline
extension (+40°) to the other (-40°) and back. A receiver onboard the
aircraft, senses the signal passage and measures the time interval in
between the first and second passage within the cycle. At the same
manner, the time interval in the vertical is also measured. Using the Time
Division Multiplexing Device mounted in the receiver, the aircraft position
is determined. Provided the distance from DME the position becomes
three dimensional. This cycle repeats every 9000μsec.

The derived position is used to generate an error signal on an HSI or on a

more modern display. In the first case, commands are similar to an ILS,
while in the second full potentials of the system are released, like flying a
curved approach.

MLS Coverage

The MLS coverage is:

 20nm, ±40° from centerline, in azimuth
 0.9° to 15° from horizontal, in the vertical plane

7-17
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

For Missed Approach, the MLS back coverage is:

 20nm, ±20° from centerline
 Up to 4500ft vertically

The MLS CAT III accuracy rests in ±20ft in azimuth and ±2 ft in elevation.

Advantages of MLS Over ILS

 The MLS utilizes curved approaches, while the ILS long straight-in
final approaches of at least 7 miles
 More than one approach may be performed simultaneously when
using MLS
 There are 200 channels for the MLS and only 40 for the ILS
 Because of MLS emitting on the SHF band, there is no interference
with FM emittions and no reflections from terrain or obstructions
 Because MLS signal is digital, information such as system status,
runway information, and weather may be included in the signal

Autoland System

Autoland is a system that integrates the Autopilot, Autothrottle and Radio

Altimeter, for executing a landing with no human intervention. It may be
engaged in the Approach Mode. It uses the radar altimeter to determine
precisely the aircraft's height above the runway, in order to:

 initiate the landing flare at the correct height (usually 50ft)

 retard the throttles

The ILS localizer signal may be used for lateral control after touchdown. To
prevent accidental disengagement in critical heights, it can be disengaged
only by completely disconnecting the Autopilot.

7-18
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Multiplex Autoland System

Fail Passive Autoland System (land 2)

Fail Operational Autoland System (Land 3)

Two or more independent autopilot channels are comprised to carry out

autoland, thus providing redundant protection against failures. When one
channel is not in symphony with others, it is outvoted. This is defined as a
Multiplex Autoland System. For an aircraft to be certified for Autoland
Operations, at least two Autopilot channels are required.

Moreover, when two (duplex system) digital Autopilot channels are

comprised, the Autoland system is defined as Fail Passive. In this case
failure of one channel on critical height will only cause a negligible change
in aircraft’s trim and glide path. However, since at least two channels are
needed for Autoland Operations, the landing must be completed manually.

When three (triplex system) or more digital Autopilot channels are

comprised, the Autoland system is defined as Fail Operational. In this case,
failure of one channel on critical height, will not affect the landing
sequence. The approach, flare and landing can be completed
automatically, by the remaining channels. The system is degraded to Fail
Passive.

Holding Pattern

Holding is a pattern designed to keep an aircraft within a specified area,

due to traffic or weather delays. It is always based on a Fix (such as VOR,
VOR with DME distance, NDB, NDB with DME distance, GPS/RNAV Fix etc),
appointing the start of the first turn. Moreover:

 Holdings are set on an Inbound Track to the Fix

 Standard Holdings use Right Turns. Estimate 1min for each turn
(3°/sec coordinated turn)
 Length of legs may be adjusted to time needs

7-19
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

 Non-standard holdings use left turns and must be specified in the

Holding Clearance
 Do not fly in the non-holding side
 Buffer area is 5NM
 MHA stands for Minimum Holding Altitude and it is depicted on
charts within the Holding Pattern symbol
 Vertical separation is 1000ft

Holding Entry Procedures

Depending on actual aircraft heading in relation to the Holding Course, the

following entries may be realized:

Direct Entry:
 The station is approached on an angle of difference of -70°/+110°
from the inbound track
 Fly towards the station. After passing the station turn outbound
right away
 Start timing Abeam the Fix or when wings are level, whichever
comes later

Special Entry:
 It is actually a Direct Entry with an entry course of more than 90°
from the Inbound track
 After passing the station continue flying on the same heading for
15sec. Then turn outbound and fly for 45sec

7-20
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Offset Entry (Teardrop):

 The station is approached on an angle of difference of +0°/-70°
from the reciprocal
 After passing the station turn to a track 30° offset to outbound
track and fly to the Gate
 Timing is 1:10min. When completed, turn to intercept the Inbound
track

Parallel Entry:
 The station is approached on an angle of difference of +180°/-70°
from the Inbound track
 After passing the station turn to a track parallel to the Inbound
track. Do not intercept the Inbound track
 HSI/OBS and RMI are not centered
 Timing is 1min. When completed, turn towards the holding side
(towards pointer side) to intercept the Inbound track (use ±20°
angle to intercept the Inbound track) or fly homing to the beacon

An aircraft is considered Established on the Holding, upon passing the

Holding Fix for first time.

7-21
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Turning in the Holding

 The Angle of Bank is limited to 25° or 3°/sec (coordinated turn),

whichever requires less bank angle
 Time-check starts abeam the Fix, or when the wings are level
(whichever comes later)
- To/From Flag changes
- Single pointer is 90° to outbound/inbound track
 When the Fix is over the station, the Gate Check is:
Time Pointer declination
1min 30°
2min 18°
3min 12°

Holding Speeds (Maximum)/Times (Minimum)

Altitude Speed Timing

Less than 14000ft 230 kn 1:00 min
14001ft to 20000ft 240 kn 1:30 min
20001ft to 34000ft 265 kn 1:30 min
34001 ft and above 0.83M 1:30 min

ATC Clearance for Published Holding Patterns

Holding Clearance and instructions to Hold, are issued at least 5 minutes in

advance of reaching the Holding Fix. The clearance includes:

 the Holding Fix and Holding Course

 the expected time for further clearance

When a pilot reaches a Holding Fix, he is obliged to request further

clearance in advance of reaching the fix. If there is no clearance received,
he is obliged to execute the associated Holding Pattern as published.

7-22
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

ATC Clearance for Non Published Holding Patterns

An ATC Clearance for Non Published Holding Patterns:

 clarifies for a Non standard pattern (left turns), if used

 defines the Holding Fix and Holding Course
 defines the length of the outbound leg (in time or distance)
 states the expected time for further clearance

When a pilot reaches a clearance limit, he is obliged to request further

clearance in advance of reaching the limit. If a clearance is not received by
that time and there is no holding pattern cleared by ATC, he is obliged to
Hold on the inbound course on a standard (right turn) Holding.

GPS Navigation

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

Three satellites are needed to determine a lateral GPS position. With a

fourth satellite added, three dimensional position can be determined.

If a fifth satellite is added, the receiver becomes able to determine the

integrity of the navigation signals. This function is called Receiver
Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM). For the system to be considered
serviceable, an accuracy of 100m of at least 95% of the flight time is
required. A key role for accuracy plays the elevation of the satellites as
well as their position in relation to the receiver.

GPS Standalone Approach

A GPS Standalone Approach is a non precision approach based on GPS

exclusively, with no reference to conventional ground navigation aids at all.
It is published and identified as GPS approach. However, the missed
approach segment must be available on conventional ground navigation
aids also. Furthermore, a non-GPS approach must always be available at
the alternate and the aircraft must be RAIM equipped.

7-23
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Conventional Non Precision Approaches Performed by GPS

Conventional non precision approaches may be performed by GPS

provided the full detailed approach profile is stored in the navigation
database. The database must be current and the crew should not have the
means to modify it.

Flight Management System (FMS)

Flight Management Computer (FMC)

Control Display Unit (CDU)

Flight Management System (FMS) is a computer system specialized to

maximize fuel economy and reduce flight crew workload. It automatically
selects a combination of aircraft sensors (GPS, DME, VOR) to update the
IRS position, in order to determine the aircraft position against the flight
plan, and guide accordingly the aircraft through the Auto Pilot and Auto
Throttle (although following manually the Flight Director is also an option).
The outputs are displayed on an EFIS or similar. Also, a number of various
calculations such as Actual Navigation Performance (ANP), Economy Speed
(ECON), Top of Descent (TOD) etc, are processed.

The hart of FMS is the Flight Management Computer (FMC) which is a dual
system using actually two FMCs. It consists of:

 a database regarding aircraft performance (take-off, climb, cruise,

descent, holding, go-around, and abnormal flight)
 a database regarding navigation elements for building a flight plan
(updated every 28 days)

The Control Display Unit (CDU) allows the flight crew to interface with the
system. Route, Navigation and Aircraft Performance, are managed through
a screen and a keyboard. The flight plan execution is monitored through
the CDUs and EFIS. Usually, two sets of CDUS are installed. They may be
used independently or in parallel, where one unit commands while the
other monitors.

7-24
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

Cost Index

Cost index is the ratio of fuel costs to all other costs. It is a number ranged
from 0 up to 999. Practically, it is entered into the FMS by the crew, in
order to give a weighting between speed and fuel efficiency. A high Cost
Index gives fast speeds with no consideration of fuel. A low Cost Index
gives fuel efficiency.

Cost Index affects Climb, Cruise and Descent. It does not affect take off
performance, approach and landing. In example, a low Cost Index will
result in a lower climb speed, a lower cruise speed, a generally higher
cruise altitude, a later Top of Descent Point and a slower descent speed. A
high Cost Index will result in the opposite.

7-25
Airline Pilots Interview Course Radio Navigation

7-26
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

8. Performance

8-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

CONTENTS

Decision Speed V1 8-3

Minimum Unstick Speed (Vmu) 8-3
Safety Speed V2 8-4
Reference Speed Vref (or Threshold Crossing Speed) 8-4
Minimum Control Speed on Ground (Vmcg) 8-5
Adjusting Takeoff Mass by Lowering Vmcg 8-5
Relation of V1 and Vmcg 8-5
Minimum Control Speed on Air (Vmca) 8-6
Why is Vmcg Faster Than Vmca? 8-6
Variation of Vmca with Center of Gravity (CG) Position 8-6
Relation of VR and Vmca 8-7
Effect of a Wet Runway on V1, VR and V2 8-7
Relation of VR and V1 8-7
Relation of VR and V2 8-7
Speeds Resume 8-7
Field Considerations for One Engine Inoperative (OEI) 8-8
Balanced field 8-8
Can a Stopway Be Longer Than a Clearway? 8-9
Takeoff Limitations 8-10
Screen Height 8-10
Climb Segments for OEI 8-11
Increased V2 Procedure (Improved Climb Technique) 8-12
Reduced Thrust Takeoff 8-12
Flex Temp Takeoff Technique 8-12
What is the Aim of Using Reduced Thrust Takeoff Technique? 8-12
Use of Reduced Thrust Takeoff Technique at MTOW 8-13
Restrictions for Using Reduced Thrust Takeoff Technique 8-13
Obstacle Clearance Provided by SIDs 8-14
When Does Speed Change From IAS to MACH? 8-14
Why do we Need to Measure Speed in MACH? 8-14

8-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Decision Speed V1

V1 is the fastest speed at which an aircraft can reject a takeoff and stop
safely within the Acceleration Stop Distance (ASDA), or can continue the
takeoff and reach the screen height. Note that at V1 ASDR = ASDA.

There is actually a range of V1 existing, that one can use. According to the
departure profile on use (i.e. increased TOW or increased V2), a different
V1 corresponds.

 V1 is actually an action speed, not a decision speed. The decision to

abort the takeoff must have been taken about 5kn before reaching
V1. This speed is defined as engine failure speed (Vef). At V1, actions
to abort the takeoff must have been initiated. Thus, the V1 call
must have been completed at V1
 For headwind V1 remains constant regardless that the Ground
Speed is reduced. This provides additional safety margins
 For tailwind Ground speed increases and stopping distance
increases as well. Thus, V1 needs to be decreased
 For wet runway stopping distance increases because braking
efficiency is compromised. Thus, V1 needs to be decreased
 In a contaminated runway the stopping distance increases because
braking efficiency is compromised. Thus, V1 needs to be
decreased. Also, more TORR is needed because acceleration is
slower. This leaves a shorter Stopping distance available
 The greater the TOW the greater the ASDA needed. Thus, V1 needs
to be decreased

Minimum Unstick Speed (Vmu)

Minimum Unstick Speed (Vmu) is the minimum speed than an aircraft is

able to takeoff without stalling. In high AOA the vertical component of lift
balances a portion of weight. This compensates for a reduced Vmu.

Minimum Unstick Speed (Vmu) is slower than the Stalling Speed (Vs).

8-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Safety Speed V2

Safety Speed V2 is the minimum speed that an aircraft must reach at the
Screen Height (35ft), after suffering an engine failure during the takeoff
run.

V2 is 1.2 times Vs. Vs is a function of lift produced over the airframes. Since
Vs is affected by air density, V2 is also affected by air density. Moreover:

 When flying on V2 AOB is limited to 15° (25° for class A)

 V2min = 1.1Vmca This leaves an adequate margin
 V2= 1,13Vstickshaker

Note that after an engine failure during takeoff, a speed from V2 up to

V2+10 must be maintained. However, if the engine failure occurs later, at a
speed in between V2 and V2+10, that speed is to be maintained.

Reference Speed Vref

Threshold Crossing Speed

Reference Speed (Vref) is the speed that an aircraft must have over the
threshold upon landing, in order to perform a safe touchdown.

Vref = 1,3 Vs

50% of the reported steady headwind component plus the full gust
increment, or 150% of the tailwind component is to be added to the
Reference Speed.

For variable wind direction and given strength, a tailwind is to be assumed.

For variable wind direction and variable strength, 5kn tailwind is to be
assumed.

8-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Minimum Control Speed on Ground (Vmcg)

For determining the Minimum Control Speed on Ground (Vmcg), assume a

sudden critical engine loss on the takeoff run, while the remaining engines
are set at takeoff thrust. Full rudder must be applied and directional
control must be maintained. Throttling a good engine is not allowed in this
demonstration. Forward stick pressure in order to hold the nose wheel on
the runway, is allowed. However, use of the nose wheel steering is not
allowed.

Vmcg is affected by air density, because it is a function of lift produced over

the airframes.

Note that by reducing takeoff thrust, Vmcg is getting slower.

Adjusting Takeoff Mass by Lowering Vmcg

If Takeoff Mass (TOM) is bounded due to performance, a lower thrust may

be set for the takeoff, provided ASDA is adequate.

When a lower thrust is set, the moment produced after an engine failure
during the takeoff run is lower. Accordingly, a lower moment is required to
be produced by the rudder in order to compensate for it. Thus, Vmcg may is
getting slower.

At the end a higher TOM can be supported.

Relation of V1 and Vmcg

V1 can be reduced down to a minimum value, equal to Vmcg. An even

slower V1 cannot be realized, since the aircraft would not have directional
control to continue a takeoff with one engine inoperative.

