SCIENCE – 10

PRELIMINARY REVIEWER

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, ITS HORMONES, AND FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproduction is the process by which organisms create descendants. This process is necessary to ensure the
continuation of a species.

The gonads (testes and ovaries) are endocrine glands that act as primary organs of reproductive system.
• These glands produce gametes, which are the sperm and egg cell that comes from male and
female, respectively
• Male gamete (Sperm) and Female gamete (Oocyte/Egg cell) must meet in the female
reproductive system for fertilization.
• Male reproductive organs are located inside and outside the pelvis.
• Female reproductive organs are located entirely within the pelvis.

HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system consists of organs that:
• Produce, maintain, and transport sperm and semen (protective fluid).
• Discharge sperm into the female reproductive tract during copulation.
• Produce and secrete male sex hormones (e.g., testosterone).

HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Structure Location & Description Function
Testes Inside the scrotum, Produces sperm and male sex hormones
outside the body. (testosterone).
Penis External organ, contains Male reproductive organ and organ for
urethra. urination.
Epididymis Tightly coiled tube on top Stores and matures sperm.
of each testis.
Vas deferens Muscular tube connecting Transports sperm during ejaculation.
epididymis to ejaculatory
duct.
Ejaculatory duct Connects vas deferens to Passageway for sperm to reach urethra.
urethra.
Urethra Tube inside the penis. Passage for urine and semen.
Seminal vesicles Convoluted structures Produces 65-75% of seminal fluid,
near the base of the containing fructose, proteins, and enzymes
bladder. to nourish sperm.
Prostate gland Surrounds urethra, below Produces 25-30% of semen; secretes
urinary bladder. alkaline fluid to neutralize vaginal acidity
and enhance sperm motility.
Bulbourethral glands Pea-sized glands, below Secretes pre-ejaculate fluid to lubricate the
(Cowper’s glands) the prostate gland. urethra and clear out residual urine or debris
(<1% of semen).
HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system consists of internal and external organs responsible for reproduction.
Functions:
• Produces eggs (ova).
• Secretes female sex hormones (e.g., estrogen, progesterone).
• Receives sperm for fertilization.
• Protects & nourishes the fertilized egg until full development.
• Delivers the fetus through the birth canal.
• Provides nourishment to the baby via milk secretion from mammary glands.

Female Reproductive Structures & Functions

Structure Function
Ovaries Produce eggs (oocytes) and female sex hormones.
Fallopian Tubes Transport egg to the uterus; site of fertilization.
Uterus Supports fetal development during pregnancy.
Vagina Passage for menstrual blood, childbirth, and sperm reception.
Vulva External genitalia; involved in sexual function.
Perineum Supports pelvic floor; may tear during childbirth.
Mammary Glands Produce milk to nourish the baby.

FEEDBACK MECHANISM IN THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Hormone Regulation and Homeostasis
• Hormones regulate body functions to maintain homeostasis (internal stability).
• Homeostasis controls temperature, fluids, salts, acids, gases, and nutrients, ensuring proper physiological function.
• The body responds immediately to internal or external changes to maintain balance.

HORMONE REGULATION: FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

1. Sensors (Receptors)
• Detect internal and external changes in the body.
2. Control Center (Brain and Nervous System)
• Receives signals from sensors and processes information to initiate appropriate responses.
3. Communicating Systems (Nervous and Endocrine Systems)
• Transmit signals through nerve impulses and hormones to target organs.
• Targets include organs, tissues, or cells responsible for physiological adjustments.
4. Target Cell Response to Hormones
• Hormones circulate through the bloodstream and bind to specific target cells.
• Only target cells have receptors capable of recognizing and responding to specific hormones.

HORMONE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

A feedback mechanism is a biological loop in which a product regulates its own production to maintain balance.
Types of Feedback Mechanisms
Negative Feedback (Most Common)
• Reduces hormone production to restore balance.
• Prevents extreme fluctuations by returning physiological conditions to normal levels.
• Example: Elevated estrogen levels inhibit the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) to
prevent excessive ovulation.
Positive Feedback
• Increases hormone production to intensify a physiological process.
• Amplifies responses rather than maintaining equilibrium.
• Example: During childbirth, cervical stretching triggers the release of oxytocin, which enhances uterine contractions, leading
to further oxytocin secretion.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle
Phase Days Key Hormones & Events
Follicular phase 1-14 FSH, LH, and estrogen rise and peak; Day 1 of menstruation
Midcycle ~Day Ovulation occurs; egg released from ovary due to peak in LH and FSH
(Ovulation) 14
Luteal phase 15-28 Progesterone rises and peaks; if no fertilization occurs, progesterone levels fall, causing
menstruation

Human Embryonic Development

Stage Description
Fertilized Egg Single-cell structure after sperm fertilizes egg
Zygote Undergoes first cleavage
4 Haploid Cells Early stage of division
Morula Solid ball of cells
Blastocyst Hollow structure before implantation
Embryo Early stage of development
Fetus Later stage before birth

Childbirth Process
• Positive feedback: Stretch-sensitive nerves in the cervix trigger oxytocin release.
• Oxytocin → Uterine contractions → Further stimulation of oxytocin release.