8-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Minimum Control Speed on Air (Vmca)

For determining the Minimum Control Speed on Air (Vmca), assume a

sudden critical engine failure during takeoff, while the remaining engines
are set at takeoff thrust. Full rudder must be applied and directional
control must be maintained. Up to 50 bank angle towards the good engine
may be used. Throttling a good engine is not allowed in this
demonstration.

When the air is denser (at low altitude and cold airports), engine thrust
rises, causing more intensive yaw. A faster Vmca is needed, for the rudder
to be able to balance the yaw.

Vmca is affected by air density, because it is a function of the lift produced

over the airframes.

Vmca can not exceed 1.2Vs

Why is Vmcg Faster Than Vmca?

Minimum Control Speed on Ground (Vmcg) is determined by the moment

produced by the rudder, having the main landing gear for datum.
Minimum Control Speed on Air (Vmca) is determined by the moment
produced by the rudder having the Center of Gravity (CG) for datum. The
distance from rudder to the CG is always longer than the distance from
rudder to the main landing gear. In order to produce the same amount of
moment when the aircraft is on the air or ground, a faster airspeed is
needed when on ground.

Variation of Vmca with Center of Gravity (CG) Position

Minimum Control Speed on Air (Vmca) is determined by the moment

produced by the rudder, having the Center of Gravity (CG) for datum. As
the CG moves backwards, the arm used for the moment production by the
rudder is getting shorter. Thus, the moment is getting lower as well. A

8-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

higher Vmca is now required for the rudder to produce sufficient moment,
to counteract for an engine failure.

Relation of VR and Vmca

VR may be reduced to a minimum value not lower than Vmca. A slower VR

cannot be realized since the aircraft would not have directional control to
continue a takeoff with one engine inoperative.

Effect of a Wet Runway on V1, VR and V2

V1 decreases (V1wet), because the Accelerate Stopping Distance Required

(ASDR) increases, due to reduced braking efficiency.

VR and V2 remain constant, as they are related to the Vs, not to V1.
Moreover, V2 is to be reached at a screen height of 15ft instead of 35ft.

Relation of VR and V1

VR can be reduced to a minimum value not lower than V1. A slower VR

cannot be realized, because a stop decision would be invalid after Rotating.

Relation of VR and V2

VR must provide a sufficient margin from V2, to allow the aircraft to

accelerate to V2 before reaching the Screen Height of 35ft (15ft for wet
runway).

Speeds Resume

Vmcg ≤ V1 ≤ Vmca ≤ VR < V2

Note that all speeds except of V1, are a function of Density.

8-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Field Considerations for One Engine Inoperative (OEI)

Balanced field

Landing Distance Available (LDA) is the runway length that is available and
prepared for the ground run of an airplane that is landing.

Takeoff Run Available (TORA) is the runway length that is available and
prepared for the ground run of an airplane that is taking off.

Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA) is the sum of the length of the
takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway, if stopway is provided.

Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) is the sum of the length of the takeoff
run available plus the length of the clearway, if clearway is provided.

Clearway is an area beyond the paved runway, free of obstacles and under
the control of the airport authorities. It is used to reach the screen height
with one engine inoperative in a longer distance, when TODA is longer
than ASDA. It must provide of the following specifications:
 maximum upslope of 1,25%
 width 500ft (150m)
 maximum length 50% of TORA
 highest obstacle 0,9m
 may be ground or water

The Screen Height for jets is 35ft above the end of the runway for dry
conditions, and 15ft for wet conditions.

Stopway is an area in the end of the associated runway prepared to be

used for stopping an aircraft in the event of a rejected takeoff with one
engine inoperative, when ASDA is longer than TORA. It is:
 at least as wide as the runway
 centered to the runway centerline
 adequate to support the airplane’s weight when decelerating, with
no risk

8-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Balanced is considered a field when TODA = ASDA. It practically means that

if there is a clearway, it equals the stopway.

Can a Stopway Be Longer Than a Clearway?

A Stopway can be longer than a Clearway if there is an obstacle higher than

0.9m in a distance shorter than 75m from the extended centerline. In this
case the Clearway is limited up to the point of the obstacle, while the
Stopway extends further, because it needs to be only as wide as the
runway.

8-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Takeoff Limitations

For a safe takeoff from a given airfield, the aircraft must comply with
TORA, TODA and ASDA for One engine Inoperative (OEI). On top of that an
aircraft must not be:

Field length limited, when a longer TODA is needed to support the

airplane’s weight.

Climb limited, when TODA is long enough, but the minimum climb gradient
cannot be achieved due to unmatched weight, altitude and temperature.
In most of cases, the 2nd segment is limiting.

Obstacle limited, when a distant obstacle cannot be overflowed due to

unmatched weight, altitude and temperature.

Tire speed limited, when TOM is exceeding the tire strength. Practically, it
is theoretical.

Maximum brake energy limited, when TOM is exceeding braking capability.

Moreover, the aircraft structural limits may limit the Maximum Takeoff
Mass (MTOM) or the Maximum Landing Mass (MLM).

Screen Height

Screen Height reflects the minimum height at the end of the Take Off
Distance Available (Clearway may be included), that an aircraft suffering an
engine failure during takeoff must reach. It is measured against the lowest
part of the aeroplane (i.e. landing gear). At Screen Height the airspeed
must be equal or faster than V2.

For a Jet aircraft the Screen Height is 35ft and for a propeller aircraft it is
50ft. For Jets Screen Height in wet conditions is reduced to 15ft.

8-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Climb Segments for OEI

Assuming an engine failure at V1, a climb and speed profile is needed in

order to clear obstacles.

1st segment is
 From 35ft Screen Height, to the point where Gear is fully retracted
 Flaps in take-off configuration
 Take-off thrust set
 Speed V2 up to V2+10
 Climb gradient: positive

2nd segment is
 From the point where the Gear is fully retracted, till reaching the
acceleration height (at or above 400ft AAL)
 Flaps in take-off configuration
 Take-off thrust set
 Speed V2 up to V2+10
 Climb gradient: min 2,4%

3rd segment is
 From reaching the acceleration height, to the point where flaps are
fully retracted
 Flap retraction on schedule
 Take-off thrust set
 Speed: accelerating
 Climb gradient: level flight

4th segment is
 From the point where the aircraft is clean, to the point of reaching
1500ft of Height
 Flaps up
 MCT set
 Speed: OEI climb
 Climb gradient: min 1,2%

8-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Increased V2 Procedure (Improved Climb Technique)

For a climb limited aircraft, a faster VR and V2 may be used in order to

achieve the climb gradient needed. A faster V2 is flown with a lower AOA.
This reduces drag and accordingly more thrust is now available for climb.
Furthermore, a lower flap setting has the same function. As a result the
climb limit weight is increased.

Reduced Thrust Takeoff

Flex Temp Takeoff Technique

What is the Aim of Using Reduced Thrust Takeoff Technique?

When the aircraft weight, field length and temperature are not limiting the
takeoff, a Reduced Thrust setting may be used. The aim is to reduce engine
wear and noise.

8-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

Thrust setting is calculated to respond to aircraft’s takeoff and climb with

one engine inoperative performance requirements. Note that in the case
of an engine failure after V1, no additional thrust is required. However, it
would be wise to use a higher thrust setting up to the derated value.

A longer runway length (almost critical) is used. V1 and VR are reached later
(in a longer distance).

Reduced Thrust Takeoff can safely be used when the aircraft is at its
maximum takeoff weight. In this case a longer Takeoff Run is needed.

Use of Reduced Thrust Takeoff Technique at MTOW

To set reduced thrust, the crew must:

 refer to the Field Limit graph. By working backwards (from field

length to temperature), determine the temperature at which the
airplane would be field length limited
 refer to the Climb Limit graph to determine the climb limiting
temperature
 determine the tire limiting temperature
 determine the obstacle limiting temperature

The lowest of the limiting temperatures is entered into the FMS, instead of
the actual air temperature. The engine controller in turn, produces
maximum thrust for this higher (flex) temperature, which is actually a
reduced thrust. Note that no more than a 25% reduction from the full
takeoff thrust or derated take off thrust setting is allowed.

Restrictions for Using Reduced Thrust Takeoff Technique

Because the aircraft performance is getting close to critical, reduced thrust

takeoff is not allowed:

 on icy runways
 on contaminated runways

8-13
Airline Pilots Interview Course Performance

 when Antiskid is inoperative

 when Reverse Thrust is inoperative
 when Power Management Computer (PMC) is inoperative

Obstacle Clearance Provided by SIDs

SIDs provide obstacle clearance assuming that the aircraft:

 crosses the Departure End of the runway at 35ft or higher

 climbs straight ahead at least up to 400ft AGL
 maintain at least 200ft per minute rate of climb

In special cases where increased performance is needed, a minimum climb

gradient must be specified.

When Does Speed Change From IAS to MACH?

As an aircraft climbs on a constant IAS, the Mach Number increases and

eventually reaches the desired Mach Number. At that time the FMC
automatically switches to maintain a constant Mach climb. For example, if
climbing on 280kn and the desired Mach Number is 0.79, the FMC will
switch at the altitude where 280kn equals M0.79.

As Mach is a function of temperature, this will occur mostly at a specific

temperature, not at a specific FL.

Why do we Need to Measure Speed in MACH?

IAS does not take under account the air temperature variations, but Mach
Number does. Furthermore, a Mach indication is used to alert the crew for
reaching the Mcrit.

8-14
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

9. Operations

9-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

CONTENTS

Area Navigation (RNAV) 9-3

Basic RNAV (BRNAV) 9-3
Area Navigation (RNAV) Waypoints 9-3
Precision RNAV (PRNAV) 9-4
Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (MNPS) 9-4
Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) 9-5
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 9-6
Total System Error (TSE) 9-6
Actual navigation Performance (ANP) 9-6
Fixed RNP routes 9-7
Contingency RNP routes 9-7
RNP Approach 9-7
Baro RNAV approach 9-7
Extended-range Twin-engines Operational Performance
Standards (ETOPS) 9-8
Organized Track System (OTS) 9-8
North Atlantic Tracks (NAT) 9-8
Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS) 9-8
Oceanic ATC Clearance 9-10
Oceanic Position Reporting 9-11
Oceanic Transponder Operation 9-11
Polar Operations 9-11
Noise Abatement Departure Procedures (NADP) 9-12
Communications Failure Procedures 9-13
Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) 9-13
Controller Pilot Data Link Communication (CPDLC) 9-13
Airspace Classification 9-14
Free Flight Concept 9-14

9-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

Area Navigation (RNAV)

Area Navigation (RNAV) is a method that reduces distance, fuel and

congestion. It utilizes navigation by using FMS, IRS, GPS, VOR, DME. It
allows navigating between non–airway waypoints called Phantom Stations,
instead of navigating directly to and from beacons. Furthermore, any
desired track can be flown as long as it is within the area of RNAV coverage
or the aircraft RNAV system can support (normally within 200nm range).
Dual or parallel routes are established in order to accommodate a greater
flow of en-route traffic. Bypass routes for aircraft overflying high-density
terminal areas, are also established. Crews have to be RNAV trained and
aircraft have to be RNAV certified, in order to operate on RNAV routes.

In order to fly an RNAV track an aircraft must be equipped with a:

 navigation display (i.e. HSI, CDI) indicating ’s relative position to

the track. One dot of CDI needle deflection represents 1nm of
deviation, regardless of the distance to the waypoint (in approach
mode, one dot represents ¼ nm).
 navigation display (i.e. RMI) indicating bearing and distance to the
waypoint
 display of distance or time to go to the waypoint
 navigation data storage function
 failure indication for navigation computer and sensors

Basic RNAV (BRNAV)

Precision RNAV (PRNAV)

In general an aircraft RNAV system may use:

 onboard sensors like an IRS or INS. They demonstrate extreme

accuracy for a short term, but are linearly degrading with time. An
error of 1,5 to 2nm per hour is considered acceptable
 external sources like VOR/DME (medium accuracy for a long term)
 a combination of the above in hybrid systems (extremely accurate
for a short term and good accuracy for a long term)

9-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

In terms of accuracy RNAV may be distinct in:

 Basic Air Navigation (BRNAV) using VOR/DME navigation, fulfill an

RNP5 (meaning a navigation accuracy of ± 5nm for 95% of the
flying time)
 Precision RNAV using hybrid navigation system fulfill an RNP1

Moreover, PRNAV requires a navigation database that cannot be modified

by the flight crew during approach.

Area Navigation (RNAV) Waypoints

RNAV Waypoints are distinguished to:

 Predefined and defined, when they are associated to VOR/DME

stations as well as GPS
 Floating, when they are not directly associated with a conventional
airway
 Random, when they are created by pilots for their own use. In
contrast to Predefined and Floating, they are not published

Furthermore:

 “Fly over” waypoints must be overflowed

 “Fly by” waypoints must be bypassed

Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (MNPS)

Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (MNPS) are special

procedures that ensure increased lateral track accuracy for the 95% of the
flying time.

ATC must be MNPS equipped and certified. Flight crews must be certified
to operate within MNPS and must be aware of the specific emergency
procedures of the airspace in use.

9-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM)

Just below Tropopause airspace is congested of traffic. Since modern

altimeters demonstrate sufficient accuracy, airspace capacity in certain
areas may be increased by introducing Reduced Vertical Separation
Minima (RVSM). In RVSM, aircraft vertical separation is reduced from
2000ft to 1000ft, from FL290 (inclusive) up to FL410 (inclusive). Above
FL410 altimeter accuracy is still insufficient for RNAV and a 2000ft
separation is to be maitained.

Upon climbing/descending a maximum of 1000ft (recommended 500-

1000ft) Rate of Climb must be maintained, in order for not to trigger the
TCAS system of nearby aircraft. Also, upon changing Flight Level no more
than 150ft overshooting is allowed.

9-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

In order to fly in RVSM airspace an aircraft must be equipped with:

 two primary altimeters as well as one standby altimeter, feed by

independent Static Ports. On ground, a maximum tolerance of 75ft
of any altimeter and airfield elevation is allowed. A difference of
no more than 35ft between altimeters up to 5000ft airfield
elevation, and 40ft up to 10000ft airfield elevation is allowed. In
flight the maximum difference may be up to 200ft
 an Auto Pilot provided with Height Lock and an Alerting System for
altitude deviation from selected altitude
 a transponder with Mode-C capability, connected to the Auto Pilot
 TCAS or ACAS

For an RVSM approved flight the letter “W” is inserted into the Flight Plan.

Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

Total System Error (TSE)

Actual navigation Performance (ANP)

Required Navigation Performance (RNP) states the level of performance

required for a specific procedure or a specific airspace. RNP5 means that a
navigation system is calculating its position within a radius of 5nm for 95%
of the flight time, RNP1 within 1nm etc. RNP value is to be compared
against the Total navigation System Error (TSE) allowed. Aircraft navigation
installations are certified for particular RNP levels as well as Operators.
RNP AR (Approval Required) procedures, require special aircraft and
aircrew authorization similar to CAT II/III ILS operations.

Ideally, a defined airspace would have a single RNP type. However, RNP
types may be mixed within a defined airspace.

RNP operations are actually RNAV operations having on board equipment

in order to monitor and to alert for accuracy. The calculated certainty in
nautical miles is the Actual Navigation Performance (ANP).

9-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

Fixed RNP routes

Fixed RNP routes are permanent, published ATS routes which can be flight-
planned for use by aircraft approved for a specific RNP type. Restrictions in
the time of availability and flight levels are not precluded. Fixed RNP routes
should begin and end at promulgated reporting points, not necessarily
defined by ground facilities. Way-points should be established along fixed
RNP routes as required by local CAAs. Route modifications are not allowed.

Contingency RNP routes

Contingency RNP routes, are published ATS routes which can be flight-
planned and which can be made available to aircraft approved for a
specific RNP type during limited time periods (hours, days, seasons). They
may also be established to meet unusual, temporary requirements arising
at short notice.

RNP Approach

RNP Approach is a non-precision approach that uses the RNAV system for
approach guidance. On the approach plate it is designated as RNAV (GNSS)
with the RNP value also depicted. It is in-depended of ground based
navigation facilities and may utilize curved segments.

When an RNP Approach is planned, 6 satellites are required to be enabled,

and the NOTAMS have to be checked for GNSS outage predictions.
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is required.

Baro RNAV approach

Baro RNAV Approach is an RNAV approach facilitated with a barometric

altimeter in order to provide vertical guidance. Despite it has a DA(H), it is
considered a non-precision approach. Special care must be taken for using
accurate QNH value. Moreover, temperature corrections on the pressure
altimeter indications must be applied, when temperatures are low.

9-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

Extended-range Twin-engines Operational Performance Standards

(ETOPS)

In 1953, a range limitation of 60min of flying time from an adequate

airport regarding 2-engine airplanes was introduced. Since modern engines
demonstrate increased reliability, ETOPS was introduced in order to certify
twins to operate in longer distances (i.e. across Atlantic or Pacific Ocean). A
Type Approval concerning Airframes and Engines, as well as an Operational
Certification concerning Engineering and Flight Crew, are required.

A number of ETOPS ratings may be awarded to flight crews and operators.

They practically depict the flying time on single-engine speed away from
the nearest suitable airport. For example ETOPS-180 certifies an aircraft to
operate anywhere, within 180 minutes flying time on single-engine speed
from the nearest suitable airport in still air. Note that ETOPS-180 happens
to cover most of Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Organized Track System (OTS)

The Organized Track System (OTS) is the sum of a number of track

systems in North Atlantic. It is a Class A airspace from FL55 up to FL660. It
is controlled by 6 Oceanic Centers:

 Shanwick, Santa Maria and Bodo in Europe

 Gander and New York in North America
 Reykjavik in the middle of North Atlantic

Use of OTS tracks is not mandatory.

North Atlantic Tracks (NAT)

Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS)

North Atlantic Tracks (NAT), are routes connecting North America and
Europe, where little radar coverage exists. They are controlled by Gander,
Bodo and Shanwick Oceanic Centers.

9-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

The routes reverse direction twice a day. During day they flow westbound
towards North America (1130-1800 UTC) while during night they flow
eastbound towards Europe (0100-0800 UTC). Available routes (coordinates
and altitudes) are created and published twice a day. Current Jetstream
path and weather, play a key role for route creation.

Each route is identified by a letter of the alphabet:

 Westbound A,B,C,D etc (where A is the northernmost track)
 Eastbound Z,Y,X,W etc (where Z is the southernmost track)
Entrance and exit waypoints linked to NAT are not changing. If an aircraft
becomes unable during flight to follow a route, it can fly a parallel track
separated from other aircraft.

9-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

The Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS) is published in the UK and

Canada AIPs. Altitudes are from 29000ft to 41000ft inclusive. The Semi-
circular Rule applies:
 Westbound FLs 300, 320 etc
 Eastbound FLs 290, 310, etc
Note that this is a minimum navigation Performance Specification Airspace
(MNPSA), where RVSM applies.

Within NAT airspace it is allowed to fly a self selected offset track for
additional safety margin, provided that:
 It is always to the left of the centerline
 It is 1 or 2 miles offset
No ATC clearance is required for the offset track. The centerline should be
resumed prior to the oceanic exit point.

For longitudinal separation, the ATC clearance assigns a Mach number to

maintain. 10min spacing between aircraft is to be maintained. The
assigned Mach number is to be maintained until a domestic ATC authorizes
a speed change.

When filling a Flight Plan insert:

 in item 10: the letter “X” if the flight is NAT MNPS approved
 in item 10: the letter “W” if the flight is RVSM approved
 in item 15: the abbreviation “NAT” followed by the code letter
assigned to the track

Oceanic Position Reporting

Upon flying on NAT, reports on a series of waypoints are given through HF

radio and/or satellite communications. CPDLC may also be used if
available. Where an ADS is installed the reports are automatically
forwarded. Note that in this case the station to contact is automatically
selected by the system.

9-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

Oceanic Transponder Operation

After entering NAT or after leaving radar service, the last assigned code will
be retained for 30min. Thereafter the code 2000 should be set.

Oceanic ATC Clearance

In advance of 30min before entering the oceanic airspace, the flight crew
contacts the Oceanic Center Controller and requests clearance for the
track filled at the Flight Plan. Both PF and PM must copy the clearance.

The Clearance request contains:

 estimated time of arrival at the Entry Point

 required flight level
 desired Mach number
 highest flight level that can be accepted

Whenever the estimated time of arrival at the entry point change more
than 3min, the crew must pass a revised estimate to ATC.

Communications Failure Procedures

When experiencing Communications Failure under IFR, set code 7600 to

the Transponder and proceed in respect to the following priorities:
1. Follow the latest ATC clearance
2. Follow vectors cleared by the latest radar clearance
3. Follow the route that you were advised to expect, but are not yet
cleared
4. Follow routes filed at the Flight Plan

9-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

Polar Operations
Certain particularities make Polar operations peculiar. Due to meridian
convergence and magnetic pole vicinity, True Tracks must be used on the
flight plan and the navigation equipment must be switched to True
headings as well. Be aware that:
 ADF orientation is determined True or Magnetic upon selecting
heading reference by the crew
 VOR radials in contrast are not influenced by the heading
reference, as they are displayed according to the specific VOR
station orientation

Long range HF communications are used because of the wide separation of

ground stations. However, HF broadcasts have poor quality since they are
heavily affected by solar activity, to the point that sometimes they may not
be available at all. A shift to a lower frequency may be required.

The North Pole region is divided in four ATC areas:

 Anchorage Arctic FIR I CTA
 Edmonton Arctic FIP CTA I
 Raykjavik CTA
 Bodo Ocaenic FIR
Note that in the most of the Polar region MNPS/RVSM apply.

Very few diversion aerodromes (suitable for large jets) are available:
 Keflavik
 Thule
 Kangerlussuaq
 Iqaluit

Noise Abatement Departure Procedures (NADP)

Noise Abatement Departure Procedures (NADP) are used to reduce noise

to minimum, within populated areas. Noise level is monitored and fines are
addressed if limits are violated. There are two NADP profiles:

9-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

NADP 1
 takeoff: takeoff thrust, speed V2+10, flaps in takeoff configuration
 1000ft: climb thrust, speed V2+10, flaps in takeoff configuration
 3000ft: climb thrust, reduce rate of climb, speed accelerating,
retract flaps on schedule

NADP 2
 takeoff: takeoff thrust, speed V2+10, flaps in takeoff configuration
 1000ft: climb thrust, reduce rate of climb, speed accelerating,
retract flaps on schedule
 3000ft: climb thrust, accelerate to climb speed

NADP is not to be used when:

 Runway is contaminated
 Visibility is less than 1900m
 Crosswind is more than 15kn
 Tailwind is more than 5kn
 Weather is adverse

9-13
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS)

Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) is a radio link from aircraft to

ATC. It determines the present position through the aircraft avionics and
automatically sends it along with other information to the ATC. The aircraft
position is then projected over a radar screen.

Controller Pilot Data Link Communication (CPDLC)

Controller Pilot Data Link Communication (CPDLC) is actually a page of the

FMS/CDU providing the ability to send and receive texts. Both standard
and free texts are available through the related FMS pages. It may be used
for clearances requests and emergency reporting. The texts are prefixed as
“UM” and are called “Uplinks” when they are sent to the aircraft and
prefixed as “DM” and called “Downlinks” when they are sent by the
aircraft.

Airspace Classification

Airspace is classified as follows:

Class A: where IFR flights only are authorized.

Class B: where IFR and VFR flights are authorized, both under air traffic
Control. ATC Clearance is required. Both IFR and VFR traffic is separated.

Class C: where IFR and VFR flights are authorized, both under air traffic
control. ATC Clearance is required. ATC separates overall traffic, but VFR
flights are separated from IFR flights only, not from each other. However,
information to VFR flights in respect to other VFR flights are provided.

Class D: where IFR and VFR flights are authorized, both under air traffic
control. ATC Clearance is required. ATC separates IFR traffic and provide
information of VFR traffic as well. VFR traffic gets traffic information for all
flights.

9-14
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

Class E: where IFR flights are authorized and are separated from other IFR
flights only. ATC Clearance for IFR traffic is required. However, information
is provided to any traffic, as practical.

Class F: where there is no separation. IFR advisory service is provided.

Information is provided to all flights.

Class G: Only information is provided to all flights.

Note that:
 Flying in Class A, B, C and D requires an ATC Clearance
 Flying in Class E requires an ATC Clearance for IFR flights only
 VFR flights are conducted all the way from Class B to Class G
airspace. However, the rule “see and avoid” is not valid in Class B
airspace, because of ATC employment.
 IFR flights separation from overall air traffic, is assured in Class A,
B, C and D.

Free Flight Concept

Free Flight is an innovative air traffic control Concept, where direct routes
will replace airways, on Flight Levels above FL290. The flight crew will be
responsible to self separate from other aircraft and to chart its own flight
path. Information regarding weather and traffic, will be forwarded from
ATC to the aircraft. Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADSB) as
well as Satellite Navigation, are considered as key factors for the Concept
implementation.

In Free Flight Concept the airspace is broken into:

 Unrestricted, where little guidance from ATC is provided.
However, complication arises when airspace shrinks due to bad
weather. ATC will have to assist the pilots and resume air traffic
control
 Transition, where airspace gets slightly restricted

9-15
Airline Pilots Interview Course Operations

 Restricted, where the freedom of the pilot gets significantly

restricted

The idea for the Concept aroused in the 1970's when the aviation industry
inspired to use the GPS as a mean to increase the efficiency of air traffic
control. It was patented on 2001 by FAA. The project is delayed by several
years due to bureaucracy.

9-16
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

10. Flight Planning

10-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

CONTENTS

Magnetic Variation 10-4

Landing Distance Required (Available) at Destination 10-4
Approach Procedure Segments 10-5
Performance Categories on Approach Plate 10-5
ILS approach minima 10-6
Stabilized Approach 10-7
Visual Approach 10-7
Decision Height, Decision Altitude (DH, DA) 10-7
Minimum Descend Altitude (MDA) 10-7
Overshutting DH and MDA 10-8
Localizer Approach 10-8
Continuous Descent Approach (CDA) 10-8
Circling Approach 10-9
Visual Descent Point (VDP) 10-10
Approach Ban 10-10
Runway Visual Range (RVR) 10-11
Density Altitude 10-11
Converted Meteorological Visibility (CMV) 10-12
OPEN 5 criteria 10-12
Alternate Planning 10-13
Weather at Destination Upon Estimated Time of Arrival 10-14
Point of Equal Time (PET) and Point of no Return (PNR) 10-14
Low Visibility Procedures (LVP) 10-15
Low Visibility Takeoff (LVTO) 10-16
Minimum Safe (Sector) Altitude (MSA) 10-16
Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA) 10-17
Minimum Obstacle Crossing Altitude (MOCA) 10-17
Minimum Off Route Altitude (MORA) 10-18
Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA) 10-18
Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA) 10-18
Grid Minimum Off Route Altitude (Grid-MORA) 10-18
Fuel Planning 10-19
3%ERA Alternate Aerodrome 10-23
Reduced Contingency Fuel (RCF) Procedure 10-23
Decision Point Procedure 10-23

10-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Calculating Take-off Weight 10-24

Why do the Fuel Gauges Read Kg Instead of Liters, Yet the
Fuel is Delivered in Liters? 10-24
Water in Fuel 10-24
Fuel Contamination Check 10-24
Difference of Jet A and Jet A1 10-25
Long Range Cruise (LRC) Vs Economy Cruise (ECON) 10-26
Optimum Altitude 10-26
Recommended Altitude 10-26
Tire Creep 10-26
Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning) 10-27
Runway Status 10-27

10-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Magnetic Variation

Magnetic Variation is the angular difference of the Magnetic Poles from

True North. It depends on location. On Navigation charts the Routes are
depicted as magnetic. However, winds depicted on Upper Wind and
Temperature charts are True. A conversion to magnetic is needed before
computing the main wind.

Landing Distance Required (Available) at Destination

Landing Distance Required Dry (LDRd) at destination must be less than 60%
for jets and 70% for turboprops of the Landing Distance Available (LDA).
Thus:

For jets: LDRd ≤ 0.6 x LDA, or LDA ≥ LDRd x 1.67

For Turboprops: LDRd ≤ 0.7 LDA or LDA ≥ LDRd x 1.43

If it is reported or forecasted that the destination runway at the estimated

time of arrival may be wet, Landing Distance Required Wet (LDRw) is to be
calculated 15% longer than LDRd:

For jets: LDA ≥ LDRd x 1.92

For Turboprops: LDA ≥ LDRd x 1.64

On the above calculations a series of considerations must be also

accounted:

 The runway slope must be within ±2%

 Reference speed adjustment (adding wind component)
 Air Density
 Flap setting

10-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Approach Procedure Segments

Arrival: it is the segment that stars from Enroute and leads to the Initial
Approach Fix (IAF). It serves as an approach feeder.

Initial Approach Segment: starts from the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) and
leads to the Intermediate Fix (IF). It may be a course change or an arc and
serves to align the aircraft with the Final Approach Course.

Intermediate Approach Segment: starts from the Intermediate Fix (IF) and
leads to the Final Approach Fix (FAF). It may be the segment after the
approach turn leading to the FAF. It is used to configure the aircraft.