Endocrine System - Ductless Glands & Their Functions

Endocrine Gland Hormone Released Major Function of Hormone
Hypothalamus Hypothalamic releasing & inhibiting Regulate anterior pituitary hormones
hormones
Posterior Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys
Pituitary
Oxytocin Stimulates uterine muscle contractions & milk ejection by
mammary glands
Anterior Pituitary Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Stimulates thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Stimulates adrenal cortex
Gonadotropic Hormones (FSH, LH) Stimulates egg/sperm production & sex hormone secretion
Prolactin (PRL) Stimulates milk production
Growth Hormone (GH) Stimulates cell division, protein synthesis & bone growth
Thyroid Thyroxine (T4) & Triiodothyronine (T3) Increase metabolic rate & regulate growth and development
Calcitonin Lowers blood calcium levels
Parathyroids Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Raises blood calcium levels
Adrenal Cortex Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) Raises blood glucose levels, stimulates protein breakdown
Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone) Reabsorbs sodium and excretes potassium
Sex Hormones Stimulate reproductive organ development and secondary sex
characteristics
Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine & Norepinephrine Released in emergencies, raises blood glucose levels (fight-or-
flight response)
Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood glucose levels & promotes glycogen formation
Glucagon Raises blood glucose levels
Testes Androgens (Testosterone) Stimulates male sex characteristics
Ovaries Estrogen & Progesterone Stimulate female sex characteristics
Thymus Thymosin Stimulates T-lymphocyte production & immune maturation
Pineal Gland Melatonin Controls circadian rhythms & maturation of sexual organs
Serotonin Regulates learning, mood, digestion, happiness & blood
clotting
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 2. Nervous System Divisions
The endocrine system is a network of ductless glands that A. Central Nervous System (CNS) – Brain & Spinal
secrete hormones into the bloodstream, regulating Cord
metabolism, growth, development, and reproduction. • Brain:
Key Points: o Cerebrum – Controls thinking &
• Controlled by the hypothalamus via the pituitary gland. voluntary actions.
• Uses negative feedback for balance; positive feedback o Cerebellum – Coordinates movement.
in rare cases (e.g., childbirth). o Brainstem (Midbrain, Pons, Medulla) –
• Hormones are steroidal (lipid-based) or non-steroidal Controls involuntary functions.
(protein-based). o Thalamus – Processes sensory
Major Endocrine Glands & Functions: information.
• Pituitary ("Master Gland") – Regulates other glands. o Hippocampus – Responsible for
• Thyroid – Controls metabolism. memory.
• Parathyroid – Regulates calcium levels. o Pituitary Gland – Regulates hormones.
• Adrenal – Produces stress and fight-or-flight
hormones. • Spinal Cord: Connects brain to the body and
• Pancreas – Controls blood sugar (insulin & glucagon). transmits impulses.
• Gonads (Ovaries/Testes) – Regulate sex hormones.
B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – Cranial & Spinal
Nerves
NERVOUS SYSTEM • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – Involuntary
The nervous system is a complex network that coordinates Functions
body functions by transmitting electrical signals through o Sympathetic (SNS) – Prepares for stress
neurons. It works alongside the endocrine system to regulate ("fight or flight").
responses to stimuli. o Parasympathetic (PSNS) – Conserves
Key Components: energy ("rest & digest").
1. Neurons (Nerve Cells) • Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – Voluntary
• Cell Body – Controls growth. Control
• Dendrites – Receive impulses. o Controls skeletal muscles & movement.
• Axon – Sends impulses away from the cell body.

• Types of Neurons:
o Sensory Neurons – Carry impulses to the CNS.
o Motor Neurons – Send impulses to muscles.
o Interneurons – Process sensory input and
relay to motor neurons.
o Controls skeletal muscles & movement.
Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur everywhere, transforming reactants into products. They are essential in nature and various
professions, such as chemistry, engineering, and nutrition.

Fundamental Laws of Chemical Reactions

1. Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier, 1789)
o Matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction; mass remains constant.
2. Law of Definite Composition (Proust, 1804)
o A chemical compound always contains elements in a fixed ratio by mass, regardless of how it is prepared.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions (Dalton, 1808)
o Elements can form multiple compounds, but they always combine in whole-number ratios.

Evidence of a Chemical Reaction

• Odor change
• Color change
• Gas evolution
• Precipitate formation (insoluble particles)
• Light and heat emission
• Temperature or energy change
• Change in form

Chemical equations must be balanced to follow the Law of Conservation of Mass. This ensures the same number of each
type of atom is present on both sides of the equation.

H2+O2 → H2O
Reactant Product

How to Balance a Chemical Equation

Step 1: Make a list
Step 2: Identifying the Atoms in Each Element
Step 3: Multiplying the Number of Atoms
Step 4: Placing Coefficients in Front of Molecules
Step 5: Check Equation