Final Approach Segment: starts from the Final Approach Fix (FAF) and leads
to the Decision Height (DH) or Decision Altitude (DA) or Missed Approach
Point (MAP). It may be the segment from the point of establishing on the
Glide Slope (GS) up to the minimums. It serves for descending.

Missed Approach Segment: starts from the Decision Height (DH) or

Decision Altitude (DA) or Missed Approach Point (MAP) and leads to a
designated Initial approach Fix (IAF) or Enroute Fix.

Note that whenever a Radar Vectoring is employed to an approach, the

aircraft may be vectored directly to the Intermediate (IF) or Final Approach
Fix (FAF).

Performance Categories on Approach Plate

According to aircraft Vref speed at the maximum certificated landing
weight, the following categories are defined:
 Category A: Speed less than 90kn
 Category B: from 91 to 120 kn
 Category C: from 121 to 140 kn
 Category D: from 141 to 165 kn
 Category E: more than 166 kn
Note that these are permanent values for each aircraft type and are
independent from changing conditions of each day operations.

10-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

ILS approach minima

ILS CAT I:

 DH not lower than 200ft on pressure altimeter

 not less than 550m RVR (or 800m Visibility if RVS is not
reported/available, or 600m Visibility in TAF)

ILS CAT II:

 DH not lower than 100ft on radio altimeter

 not less than 300m RVR

ILS CAT IIIa:

 DH not lower than 50ft on radio altimeter

 not less than 200m RVR

ILS CAT IIIb:

 DH not lower than 50ft on radio altimeter or no DH

 not less than 50m RVR (200m Visibility in TAF)

ILS CAT IIIc:

 no DH and no RVR limitations

 it is theoretical because of inability to taxi after landing having 0m
RVR (extensive airport installations are needed)

For ILS CAT II/ III operations:

 ceiling is not limiting
 approach spacing between aircraft is increased
 approach speed is set earlier
 approach speed margin is lower (Vref -0/+5kn)
 “runway vacated” is reported later, when the aircraft tail passes
the point where the centerline lights change from green/yellow
alternating to steady green.
 radio installations critical area is extended (in order to protect
signals transmitted by ILS and MLS aerial)

10-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Stabilized Approach

When flying an approach, an aircraft must be stabilized for safety reasons.

If it is not stabilized at 500ft AAL for VMC, or 1000ft AAL for IMC, a Go
Around must be initiated. An approach is considered to be stabilized if all
of the following are fulfilled:
 the aircraft is on the correct flight path
 only small changes in heading/pitch are necessary to maintain the
correct flight path
 desired landing configuration is set
 all checklists are completed
 the airspeed is Vref -0/+20kn
 positive power is set on engines
 sink rate is not greater than 1000 ft/min

Visual Approach

It is the approach where either part of the procedure is executed by visual

terrain reference, but under ATC control. RVR more than 800m is required.

Decision Height, Decision Altitude (DH, DA)

Decision Height (Altitude) is a specified height (altitude) in a precision

approach that marks the point that a missed approach must be initiated if
the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been
acquired. Decision Altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level (MSL)
while Decision Height (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation.

Minimum Descend Altitude (MDA)

Minimum Descend Altitude (MDA) is the lowest altitude on a non precision

approach, where a missed approach must be initiated. An aircraft may
descent to MDA in advance and maintain this altitude until reaching the
Missed Approach Point (MAP) and then initiate the missed approach.

10-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Overshutting DH and MDA

The flight crew must (and it is legal) overshutte DH (precision approach)

since a margin of 50ft is already applied to provide obstacle clearance,
when transitioning from the Final Approach to the Missed Approach
segment. In contrast, there is no margin applied on MDA (non-precision
approach). Thus, 50ft must be added, in order not to overshutte the MDA.

Localizer Approach

Localizer Approach is practically an ILS approach excluding Glide Slope

(GS). A Minimum descend Altitude (MDA) is used instead of a Decision
High (DH) or Decision Altitude (DA). It can never be less than 250ft. Not all
ILS approaches can be converted to a LOC approach. Conversion must be
authorized by the local CAA.

Continuous Descent Approach (CDA)

Continuous Descent Approach (CDA) is a method for an aircraft to perform

a non-precision approach. It is designed to reduce fuel consumption and
noise and to increase flight safety as well. Stair-step (conventional)
descent is replaced by a smooth, constant-angle descent.

It may be started at the Top of Descent (TOD) and continue down to the
threshold. However, this is not possible all the time, not for all arriving
flights and not always for the whole descent profile.

10-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Circling Approach

When a final approach is more than 30° offset of the assigned runway
centerline, a circling approach is specified, in order to bring the aircraft in a
suitable position for landing. It is flown visually, following any instrument
approach procedure.

When it is flown because of tailwind, an excessive Rate of Descend must be

maintained. MDA has to be reached sooner. Brake off point is at pilot’s
discretion. For each aircraft category there is a maximum speed and a
radius assigned. For category C ie, the maximum speed is 140kn and the
radius of turn is 4,2nm.

Circling approach minima are:

 MDH: 750ft
 visibility: 2400m

If visual contact with the airfield is lost:

 commence a Go Around and clean up the aircraft on schedule

 make an S-curved turn towards the runway
 follow the missed approach as published

Some Circling Approach patterns are depicted bellow:

10-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Visual Descent Point (VDP)

Visual Descent Point (VDP), is a point on the final approach course of a

non-precision approach, that ensures that the aircraft would be able to
continue descending on a 3° angle, down to the runway threshold. It is
actually where the horizontal line of the MDA and the 3°GS line intercept
each other.

Since it is rarely depicted on plates, VDP must be calculated by the flight

crew using the formula:

VDP = MDH / 300

The product reflects the distance from VDP to threshold, in Nautical Miles.
Note that the distance from threshold to DME station must be added.

Approach Ban

In order to perform a landing after an approach, actual RVR/VIS must be

above minimum, otherwise a Go Around should be initiated. If the RVR/VIS
minima for the approach are not fulfilled, the approach might be started
but not continued after a point specified by local CAA. Most of times this
point is the Final Approach Fix (FAF), the Outer Marker (OM) or an
equivalent position, or where 1000ft height is met. In UK for example,
Approach Ban states that starting the approach is not allowed at all, if
applicable minima are not fulfilled. If RVR/VIS fall bellow minima after
passing the Approach Ban, the approach may be continued down to DA/H.

10-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Runway Visual Range (RVR)

Runway Visual Range (RVR) is the distance on a runway, that a pilot on a

moving aircraft can see the runway surface markings. It is measured at 1m
above ground, visually or by transmissometers (Instrument RVR - IRVR). On
an airport diagram, the associated markings along the runway are depicted
by the symbol Δ. Up to three readings (A, B, C) may be released:

 A: threshold, mandatory
 B: mid-point, optional
 C: stop-end, optional

For example an A320 needs A and B while a B747 needs all three. Note
that for high speed Taxi (speed more than 60kn), an RVR reading at the
stop-end is considered mandatory.

RVR is usually reported when readings are bellow 1500m. The scale
increment is:

 25m, from 0m to 200m

 50m, from 200m to 800m
 100m, from 800m to 1500m

Trends are depicted when a change more than 100m occurs within 10min
prior the observation. Trends are:

 U, for up
 D, for down
 N, for no change

Density Altitude

Density Altitude is a pressure altitude corrected for non-standard

temperatures. It is the altitude the aircraft feels (not the real altitude) and
it is used to determine the performance of an aircraft at low level.

Density Altitude = Pressure Altitude + (120 x (OAT – ISA temp))

10-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Converted Meteorological Visibility (CMV)

Approach and landing are not authorized when visibility is lower than
800m, unless adequate RVR is reported. When planning in-flight and RVR is
not available, Converted Meteorological Visibility (CMV) may be used, in
order to commence or to continue an approach beyond the IAF, down to
the applicable DA(H) or MDA(H).

CMV is not to be used for:

 calculating takeoff minima
 ILS CAT II or III minima
 substituting RVR, when RVR is available

Use the following conversion table for CAT I only:

Conversion of Meteorological Visibility to RVR

Lightning elements in operation RVR = Reported Visibility x ….
Day Night

Hi Indication Approach and Runway 1.5 2.0

Lighting System (HIALS)

Any type of lighting installation other 1.0 1.5

than that above described

No lightning 1.0 Not applicable

OPEN 5 criteria

 Wind within Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) limits

 Visibility more than 5km
 Ceiling 2000ft or circling +500ft, whichever is higher above AAL
 Runway not contaminated
 No persistent condition, i.e. TS, RA, FG, SS, SN etc.

10-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Alternate Planning

At least one Destination Alternate is required for each IFR flight. Weather
at Destination, En-route, Alternate and Isolated Aerodrome, must be
within applicable charts minima ±1h from ETA. Usually, for CAT II and III
approaches, ceiling is not required, except when specified by the
aerodrome.

Weather at the Alternate, En-route and Isolated Aerodrome must be:

Type of approach Planning Minima

Cat II and III Cat I (RVR only is limiting)

Cat I Non-precision (RVR and Ceiling are limiting)
Non-precision Non-precision MDH+200ft / RVR+1000m
(RVR and Ceiling are limiting)
Circling Circling

Alternates having no radio navigation aids, must fulfill the Open 5 criteria.

Two Destination Alternates are required when destination weather

conditions at ETA ±1 hour is reported or forecasted below applicable
planning minima, or no meteorological information is available (advice by
telephone is restricted for information only). Two alternates are not
necessary, when an auxiliary destination and an alternate aerodrome are
selected.

Planning with no Destination Alternate may be practiced if all the bellow

are fulfilled:

 the runway at alternate aerodrome is not sufficient for aircraft’s

MTOM/MLM (for max payload)
 no alternate is available (isolated destination)
 destination aerodrome is less than 6h away
 remaining fuel after landing is not less than the Final Reserve Fuel
 OPEN 5 criteria are fulfilled

10-13
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

 at least two separate runways are provided at destination

aerodrome, not blocking each other in case of one gets blocked,
having two independent IFR approach procedures based on
separate aids

Weather at Destination Upon Estimated Time of Arrival

Weather at Destination Aerodrome is required to be better than the

applicable chart minima, or than the minima stated in the company’s
Operations Manual (OM), whichever is higher, one hour prior and after the
ETA. In example:

Point of Equal Time (PET) and Point of no Return (PNR)

Point of Equal Time (PET) or Point of no Return (PNR), is the point between
two airfields, where the flight time to one airfield equals the flight time to
the other airfield.

Ideally, it is in the middle of the distance between the two airfields.

However, as airspeed changes, PNR is enabled also to change. Airspeed
may change due to wind and due to one engine inoperative airspeed.

10-14
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

The formula bellow is used to calculate the distance of PNR from the
departure airfield:
X = DxVA / VA+VB
where:
 X is the distance of PNR from departure
 D is the total distance between airfields
 VA is the groundspeed to departure airfield
 VB is the groundspeed to destination airfield

Low Visibility Procedures (LVP)

Low Visibility Procedures (LVP) are ground procedures aiming to enhance

flight safety during landing and takeoff when visibility is sufficiently low.
Airport facilities efficiency, play a key role of when LVP come in force.
Usually, LVP come in force when RVR is lower than 550m (VIS 800m) and
ceiling is bellow 200ft height. When in force, they must be clearly declared.

When LVP are in force:

 approach spacing between aircraft is increased
 approach speed is set earlier
 approach speed margin is lower (Vref -0/+5kn)
 “runway vacated” is reported later
 radio installations critical area is extended (to protect signals
transmitted by ILS and MLS aerial)

Runway is considered to be vacated, when the aircraft tail passes the point
where the centerline lights change from green/yellow alternating to steady
green.

10-15
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Low Visibility Takeoff (LVTO)

Low Visibility Takeoff (LVTO) is a take-off with an RVR lower than 400m but
not less than 75m (CAT III Operations). According to ICAO, for all flights
departing with an RVR lower than 550m, LVTO is required. If visibility is not
sufficient for take-off and no LVTO is in force, takeoff is prohibited. Proper
crew training and appropriate runway lighting is needed.

Most likely, a takeoff alternate is required. It must be suitable for one

engine inoperative approach and landing.

Minimum Safe (Sector) Altitude (MSA)

 Provides 1000ft obstacle clearance in a 25nm radius around a

defined fix. 25nm is the default value. If it is different, it must be
specified on plates.
 It is for emergency use only.
 It does not guarantee navaid reception.

On a plate MSA may be depicted as follows:

10-16
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA)

 It is the lowest altitude of an airway for flight planning purposes

 It meets obstacle clearance requirements within the airway (±5nm
of airway centerline)
 Demonstrates acceptable signal and radio coverage all the way on
the airway

On a navigation chart MEA is depicted as follows:

Minimum Obstacle Crossing Altitude (MOCA)

 It is the lowest published altitude of an airway that guarantees

obstacle clearance
 Navaid and Radio coverage is provided within 22nm of the facility
 It is for emergency use only

On a navigation chart MOCA is depicted as follows:

10-17
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Minimum Off Route Altitude (MORA)

 Provides 1000ft clearance above terrain

 Provides 2000ft clearance above mountainous terrain
 MORA route extends ±10nm from the airway centerline regardless
of the airway width as well as beyond the associated radio fix

Note that a terrain is considered mountainous, when the change of terrain

elevation exceeds 3000ft within a distance of 10nm.

Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA)

Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA) is the Enroute altitude that guaranties

navaid reception to airway interception points.

Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA)

Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA) is the lowest altitude on a specific point

of an airway, where Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA) changes to a higher
value. It serves to provide adequate clearance from ground when changing
altitude.

Grid Minimum Off Route Altitude (Grid-MORA)

 Provides clearance from terrain, within a blog bounded from

specified latitude and longitude.
 It does not provide Navaid and Radio coverage.
 Provides 1000ft clearance of terrain, where the highest terrain
elevation is lower than 5000ft MSL and 2000ft clearance of terrain,
where the highest terrain elevation is higher than 5000ft MSL

10-18
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

 It is depicted within the respective blog on the chart. The last two
characters of altitude are omitted (i.e. 5200ft is depicted as 52)

On a navigation chart Grid MORA is depicted as follows:

Fuel Planning

Fuel Planning depends on:

 realistic aircraft fuel consumption

 anticipated load
 expected meteorological weather conditions
 air traffic procedures

For Fuel Planning use the following table in order to summarize the
portions calculated:

10-19
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

FUEL SUMARY
Taxi Fuel
Burn Of Fuel
+ Trip Fuel
+ Contingency Fuel Minimum
Actual
Block Fuel
+ Alternate Fuel Block Fuel

+ Final Reserve Fuel

+ Extra / Additional / Eco

Note that:
 Taxi Fuel + Trip Fuel = Burn off Fuel. This is actually the fuel that we
expect to use
 Taxi Fuel + Trip + Contingency + Alternate + Final Reserve =
Minimum Block Fuel. This is the Fuel an aircraft must have on
board, in order to can Legally depart
 Taxi Fuel + Trip + Contingency + Alternate + Final Reserve + Extra +
Eco = Actual Block Fuel. This is the Realistic Fuel on board

Taxi Fuel, is the fuel to cover:

 APU and ice protection systems operation on ground
 engine start
 aircraft ground movement (Taxi from gate to runway)

For long taxiways or long waiting time before takeoff, an extra amount of
fuel must be added (i.e. 200kg for A320).

Trip Fuel, is the fuel to cover:

 takeoff
 climb
 cruise from Top of Climb (T/C) to Top Of Descent (T/D)
 descent
 approach
 landing

10-20
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

It is calculated for the most used runway at destination and the longest
arrival route. It depends on:
 ground distance
 cruising Flight Level / altitude
 wind component
 ambient temperature
 aircraft weight
 cruise power setting

Contingency Fuel, is the fuel to cover deviations from planned conditions,

such as:
 individual airplane data
 cruising level/altitude assigned by ATC, other than planned
 insufficient wind prediction
 insufficient temperature prediction

By default, it is the 5% of Trip Fuel, or 3% when there is an En-route

Alternate (3%ERA) available. Usually, it is used during holding (prior using
the Final Reserve Fuel).

It can never be less than a fixed value, corresponding to 5min flight time at
1500ft height over the destination, at holding speed and in ISA conditions.

Alternate Fuel, is the fuel required to fly from destination to the

destination alternate, taking into account:
 a full missed approach procedure from MAP up to MAP altitude,
with no shortcut
 climb from MAP to T/C
 cruise from T/C to T/D
 descent
 approach to the destination alternate

It is calculated for current aircraft data (i.e. weight). Long Range Cruise
(LRC) is used instead of Economy Cruise, meaning 4% faster speed than
1.32Vmd.

10-21
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

A route that can’t go wrong should be planed. When two alternates are
required, fuel to the furthest alternate must be considered.

Final Reserve Fuel, is the fuel required to fly for 30min (jets) or 45min
(prop) at holding speed (Maximum Endurance Speed), on 1500ft height
above Destination Alternate, in ISA conditions. It is calculated for current
aircraft data (i.e. weight). Final reserve fuel is increased by 15 minutes
(total 45min) in case of flight with no Destination Alternate.

Landing with less than Final Reserve Fuel on board during normal
operations, is not allowed. This applies for landing at the Destination
Alternate too.

If it is expected that fuel reserves will drop bellow Final Reserve, the pilot
has to declare a Fuel Emergency.

Extra Fuel, is an amount of fuel taken at the commander’s discretion. It

may cover:
 the uncertainty in forecasting weather and runway conditions
 the reliability of onboard or ground navigation equipment
 an en route delay

An amount corresponding to 30min endurance is usually recommended for

short range operations.

Extra Fuel is calculated using holding fuel flow.

Additional Fuel, is an amount of fuel to ensure that during a failure of an

engine and/or pressurization system at any point along the route, the
airplane will have sufficient fuel to proceed to the destination or any
alternate (flying on a lower altitude), hold there for 15min at 1500ft and
make an approach and landing.

Eco Fuel, is Economic Fuel carried for:

 economy (cheap fuel in duty free)
 availability of fuel at destination is not assured

10-22
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

 minimum uplift agreement with the fuel company (i.e. threshold of

buying a minimum of 1000lt)
 operational flexibility during flight training or tanking from
previous flight
 keeping short turnaround time at destination

Eco fuel shall be converted into endurance using holding fuel flow.

3%ERA Alternate Aerodrome

The 3%ERA Alternate Aerodrome in general must be located near the

destination. In order to schedule for a 3% alternate, determine the 25% of
the planned route distance to the side of the destination, or 20%+50nm
whichever is greater. Use this point as a center of a circle having a radius
equal to 20% of the total route distance. Finally, locate the alternate within
the circle.

Planning with a 3%ERA Alternate Aerodrome allows for 3% instead of 5%

Contingency Fuel.

Reduced Contingency Fuel (RCF) Procedure

Decision Point Procedure

The Reduced Contingency Fuel (RCF) Procedure aims in reducing the

contingency fuel on board. In order to do so, a Decision Point as well as a
Second Destination, has to be defined. If the fuel on board at the Decision
Point proved to be unsatisfactory to continue the flight to the destination,
a deviation to the Second Destination has to be made not later than the
Decision Point.

The fuel on board shall be the greater of:

 Taxi + Trip to destination + Contingency (5%) from Decision Point
to destination + Alternate + Final Reserve + Additional + Extra
 Taxi + Trip to Second destination + Contingency (5%) the hole Trip
+ Alternate + Final Reserve + Additional + Extra

10-23
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Calculating Take-off Weight

For Calculating Take-off Weight summarize the fuel amounts in reverse

order. Use the following table:
FUEL SUMARY
Basic Operating Weight
Zero Fuel
+ Payload Weight Planed
+ Final Reserve Fuel Landing
Planned
Weight
+ Alternate Fuel Take-off Fuel

+ Contingency Fuel
+ Trip Fuel

Why do the Fuel Gauges Read Kg Instead of Liters, Yet the Fuel is
Delivered in Liters?

Fuel volume changes as an aircraft climbs or flies through areas of different

pressure and temperature. However, fuel weight remains constant all the
time. Moreover, fuel weight (mass) is directly related with the calorific
value of the fuel. Thus, all performance calculations are based on weight.

However, fuel supplies are not charged with weight (or mass) but with
volume.

Use 0.8Kg/lt average Specific Gravity for Jet A1 (meaning that 1lt of Jet A1
weights 0.8kg) to convert volume to mass and vice versa.

Water in Fuel
Fuel absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. In a tank, as fuel evaporates it
absorbs heat and cools the tank walls. Water vapor condenses on the tank
walls (like on a glass of cold water) and runs down to the bottom of the

10-24
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

tank. When engines are running, fuel evaporation is compromised by

applying a small air pressure (1psi) into the fuel tanks.

Fuel Contamination Check

In order to check for fuel contamination, a sample of fuel taken from the
aircraft drain valve (lowest point of tank) is collected into a diaphanous
container.

After allowing to relax, solid particles (if any) are deposited at the bottom.

It is normal for the sample initially to appear hazy, due to air trapped into
the fuel during draining. However, if haziness persists and starts clearing
from the top to the bottom, entrained (diluted) water should be
suspected.

Free Water (if any), is heavier than fuel and sinks down to the bottom of
the container, where it is easy visible.

Difference of Jet A and Jet A1

Jet A is pure kerosene, having a freezing point of –40°C and a flashpoint of

51°C. It is used for domestic flights within USA and can also be found in
Gander airport in Canada.

Jet A1 is pure kerosene also, having a lower freezing point of –47°C and a
flashpoint of 42°C. It is worldwide used by high altitude commercial
airliners.

Jet A is cheaper than Jet A1. As it is denser, it has a higher calorific value
(carries more energy). Also, it is safer to handle on the ground due to its
higher flashpoint. However, because of its lower freezing point, Jet A1 is
typically used by all airliners.

10-25
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Long Range Cruise (LRC) Vs Economy Cruise (ECON)

Long Range Cruise minimizes fuel consumption per distance travelled. It

gives usually a slower speed. In Economy Cruise time is a consideration as
well. ECON and cost Index 0 minimizes Fuel consumption per time, while
ECON and Cost Index 999 minimizes Time.

Optimum Altitude

Optimum Altitude is a cruise altitude in still air that gives the minimum trip
cost. Depending on the operating mode it is calculated for:

 minimum cost (in the ECON mode)

 minimum fuel burn (in LRC mode)

As weight decreases Optimum Altitude increases. Temperature deviations

from ISA and winds along the cruise are not considered. In any case it
provides a 1.5g load factor buffet margin.

Recommended Altitude

Recommended Altitude is the Optimum Altitude corrected for

Temperature deviations from ISA and Winds along the cruise. It provides
the most cost efficient operation when flying cost index, and the most
efficient fuel burn in other modes.

Tire Creep

Tire Creep is the tendency of the tire to rotate slower around the wheel
hub, as a result of friction of the tire against the runway before wheel spin
occurs. It is mainly encountered when tire pressure is low. It is monitored
visually by marks on the tire. If creep is excessive the inflation valve may
tear out.

10-26
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning)

Hydroplaning is the loss of friction between a tire and the runway surface
due to contamination. It may cause loss of directional control especially in
cross wind conditions. In extreme cases it may cause the tire to heat and
explode. Most likely it is encountered during heavy braking on
contaminated runways (i.e. in a rejected takeoff). There are three types of
hydroplaning:

Dynamic Hydroplaning:
It is when the tire gets lifted off the runway and rides over the water.
2.5mm of water are enough to evoke it.

Viscous Hydroplaning
It is when the tire slips over a smooth runway covered by tire remainings.
Less water and lower speed compared to Dynamic Hydroplaning is needed
to evoke it.

Steam Hydroplaning
It is when excessive braking blocks the wheel. Friction produces heat that
melts the tire underneath. On a wet runway this may cause the water
trapped under the tire to turn into steam and lift the tire of the runway.

Runway Status

Dry is a runway that is neither wet nor contaminated and includes those
paved runways which have been specially prepared with grooves or porous
pavement and maintained to retain "effectively dry" braking action, even
when moisture is present on the surface.

Damp is a runway whose surface is not dry but still, the moisture on it does
not give it a shiny appearance.

10-27
Airline Pilots Interview Course Flight Planning

Wet is a runway that the surface is covered with water or equivalent (less
than contaminated), or when moisture causes it to appear reflective, but
has no significant areas of standing water.

Contaminated is a runway when more than 25% of the surface (whether in

isolated areas or not) within the required length and width being used, is
covered by the following:

 surface water more than 3mm (0.125 inch) deep

 slush or loose snow equivalent to more than 3mm (0.125 inch) of
water
 snow which has been compressed into a solid mass, which resists
further compression and will hold together or break into lumps if
picked up (compacted snow)
 ice, including wet ice.

10-28
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

11. Meteorological Products

11-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

CONTENTS

METAR (Meteorological Aerodrome Report) 11-3

SPECI (Special Aerodrome Meteorological Report) 11-3
TAF (Terminal Aerodromes Forecast) 11-5
SIGMET (Significant Meteorological Advisory) 11-5
AIRMET 11-5
VOLMET (Volume Meteorological) 11-6
ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service) 11-6
Weather Planning 11-6
Significant Weather Chart (SWC) 11-7
Upper Wind and Temperature Charts 11-9
Synoptic Charts 11-9
Contour Charts 11-10
Wind prediction on Synoptic and Contour charts 11-11
Wind Shear Alert 11-11

11-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

METAR (Meteorological Aerodrome Report)

SPECI (Special Aerodrome Meteorological Report)

METAR is a code depicting actual weather. It is issued every 30 minutes at

the 20th and 50th minute of an hour (i.e. 09:20, 11:50). It is valid for 2 hours.
METARS are not to be used for flight planning. TRENDS may be added at
the end of a METAR, forecasting weather for no more than 2 hours.

SPECIs are issued when weather changes significantly.

Wind Velocity:
• Gusts are reported when they exceed the average wind speed by
more than 10kn (i.e. 18020G30kn)
• Wind variation is reported when it exceeds the prevailing wind by
more than ±60°
• True Wind is provided in the message, while ATC, ATIS and
Navigation Charts provide magnetic wind

RVR tips:
• It is reported when visibility falls below 1500m
• Trends are U for up, D for down, N for no change (i.e. R16/800N)
and are reported for changes greater than 100m in the last 10min
• Prefix M stands for minus and indicates a value lower than that
can be assessed
• Prefix P stands for Plus and indicates a value more than 1500m

Pressure (QNH):
• Q stands for mb while A stands for inches of mercury (i.e. Q1012,
A3008)

Weather:
• Intensity is reported by (+) for heavy and (–) for light
• Only convective clouds may be reported
• NCD stands for no clouds detected by automated system
• Table of weather codes:

11-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

Descriptor Precipitation Visibility Various

MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Dust or
Sand Whirls
BC Patches Rain RA FG Fog SQ Squals
PR Partial Snow SN FU Smoke FC Funnel Cloud
DR Drifting Snow SG VA Volcanic SS Sandstorm
Grains Ash
BL Blowing IC Ice DU Dust DS Dust storm
Crystals
SH Showers PE Ice SA Sand
Pellets
TS Thunderstorm GR Hail HZ Haze
FZ Freezing GS Small
Hail

Additional reports:
• If Recent Weather (RE) is reported, it is currently over (i.e. RETS)
• Windshear if it is reported, is referred bellow 1600ft, on final (i.e.
WS R16)

Trends:
• Trends supersede TAF info
• NOSIG stands for No Significant Change
• BCMG stands for a Becoming permanent change and is followed by
a time frame
• TEMPO stands for Temporary and lasts for less than 1 hour and
less than half forecast period. It is used when probability of change
is more than 50%
• PROP stands for Probability and may be 30% or 40% only
• FM stands for From
• TO stands for Until
• AT stands for At

Runway State Group:

• It is reported when runway is contaminated

11-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

• It consists of 8 digits. The first 2 identify the runway while the last
2 identify the Braking Action
• 16 implies 16L, 66 (=16+50) implies 16R, 88 implies all runways
• 91 implies Braking Action Poor, 92 Medium to Poor, 93 Medium,
94 Medium to Good, 95 Good (i.e. 16CLRD95, 88CLRD94)

CAVOK:
• Visibility more than 10km
• No clouds bellow 5000ft or bellow MSA whichever is greater, as
well as no CB.
• No precipitation, thunderstorm, fog

TAF (Terminal Aerodromes Forecast)

TAFs are coded weather forecasts issued by qualified aerodromes. FC

indicates a 9 to 12 hour TAF issued every 3 hours. FT indicates a 12 to 24
hour TAF issued every 6 hours. They cover a Terminal Aerodrome area.
Codes are similar to METAR.

SIGMET (Significant Meteorological Advisory)

SIGMET is a warning for hazardous meteorological phenomena. It may be

broadcasted by ATC and addressed to flight crews during flight. It covers an
area of 500nm or 2 hours flight time. SIGMETs are valid for 4 hours (6
hours if the message concerns hurricanes or volcanic ash).

AIRMET

AIRMET is a recorded message regarding a specified area. It is passed

through telephone to aircrews.

11-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

VOLMET (Volume Meteorological)

VOLMET is a recorded weather report (METAR-TAF-SIGMET) broadcasted

on a shortwave radio network. In contrast with ATIS, it covers wide areas
(i.e. NAT).

ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)

ATIS is a continuous broadcast of a recorded message to aircrews

regarding approach information such as weather, available runway,
NOTAMs etc. It drastically reduces radio calls. A letter designator included
in the message, specifies the update status (i.e. information F).

Weather Planning

Weather Planning is to be based on the latest TAF. Moreover, the Trend

type landing forecast at the end of a METAR, supersedes the current TAF.

Actual weather reports are not to be used for flight planning. However, if
no forecast is available for the destination, the planning of flights having a
flight time less than 1 hour, may be based on actual weather reports.

If the TAF indicates the destination bellow applicable minima, but the
METAR indicates actual weather at or above minima, or the METAR Trend
forecasts that the minima will be reached upon ETA, the destination may
be considered above minima despite a new or amended TAF has not been
received.

An aerodrome should be considered bellow minima when entering a

TEMPO or PROB 30 (or higher) Deteriorating time frame with any weather
type except showers. In contrast, when entering a TEMPO or PROB 30 (or
higher) Improving time frame, it should be still considered bellow minima.

11-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

Significant Weather Chart (SWC)

SWC are valid from 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC. They depict:
 areas of significant weather (CB’s, turbulence, icing)
 jetstreams
 areas of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)
 height of tropopause

Notes:
 Heights are expressed in Flight Levels
 Tropopause heights are designated in boxes
 XXX implies that the associated phenomena, extend beyond the
carts vertical coverage (depicted in the bottom right)
 “Slow” implies less than 5kn speed, of associated pressure center
 The boxed numbers next to a CAT, are references to altitudes
provided in the decode box

Significant weather chart symbols are depicted bellow:

11-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

Additional Codes regarding SWC:

LOC Locally WDSPR Widespread GEN General
K Thunderstorm MAR Over the Sea BLW Bellow
COT At the coast LYR Layer SEV Severe

Cumulonimbus Only definitions:

ISOL Isolated
OCNL Occasional
FREQ Frequent
EMBD Embedded

11-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

Upper Wind and Temperature Charts

Upper Wind and Temperature Charts depict spot winds and temperatures
in various heights, ranging from FL100 up to FL390. Temperature values
with no prefix are assumed negative. Positive values are prefixed with (+).
This chart is used to compute the mean (average) temperature and the
wind direction/velocity along a given track. In order to do so, draw a Track
on the chart and compute the values along it. Note that the winds are True
and a conversion to magnetic is needed.

Synoptic Charts

Synoptic Charts are classified for defined Heights and depict lines joining a
Constant Pressure (Isobars).

11-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

Contour Charts

In contrast to Synoptic Charts, Contour Charts are classified for defined

Pressures and depict lines joining a Constant Height. They are used for
flying at Flight Levels (on a given pressure). Low value lines are stating that
the defined pressure is anticipated at low heights and vice versa.

11-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

Wind prediction on Synoptic and Contour charts

On a Synoptic Chart, the wind blows perpendicular to isobars. The closer

are the isobars the stronger is the wind.

On a Contour Chart, when having the low contour to the back the wind
blows to the left. The closer are the contour lines the stronger is the wind.

Wind Shear Alert

A Wind Shear may be estimated by processing the following criteria:

 wind speed more than 20kn
 wind speed variation more than 40kn from mean value
 thunderstorm or heavy rain in the vicinity of the airport

The Wind Shear Alert is broadcasted by ATC and/or ATIS. This may be:
 Windshear Forecast (WSF), if it is forecasted

11-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Meteorological Products

 Windshear Forecast and Reported (WSFR), if it is forecasted and

reported by an aircrew within the last hour
 Windshear Reported (WSR), if it is reported only

11-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Fog

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

12. Fog

12-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Fog

CONTENTS

Fog Formation 12-3

Radiation Fog 12-3
Advection Fog 12-4
Thaw Fog 12-4
Sea Fog 12-4
Steaming Fog (Ice Fog or Arctic Sea Smoke) 12-5
Frontal Fog (Precipitation Induced Fog) 12-5
Hill Fog (Upslope Fog) 12-5
Smoke Fog (SMOG) 12-6

12-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Fog

Fog Formation

Fog formation in general involves Heat and Saturation. In more detail, fog
may form by cooling the air mass to its Dew Point, or by increasing the air
mass near the ground.

Radiation Fog
Radiation Fog is formed over land only, because land looses a lot of heat
during night by Radiation, while water surfaces loose only a little.
Subsequently, the lower masses of air that are in contact with the ground
are also cooled. If the air temperature drops below the Dew-Point, water
vapor condenses and fog forms. Radiation Fog is most common in autumn
and winter. It is no more than a few hundred feets thick.

Conditions favorable for radiation fog formation are:

 clear sky, so that heat lost by radiation is not caged by clouds in

the lower atmosphere
 light wind of about 5kn, that mixes the air and spreads fog. If wind
is stronger, fog disperses and stratus clouds are formed. In
contrast, if wind is calm, Dew or Frost is formed
 high Relative Humidity (RH) or low temperature-dew point spread.
This allows fog formation, with only a little further cooling of air

Radiation Fog disperses with heat, as Dew-point takes a higher value, by:

 Insolation after sunrise

 cloud cover that cages heat in lower atmosphere. However, clouds
may preserve fog if temperature is not sufficient

In addition:

 stronger winds may disperse fog

 replacement of humid air mass with a drier one by advection,
lowers The Dew-point further and fog gets absorbed

12-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Fog

Advection Fog

Thaw Fog

Sea Fog

Advection Fog forms when a warm moist air mass moves over colder
ground or water.

In winter and early spring, sea is warmer than land. A motion of a moist air
mass from sea towards land, results in fog formation over the land. This is
called Thaw Fog.

In late spring and summer, land is warmer than sea. A motion of a moist air
mass from land towards the sea, results in fog formation over the sea. This
is called Sea Fog (or Haar For in NE UK).

Conditions favorable for Advection Fog formation are:

 wind up to 15kn. If wind gets stronger (over 25kn) Stratus clouds

are formed instead of fog
 high relative humidity, allowing for fog to form with only a little
further cooling of air
 the cold surface temperature must be lower than the Dew-Point of
the warm moist moving air

Differences of Advection and Radiation Fog:

 Advection Fog is much more persistent and extensive than

Radiation Fog
 Advection Fog forms regardless of cloud covering. Thus, cloudy
skies may be encountered above Advection Fog
 Advection Fog is formed at daytime also, in contrast with Radiation
Fog that is formed only at nighttime

12-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Fog

Steaming Fog (Ice Fog or Arctic Sea Smoke)

Steaming Fog is formed like Advection Fog, with the difference that it is a
cold moist air mass that is moving towards a warmer sea (in Advection it is
the hot moist air mass that moves towards colder territory). It is
encountered in extremely cold (arctic) seas, where instead of convection
and cumuliform cloud formation, the cold moist air remains stable in the
lower atmosphere, while vapor from the sea saturates this air, resulting in
fog formation. Since air temperature is below the Freezing Point, vapor
sublimates directly to ice crystals, giving the fog a white appearance like
Sea Smoke.

Frontal Fog (Precipitation Induced Fog)

Frontal fog is formed in front (or bellow) a warm front, as warm rain or
drizzle from Ns clouds, fall into the colder air beneath the front. This
increases the overall moisture to the point that the air gets saturated and
fog is formed. Saturation is also supported by the evaporating moisture
from the soaked earth, where rain is falling.

Frontal Fog is persistent and extends over large areas.

Hill Fog (Upslope Fog)

Hill Fog is formed when a moist air mass gets adiabatically cooled down to
its Dew-Point, because of Orographic Lift, in stable conditions. It disperses
when the wind that causes the lift calms. It is actually a Stratiform cloud
next to the hill surface.

12-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Fog

Smoke Fog (SMOG)

As the definition implies, Smoke Fog is consisted of Smoke and Fog. It is

encountered in industrial cities.

An Inversion is required in order to prevent the polluted air to lift by

convection and disperse. In addition, the solid particles of smoke act like
nuclei, causing moisture to condense and form fog.

12-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

13. Icing

13-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

CONTENTS

Icing Conditions 13-4

Icing Report 13-4
Icing Hazards 13-4
Critical surfaces for icing 13-4
Supercooled Water Droplets 13-5
Freezing Drizzle 13-5
Freezing Rain 13-5
Freezing Fog 13-5
Ice Pellets 13-6
Hail 13-6
Snow Grains 13-6
Slush 13-6
Clear Ice 13-6
Crystal Ice 13-6
Rime Ice 13-6
Mixed Ice 13-7
Frost Ice 13-7
Hoar Frost 13-7
De-icing 13-7
Anti-ice 13-8
One Step de-icing/anti-icing 13-8
Two Step de-icing/anti-icing 13-8
Anti-Icing Limit 13-9
Dried Fluid Residue 13-9
Anti-Ice Fluid Side Effects 13-9
Anti -icing and de-icing Fluid ISO TYPE I 13-9
Anti -icing and de-icing Fluid ISO TYPE III 13-9
Anti -icing and de-icing Fluid ISO TYPE II/ IV 13-10
Ground Personnel and anti-icing/de-icing 13-10
In Flight anti-icing/deicing 13-11
What is the Difference of an anti-icing and a de-icing System? 13-11
Anti-Icing/De-Icing Recording 13-11
Standard Communication Anti-Icing/De-Icing Terminology 13-12
Jet Engine Icing 13-12
Propeller Icing 13-12

13-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Cold Weather Operations – On Ground 13-12

Cold Weather Operations – Engine Start 13-13
Cold Weather Operations – After Engine Start 13-13
Cold Weather Operations – Taxi 13-14
Cold Weather Operations – In Flight 13-14
Cold Weather Operations – After Landing 13-15
Adverse Weather Practices 13-15

13-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Icing Conditions

Ice is most probable to develop when:

 TAT is lower than 10°C

 Visible moisture is present (clouds, fog with visibility lower than 1
mile, rain, sleet, ice crystals, etc)
 Standing water, ice or snow is present on the aerodrome moving
area

Icing Report

Icing is reported as:

 Severe Icing, where de-icing/anti-icing equipment cannot confront

ice. Immediate change of heading and/or altitude is required.
 Moderate Icing, where ice accumulation may cause hazards.
Change of heading and/or altitude may be desirable.
 Light Icing, where conditions are less than Moderate Icing.
 Trace Ice, where ice is accumulating slightly faster than
sublimating.

Icing Hazards

Critical surfaces for icing

Ice accumulation increases Total Weight. Airfoil performance is

compromised. If ice is accreted on control surfaces, aircraft controllability
may be degraded. Critical surfaces for icing are:

 Leading edges and upper surfaces

 Vertical and horizontal stabilizers
 All control surfaces
 Slats and flaps
 Engine blades

13-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Supercooled Water Droplets

Supercooled are the Water Droplets having a temperature below zero but
are still in liquid condition. This situation occurs because of the absence of
nucleus to start the freezing process. Small supercooled water droplets are
encountered in temperatures from 0° to -40°C and tend to freeze instantly.
Large Supercooled Water Droplets are encountered in temperatures from
0° to -20°C and tend to freeze progressively, because Latent heat is
released by the droplet upon freezing, delaying the overall process.

Actually, for each 1°C bellow 0°C, 1/80 or the droplet freezes upon impact
with an airfoil. For example, if temperature is -20°C, 1/4 will freeze while
the rest of the droplet will flow back to freeze progressively.

Freezing Drizzle

Freezing Drizzle is the kind of precipitation where the droplets have

diameter less than 0,5mm and freeze upon impact with ground or objects.
The droplets are very close together.

Freezing Rain

Freezing Rain is the kind of precipitation that freezes upon impact with
ground or objects. The diameter of the droplets is more than 5mm. In
contrast with freezing drizzle, the droplets are widely separated. It may be
distinct in Light Freezing Rain when the concentration is less than
2,5mm/hour, and Moderate or heavy freezing Rain when the
concentration is more than 2,5mm/hour. Ice pellets on the ground indicate
that freezing rain may exist at higher altitudes.

Freezing Fog

Freezing Fog is the kind of fog that freezes upon impact with ground or
objects. Visibility is usually reduced to 1km or less.

13-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Ice Pellets

Hail

Precipitation falling in the form of ice may be named Ice Pellets when the
diameter of ice is less than 5mm, and Hail when the diameter is 5mm up to
50mm.

Snow Grains

Snow Grains are actually ice particles having a diameter less than 1mm.
They are opaque like snow and they do not bounce or shatter upon impact
with ground.

Slush

Slush is actually snow or ice mixed with water. It is soft and sticky.

Clear Ice

Crystal Ice

Clear Ice is formed by large supercooled water droplets as they flow back
over an airframe and freeze progressively (flowback). It forms a clear and
solid crystal, following the shape of the airfoil. Large supercooled droplets
usually occur in freezing rain, drizzle and fog. It is often encountered
beneath a warm front where precipitation falls into colder air. However, it
may be also encountered in temperatures as high as 15°C.

Rime Ice

Rime Ice is formed by small supercooled water droplets, rapidly freezing

with impact over the airframe (no flowback). Rime Ice is rough and
opaque, having a white color due to air trapped into the ice. It forms on

13-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

any part on the airplane, in particular on the windward side and often
forms protrusions into the airflow.

Mixed Ice

Mixed Ice is a combination of Clear and Rime Ice. It is formed when both
large and small supercooled water droplets are present.

Frost Ice

Hoar Frost

Frost Ice forms by sublimation, as water vapor turns directly into ice, in the
form of Frost. Air temperature must be close to Dew Point and aircraft
surface temperature must be bellow 0°C. It is a white crystalline coating
(like sand paper), often formed behind the deicing boots or heated leading
edges. It may be formed:

 upon takeoff from a cold aerodrome, followed by a penetration

into warm moist air mass
 upon a descent from a cold air mass, into warm moist air
 in clear air when the airplane is parked in sub-zero temperatures

De-icing

Ice, slush or snow can physically be removed from the airplane surfaces by:

 mechanical means (wiping it out using soft brushes), especially in

the case of dry snow (the kind of snow that can not be formed to a
snow ball)
 spraying the airplane with pressured deicing fluid or hot water to
melt and blast away the contaminants

Note that protection from further contamination is not provided.

13-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

A maximum layer of 3mm of Frost is acceptable on the upper surface of

the fuselage and on the underside of the wing tank area. This will not
penalize takeoff performance. Before de-icing:
• APU and engines can be running (IDLE)
• packs must be turned off
• bleed air must be turned off

Anti-ice

Anti-ice is a precautionary method to provide protection against the

formation of ice, slush and snow for a limited period, by applying a layer of
anti‐icing fluid of type II/IV on the airplane surfaces. It is assumed to flow
off during takeoff.

One Step de-icing/anti-icing

By this method a mixture of anti‐icing fluid and water (hot or cold) is

pressure sprayed on the aircraft in one single step. The residual Fluid Film
provides only a very limited duration of anti‐ice protection. Holdover time
begins upon the commencement of de-icing.

Two Step de-icing/anti-icing

De-icing is carried out in the first step (de-icing), by spraying on the aircraft
just hot water or a mixture of anti-icing fluid and water (hot or cold). After
contamination is removed, anti‐icing is carried out in the second step with
a hot or cold anti‐icing fluid, undiluted or diluted with water, in order to
provide protection against freezing or refreezing.

The fluid shall be heated at least to 60°C (nozzle temperature). If it is

overheated it forms a gel that contaminates the airplane.

The second step (anti-icing) must be performed within 3 minutes after the
start of the first step. Holdover time begins at the commencement of the
second step. Care should be taken to ensure that the surfaces coated with
fluid, since it tends to flow unevenly.

13-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Anti-Icing Limit

If an aircraft has been de-iced and anti-iced and the holdover time is over,
it must not receive an additional anti-ice coat over the previous one. A new
de-icing and anti-icing circle must be held, where the residues from the
previous cycle are completely removed and the anti-icing coat follows.

Dried Fluid Residue

If an aircraft have been treated for anti-icing but have not been flying
subsequently, must be cleaned out from the fluid residues. Precipitation
may clean the aircraft. In any case if the fluid dries on the aircraft surfaces,
it must be cleaned and checked as necessary.

Anti-Ice Fluid Side Effects

Spots where the fluid may dry and re-hydrate must be inspected for
corrosion.

Lubricants may be removed by the fluid.

Anti -icing and de-icing Fluid ISO TYPE I

Type I de-icing/anti‐icing fluids are based in Glycol diluted into water or
undiluted. They have a Low Viscosity and orange color. As they tend to run
off the surfaces and evaporate, they provide a very limited protection
against re-freezing, especially under freezing precipitation conditions.
Increasing the concentration of the fluid in the fluid/water mix, does not
increase the holdover time.

Anti -icing and de-icing Fluid ISO TYPE III

It is used on turboprops only.

13-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Anti -icing and de-icing Fluid ISO TYPE II/ IV

Type II/IV de‐icing/anti‐icing fluids provide extensive protection from Icing.

They are based in Glycol (50% concentration) and a Pseudo‐Plastic
Thickening Agent, which slows the evaporation rate of the glycol and
enables the fluid to form a thicker liquid wetting film on the aircraft
surfaces. Type II/IV fluids provide a longer holdover time, especially under
freezing precipitation conditions. Increasing the concentration of the fluid
in the fluid/water mix, the holdover time is also increased.

Typical holdover times are shown below:

Ground Personnel and anti-icing/de-icing

The Commander must be informed when actual spraying commences. The

packs and bleed air must be turned off. Fluids must not be directed into:

 engines and other intakes

 wheel bays
 orifices of pitot heads, static vents or angle of attack sensors

13-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

 before starting engines compressors and turbines have to be free

to rotate
 wings, both horizontal stabilizers and both sides of the vertical fin
must be treated the same way
 fluids are not to be directed onto cockpit windshield and windows
 any forward areas from which fluid may flow back onto
windscreens during taxi and takeoff, must be cleaned prior
departure

In Flight anti-icing/deicing

What is the Difference of an anti-icing and a de-icing System?

An anti-icing system prevents icing, while a de-icing system removes ice

after it has build on a surface. In order to prevent icing or to remove build-
up ice during flight, the following means may be used:

 thermal anti-icing system, where hot bleed air is ducted along the
leading edges of wings and tailplanes
 electrical heating of leading edges and propellers, pitot
/static/angle of attack sensors. It may be switched ON
continuously (usually on small critical components) or
intermittently, giving an effect similar to the use of deicing boots
 pneumatic deicing boots that disperse ice by inflation, but are less
effective
 wet wings or weeping wing system, that releases anti-icing fluid
on demand through hundreds of small holes in the leading edges

Anti-Icing/De-Icing Recording

The crew must keep records for anti-icing/de-icing treatments that include
information like fluid type, percentage of concentration, time duration and
date of treatment, fluid brand name.

13-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Standard Communication Anti-Icing/De-Icing Terminology

A typical communication for of-gate anti-icing/de-icing follows:

Supervisor: set parking brake and confirm aircraft ready for treatment
Commander: parking brake set, you may begin treatment
Supervisor: we begin treatment now
Supervisor: treatment completed, Anti-Icing code is …. I am disconnecting,
stby for clear signal at left (right)
Commander: treatment completed, Anti-Icing code is ….

Jet Engine Icing

Pressure reduction at the intake, can result in adiabatic cooling on the

order of 5°C. Ice forms on:
 intake lip
 bullet and root of the early compressor blades
 inlet guide vane (IGV)

Icing is prevented by bleed air or electrical heating.

Propeller Icing

Ice is formed at the first at 1/4 to 1/3 of the root of the propeller,
eventually affecting balance and inducing engine vibration. It is prevented
by anti-ice fluid leaking through a slinger ring or by electrical heating.

Cold Weather Operations – On Ground

When cold soaked fuel is on board, Hoar frost may cover the lower wing
surface. Up to 3mm of frost is acceptable for Takeoff. Thin Hoar frost

13-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

(where aircraft markings are still visible under the frost coating) on the
upper fuselage, is also acceptable.

Note that the control surfaces, cavities, ports and vents, must be clear of
ice in all cases.

When stationary on extremely low temperatures for a long time, the

aircraft may be protected from ice formation by Type II or IV anti-ice fluid
treatment.

Do not allow de-icing/anti-icing fluid to dry out and contaminate the

aircraft surfaces.

Cold Weather Operations – Engine Start

Upon Engine Start, a delay to the LOW OIL PRESSURE light to go out may
be expected, as well as a higher than normal oil pressure indication and a
FILTER BYPASS light illumination. These indications are originated from the
hydraulic fluid thickening, because of the low temperatures. After some
minutes the hydraulic fluid warms up and the indications become normal.

Cold Weather Operations – After Engine Start

Electrical Power may fluctuate, due to generator oil low temperature.

Engine anti-ice must be ON during all ground operations.

Periodically, engine Run-ups are recommended.

Wing anti-ice must be switched ON regardless of the existence of ice on

the wing surface. Type II or IV anti-ice fluid treatment may also be utilized.

13-13
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Flight Controls and Flaps must be checked for restricted movement. A kind
of heavy stick forces may be expected, due to hydraulic fluid thickening
because of low temperatures.

Cold Weather Operations – Taxi

During Taxi flaps should be in the up position, in order to prevent

contamination of flaps cavities.

Working out the Nose Well Steering by applying left and right movements,
allows warm hydraulic fluid to circulate into the system, minimizing
steering lag.

Avoid jet blast from preceding aircraft, since it blasts the anti-icing fluid of
the aircraft and lifts contamination onto the surfaces. Moreover, Jet blast
heat does not prevent icing.

Higher thrust setting during taxi may be required to overcome the drag
caused by contaminants. Care should be taken to avoid blasting unsecured
ground equipment onto nearby aircraft.

Cold Weather Operations – In Flight

When airborne, Wing anti-ice must be ON, except when climbing and
cruising with temperatures lower than -40°C. Moreover, in all descends it
must be ON, including temperatures lower than -40°C.

Recycle the landing gear after takeoff from a contaminated runway, in

order to blow contamination away and prevent a jamming situation.

Holding with flaps extended in icing conditions should be avoided.

Ice accumulation on the windshield wiper and/or engine vibrations,

indicate ice accumulation on the aircraft.

13-14
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

Cold Weather Operations – After Landing

Flaps should not be retracted to the fully up position, until a ground

inspection assures for clear of ice cavities.

In extremely low ambient temperatures, the Battery may be removed and

stowed in a warm area, to prevent battery fluid icing.

Water Containers and Toilets may be drained, to prevent water icing.

Parking Brakes may be released, to prevent brake freezing.

After landing in moist destinations, carrying a large quantity of cold soaked

fuel tanked into the wings, use anti-icing fluid treatment precautionary, in
order to prevent frost formation.

Adverse Weather Practices

When operating in Adverse Weather conditions:

 Reduced Takeoff Thrust procedure is not to be used
 V1 may be reduced to minimum, in order to increase the Stopping
Distance Available
 Crosswind limitations for takeoff are reduced
 Under crosswind, takeoff from untreated snow or ice should only
be attempted when no melting is present
 On wet or slippery runways special care must be taken to set
symmetric thrust during takeoff
 Improved climb procedures may be used, if excessive Takeoff
Distance is available. This will provide a higher margin from stall
speed

13-15
Airline Pilots Interview Course Icing

13-16
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

14. Winds

14-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

CONTENTS

Adiabatic Lapse Rate 14-3

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) 14-3
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) 14-3
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) 14-3
Foehn Effect 14-4
Mountain Waves 14-4
Inversion 14-5
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) 14-6
Wake Turbulence 14-6
Contrails (Vapour Trails) 14-7
Wing tip vortexes 14-7
Jet Stream 14-7
Sub-tropical Jet Stream 14-7
Hadley cells 14-7
Polar front Jet Stream 14-8
Flight from LON to NY, what would take less time, why? 14-9
Downburst 14-9
Microburst 14-9
Wind Shear 14-10
Sea Breeze 14-11
Land Breeze 14-11
Tropopause 14-12
Height of Tropopause 14-12
Wind diversion upon landing 14-12

14-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Adiabatic lapse rate is the rate of the temperature change with pressure,
of a parcel of dry (unsaturated) air under adiabatic conditions (no heat is
exchanged with surrounding air). The rate applies from sea level up to
36000ft, where Tropopause starts. Over the Tropopause height, the
temperature has a constant value of −56.5°C.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of the temperature decrease of a dry
(unsaturated) air mass when it lifts, expands and cools until it becomes
saturated. In ISA it is typically 3°C/1000ft. Note that this sequence can also
take the reverse order, where an air mass sinks, condenses and warms
until it becomes unsaturated.

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of the temperature decrease of

a wet (saturated) air mass, which after lifting has reached its Dew Point
and condensation has started. In ISA it is typically 1.5°C/1000ft.

SALR is lower than DALR because as the air mass condenses, it releases
latent heat which is added into the system.

Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)

Environmental Lapse Rate is the rate of the temperature decrease with

height, of a still air mass (not ascending or descending). In ISA it is
averaged at 1.98°C/1000ft.

14-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

Foehn Effect

As an air mass is forced to rise up on the windward (upwind) side of a

mountain in stable conditions, it is initially cooled at the DALR (3°C/1000ft)
until it becomes saturated (RH=100%). After the height that Dew Point is
reached, it continues to rise and cool at the SALR (1,5°C/1000ft), while the
water vapour condenses (clouds or fog will form, precipitation might fall).
At this point an amount of moisture of the air mass will be lost.

As the air mass flows down on the leeward (downwind) side, it is getting
warmed initially at the SALR until it becomes unsaturated. This happens
soon enough since the air mass is less moist now. Afterwards, it continues
to flow down and warm up, at DALR for a longer time. As a result, higher
air temperatures are encountered at the leeward side of the mountain.

Foehn Effect is very common over the Rocky Mountains (Chinook wind) as
well as over the Apls.

Mountain Waves

When a strong wind blows over a mountain, peaks and troughs are formed
on the lee side for several miles. Having the form of standing waves they

14-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

are named Mountain Waves. In extreme cases they reach the height of
20000ft over the mountains and the range of 200nm.

When flying through a Mountain Wave heading from the windward

towards the leeward side, an increase in altitude is evidenced followed by
a decrease after the mountain ridge. While the pilot keeps the altitude
constant, a decrease in airspeed is evidenced followed by an increase after
the mountain ridge. Thrust setting changes are required accordingly.

Inversion

Solar radiation warms earth, which in turn warms the lower atmosphere in
contact with earth. It is normal for the air temperature to drop as height
rises. Inversion is a deviation from normal, where under high pressure
conditions temperature rises with height, instead of dropping. The
Environmental Lapse Rate takes a negative value.

Since inversions at low levels are very stable, convection stops. This causes
pollution and fog to form.

Inversions can also form due to warm air sinking onto cold air. As pressure
rises, condensation of lower air occurs, and heavy rain and thunderstorms
are encountered.

Close to Tropopause, inversions do not impose significant effects.

A low altitude Inversion when encountered after takeoff, compromise the

aircraft’s climb performance, due to lower air density. In extreme cases
(like one engine inoperative) the aircraft may become climb limited.

A high altitude Inversion even in a small magnitude may significantly

reduce the maximum cruising level. Accordingly, the preferred or planned
cruising altitude may not be reached, resulting in higher fuel consumption.

When flying near the coffin corner, a sudden entering into an area of
Inversion may result in a buffet due to lower air density.

14-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)

Clear Air Turbulences are encountered out of clouds in clear air. They are
produced because of friction of jetstreams with still atmosphere. When
CAT is experienced in the north hemisphere, immediately descend and
turn towards south. Monitoring other airplane reports also assists in Clear
Air Turbulence avoidance.

In order for a pilot to report Clear Air Turbulence, the following tables must
be considered.

INCIDENCE
Occasional less than 1/3 of the time
Interminent 1/3 to 2/3 of the time
Continuous more than 2/3 of the time

INTENCITY
Light 5-15kn, causes imperceptible altitude or attitude changes
Moderate 15-25kn, altitude, attitude, IAS changes, but aircraft
remains under control
Severe >25kn, large altitude, attitude changes, IAS fluctuates
>25kn, momentarily out of control

Wake Turbulence
An aircraft wing creates a pressure difference and after passage leaves the
air disturbed and turbulent. This is called Wake Turbulence and imposes a
hazard for the following aircraft upon takeoff.

As Wake Turbulence tends to increase as Angle of Attack increases, it takes

the highest value upon takeoff and landing. It also increases with the
aircraft size (weight).

Adequate separation (like 3 to 5 nm) must be maintained upon landing as

well as upon takeoff (like 2 to 4 min). Note that care should be also taken
for crossing runways.

14-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

Contrails (Vapour Trails)

Wing tip vortexes

Contrails (short for Condensation Trails) are artificial clouds produced by

condensed water vapour, originated from aircraft’s exhaust. Practically,
hot exhaust gases content microscopic water droplets, which are cooled by
the surrounding cold atmosphere, to the point of forming tiny ice crystals.

Moreover, exhaust particles (i.e. carbon) are triggering condensation. The

effect is more common on humid days. Depending on atmospheric
conditions, contrails may be visible from a few seconds up to many hours.
In the latest case they may affect climate.

Wing tip vortices are sometimes visible due to condensation of water

droplets contained in atmosphere. This is caused by the drastic pressure
reduction at the center of the wing tip vortexes. Wing tip vortices are not
to be confused with contrails.

Jet Stream

A jet stream is a fast flowing wind, originated to the large horizontal

temperature differences. It may be 1500nm long, 200nm wide and 12000ft
deep, with a typical speed of 100kn to 200kn. The fastest speeds are
encountered at the core. The majority of jet streams flow from west to
east. The strongest jet streams are the Sub-Tropical and Polar Jets.

Sub-tropical Jet Stream

Hadley cells

As the air is heated at the Equator, it is lifted by convection up to

Tropopause and then moves poleward. At approximately 30° latitude it

14-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

descends and forms the sub-tropical anti-cyclones. Afterwards, it flows

back to the equator. This circulation is defined as a Hadley Cell.

At 30° latitude it meets a similar air mass from an opposite direction. Both
air masses start descending towards the surface. A considerable portion of
air cannot descend and flows horizontally in a west direction, due to the
Coriolis force. This is the Sub-tropical Jet Stream.

The height of the stream varies from 33000ft at winter, to 52000 ft at

summer. The latitude also varies from 25°- 40° band at winter, to 40°- 45°
band at summer.

Polar front Jet Stream

The Polar front Jet Streams, flow at the Polar Front just bellow Tropopause.
They have in general a westerly direction with considerable zig-zags,
because they follow the patterns of the polar front depressions.

At winter they are encountered at latitude 65°N, where the air mass of the
Farrel cell meets the air mass from the Polar cell, coming from an opposite
direction. Both air masses start ascending. A considerable portion of the air
cannot ascend and flows horizontally in a west direction, due to Coriolis
force. This is the Polar front Jet Stream.

14-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

The height of the stream is approximately 39000ft with a speed of 80kn.

At summer, Polar Front Jets get weaker and move to latitude 40°N, 23000ft
with a speed of 60kn.

Flight from LON to NY, what would take less time, why?

In general, flights from Europe to the US take longer time than flights from
the US to Europe, due to differences in tailwinds and headwinds. This is
because of the Jet Streams that flow from west to east across the Atlantic.
These winds can help or hinder an aircraft by a difference of as much as
200 miles an hour.

Downburst

Microburst

A downburst is a strong wind blowing vertically from a single source (i.e.

thunderstorm) towards the ground with speeds up to 60kn, and then from
the surface landing point blowing outwards in all directions. They are
caused by a column of rapidly sinking air (due to hail or heavy rain)
common in thunderstorms.

14-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

Most of times they extend as much as 5km and they are called Microburts.
They usually last for a few minutes (up to 5) and then they dissipate.
However, they comprise a serious hazard for aircraft during takeoff or
landing.

Wind Shear

Wind Shear is a sharp change of wind direction or wind speed over a short
distance, affecting aircraft’s altitude. It can occur at all altitudes and
without any warning. It is associated with squall lines, weather fronts,
inversion boundaries, CAT, microbursts etc.

According to ICAO wind shear reporting system, they are reported as

follows:
Intensity Vertical Horizontal Up/Down Effect on
WS/100ft WS/200ft Draught Altitude
Light 0-4 0-4 0-4 Small
Moderate 4-8 4-8 4-8 Significant
Strong 8-12 8-12 8-12 Hazardous
Severe >12 >12 >12 Highly
Dangerous

14-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

Sea Breeze

Sea Breeze is a wind blowing during daytime from sea to land and is about
10kn strong. It is formed because insolation heats the land more than the
sea. Consequently, the air in contact with the land heats more than the air
in contact with the sea. This causes the air over the land to lift by
convection, up to a height of 2000ft and then to move towards the sea.
Sometimes small Cbs may form. The absence of air over the land causes
pressure to drop. At the same time, pressure rises over the sea because of
the extra air that came from the land. As a result, wind is cycling from sea
to land near the surface and from land to sea on higher altitudes.

When operating from a coastal airfield, a pilot should encounter breeze

wind implications.

Land Breeze

Land Breeze is a wind blowing during nighttime from land to sea and is
about 5kn strong. It is formed because after sunset the land is cooled
faster than the sea. Consequently, the air in contact with the land, cools
more than the air in contact with the sea. This causes the air over sea to lift
and create low pressure, while the air over land sinks and moves towards
the sea. As a result, wind is cycling from land to sea near the surface and
from sea to land on higher altitudes.

14-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Winds

Land Breeze is weaker than Sea Breeze because of smaller temperature

differences between land and sea, during night compared with during day.

When operating from a coastal airfield a pilot should encounter breeze

wind implications.

Tropopause

Height of Tropopause

Tropopause is the point where the air temperature ceases to drop with
height and remains constant at -56.5°C. Moreover, air becomes almost dry
and no weather phenomena are anticipated above Tropopause.

Tropopause in ISA is met at 36.000ft and -56.5°C. However, actual

Tropopause varies with latitude and is:
 On the equator at 52,000ft and -75°C
 On Mid-latitudes at 36,000ft and -56°C
 On the Poles at 26,000ft and 45°C

Wind diversion upon landing

As altitude decreases upon landing, wind speed decreases due to friction.

This causes the wind to back (in southern hemisphere to veer).

14-12
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

LEONIDAS TERZIS

Airline Pilots Interview Course

15. Weather

15-1
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

CONTENTS

Convection 15-3
Advection 15-3
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 15-3
Cold Front 15-3
Warm Front 15-4
Polar Front Depressions 15-5
Occlusions 15-6
Warm Occlusion 15-7
Cold Occlusion 15-8
Low (or Cyclone or Depression) 15-8
Thermal Depression 15-9
Warm Anticyclones (Subtropical Highs) 15-9
Cold Anticyclones (Continental highs) 15-9
Thunderstorm 15-10
Supercell 15-10

15-2
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

Convection

As heat is propagated by conduction from the ground to the air in contact,

this air is getting warmed and uplift occurs. When the surrounding air
temperature and the uplifting air temperature meet, uplift stops. This
process is called Convection.

Note that the uplifting air may have a higher Dew Point, than the
surrounding air temperature. This will cause the vapour into the uplifting
air to condense and form clouds.

Advection

Advection is the horizontal movement of air. When cold air moves over
warm ground, it gets warmed and uplift occurs (convection). Formation of
fog or clouds follows.

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a zone encircling the earth near
the equator. It is as wide as the Equatorial Low can extend from both sides
of the equator due to the seasonal movement of the sun.

Winds originating from the north and south sub-tropical high pressure
belts, converge into ITCZ. A typical weather at ITCZ consists of clouds and
thunderstorms, due to intense convergence.

Cold Front
As a cold air mass is pushed towards a warm air mass, it is forced to get
underneath the hot air mass because it is denser (thus heavier) and

15-3
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

eventually replace it. A steep front is formed with a gradient of about 1:50.
Near the ground it may be vertical. This is defined as a Cold Front.

The steep slope causes the warm air to lift violently. Cumuliform clouds
are formed. As the cold front approaches, Cu and Cb appear. Note that
clouds base is initially low and progressively gets higher. Precipitation
starts with the arrival of Cb. Associated clouds can be seen as far as 200nm
after the cold front.

Since the cold air is denser than warm air, the pressure rises after passing.
However, pressure drops as the cold front approaches, due to uplifting air.

Strong winds and windshear are encountered during a cold front.

After passing visibility is exceptional.

Warm Front

As a warm air mass is pushed towards a cold air mass, it is forced to ride
over the cold air mass because it is less dense (thus lighter) and eventually
replace it. A sloping front is formed with a gradient of about 1:150. This is
defined as a Warm Front.

15-4
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

Because the slope is not as steep as in the cold front, warm air is lifted
gradually. As a result, stratiform clouds are forming instead of cumuliform.
As the warm front approaches Ci, Cs, As and Ns appear. Ci may be seen up
to 600nm ahead of the Warm Front. Note that clouds base is initially high
and progressively lowers. Precipitation starts with the arrival of As.
However, vigra may also occur. With the arrival of Ns, rain becomes heavy.

Since warm air is less dense than cold air, as the warm front approaches
the pressure progressively drops and after passing remains low.

After passing visibility is moderate.

Polar Front Depressions

At the front between polar and tropical air masses, the pressure is lower,
due to convection. According to Buys Ballots Law, the wind flows with the
low pressure to the left. As a result, the winds at both sides of the front
have an opposite direction.

Now and then friction causes the winds to form a point where warm air
enters the cold area. The hotter the air is, the more the pressure goes
down (because hot air is less dense).

15-5
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

In about four days a system sets up, that is consisted of a warm front
followed by a cold front. Where the two fronts converge, a low pressure
center is formed.

In about ten days the system dissolves.

Occlusions

In a Polar Front Depression the Warm Front moves at 2/3 of the speed of
the Cold Front. Progressively, the spacing between fronts is getting narrow
and eventually the cold front catches up the warm front. This is defined as
Occlusion.

There are two types of Occlusions, the Warm and the Cold Occlusion. In a
Warm Occlusion the air behind of the system is warmer than the air ahead
of the system. In a Cold Occlusion the air behind of the system is colder
than the air ahead of the system.

15-6
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

On a synoptic chart, the Front Line that continues defines the type of the
Occlusion. On the following picture we can see on the left a Cold Occlusion
and on the right a Warm Occlusion.

Warm Occlusion

In a Warm Occlusion the air behind the Cold Front is less cold than the air
ahead of the Warm Front. As a result the Cold Front rides over the Warm
Front. The Warm Front stays in contact with the ground, while the Cold
Front does not. The warmer air mass floats above both fronts.

Initially, the weather looks like that of a typical Warm Front. However,
along with the Warm Front, Ns, Cu and Cb of the Cold Front appears as
well and adds its phenomena. Note that the most intensive phenomena
occur before the passing of the surface front.

15-7
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

Cold Occlusion

In a Cold Occlusion the air behind of the Cold Front is colder than the air
ahead of the Warm Front. As a result the Cold Front goes underneath the
Warm Front. The Cold Front stays in contact with the ground while the
Warm Front does not. The warmer air mass floats above both fronts.

Initially, the weather looks like a typical Warm Front. However, along with
the Warm Front Ns, Cu and Cb of the Cold Front appears as well. Note that
the most intensive phenomena occur at and after the passing of the
surface front.

Low (or Cyclone or Depression)

Wind is moving from areas of high pressure towards areas of low pressure,
inducing convergence and forcing the air to lift. The closest the isobars, the
stronger the winds. However, at the center of the cyclone winds are calm.

As the air lifts, it cools adiabatically and when it reaches Dew Point,
condensation occurs and clouds are formed. If the air is unstable Cbs are
likely to form. If the air is stable extensive stratus will form.

Winds are flowing counter-clockwise (anticlockwise) in the northern

hemisphere due to Coriolis Force. As friction slows down the wind, it
causes the wind to flow more inward.

Visibility is usually good due to the strong mixing of air.

15-8
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

Thermal Depression

As heat propagates by conduction from the ground to the air in contact,

the air is getting warmer and uplift occurs. The heated air lifts through
convection and turbulence, causing the pressure to rise at high altitudes
and to drop at low altitudes. Consequently, the air at high altitudes flows
outwards, while at low altitudes flows inwards. An air circulation similar to
the sea breeze may be initiated.

Warm Anticyclones (Subtropical Highs)

As the air is heated at the equator it is lifted by convection as high as

Tropopause and then moves poleward. It is also deflected to the west by
Coriolis Force. At approximately 30° latitude, the air descends and forms
the sub-tropical anti-cyclones.

Sub-tropical anti-cyclones move only in a seasonal manner, i.e. from NW

Europe at winter towards the north of Scandinavia at summer.

Subsidence from aloft causes air pressure to increase at low heights,

resulting in an outflow. At the same time an inversion occur due to the
warm subsidizing air. Bellow the inversion the air is humid and unstable,
while above the inversion the air is dry and stable. As the air is humid and
is cooled from the earth bellow, low clouds, drizzle, and fog are formed.

Cold Anticyclones (Continental highs)

The Cold Anticyclone is a different type of high pressure system than the
Warm Anticyclone. In this case the high pressure is formed by the Extreme
Cold and Dense air cooled by Strong Radiation, instead of subsidizing with
air from aloft.

15-9
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

Cold Anticyclones are formed over the cold continents in the winter, like
Canada and Siberia. As the cold air is very dense and very stable, Cold
anticyclones spread horizontally at shallow heights (as high as FL100).

If a Cold Anticyclone moves over a coastal area, it is heated from bellow

and convection occurs, resulting in snow, showers and fog. In contrast, if
there is no advection and the air is dry, clear sky is encountered with very
low temperatures.

Thunderstorm

Supercell

Thunderstorm is called a type of severe weather, characterized by the

presence of:
 Lighting
 Cumulonimbus
 Strong winds (gusts, wind shear, extreme turbulence)
 Heavy precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, hail)
 Moderate to heavy icing
 Sometimes they are accompanied by tornadoes or microbursts

Thunderstorms are the result of warm moist air that rapidly lifts and
consequently cools, condenses, and forms cumulonimbus clouds reaching
sometimes the height of Tropopause. As the Dew Point is reached during
rising, water droplets and ice form and begin falling from high altitude. As
the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The
falling droplets create a downdraft of cold air and moisture, that spreads
out upon reaching ground level, causing strong horizontal winds.

A Thunderstorm development takes the following stages:

Growth Stage (Cumulus Stage)

15-10
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

Sufficient moisture, an unstable air mass and a lifting force, must be

provided. As moisture is lifted, it rapidly cools and forms clouds and water
droplets. Latent heat is released, which warms the air mass, causing it to
become less dense than the surrounding dry air mass. Consequently, the
air mass tends to lift further by convection. At the same time, an inflow
beneath the cloud replaces the lifted air mass. Updraughts typically are
1000ft/min. This stage lasts from 15 to 20min.

Mature Stage
At this stage the air mass meets equal temperature and stops to rise and
starts to flow outwards. Due to prevailing winds the clouds take an anvil
shape. The droplets collide and grow up and start to fall. Upon falling they
create downdrafts. The simultaneous presence of both an updraft and a
downdraft, marks the mature stage and produces Cumulonimbus clouds.
The downdraughts are cooled, due to latent heat absorbed by some
evaporating water droplets. Upon reaching the ground, the downdraughts
spread outwards causing gusts up to 17nm ahead of the Thunderstorm.
Updraughts typically are 2000ft/min to 3000ft/min and downdrafts are
5000ft/min. This stage lasts from 20 to 30 min.

Dissipating Stage
At this stage there is no sufficient moisture left to support the storm.
Updraughts cease and the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft,
which pushes the last moisture down, out of the cloud. This stage lasts
30min but the cloud can persist from 2 to 3 hours more.

Note that during the mature stage, if the updraft is severe and well
separated from the downdraft, a Supercell will form. This is
a thunderstorm that is characterized by a strong rotating updraft.
Supercells are often isolated from other thunderstorms. They persist for
several hours and can dominate the local weather up to 32km away.

15-11
Airline Pilots Interview Course Weather

15-12