64 U3 AOS 1 HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ENABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING?

03
THE ROLE OF
NEURONS &
→CHAPTER

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
The neurons and neurotransmitters in our
body are a crucial part of our internal and
external experience. The messages we send
from our brain to our body, and from our body
to our brain, are dictated by the structure
and proper functioning of these miniscule
components.

KEY KNOWLEDGE
> the role of the neuron (dendrites, axon,
myelin and axon terminals) as the
primary cell involved in the reception and
transmission of information across the
synapse (excluding details related to signal
transduction)
> the role of neurotransmitters in the
transmission of neural information between
neurons (lock and key process) to produce
excitatory effects (as with glutamate) or
inhibitory effects (as with gamma amino
butyric acid [GABA])
> the effects of chronic changes to the
functioning of the nervous system due to
interference to neurotransmitter function,
illustrated by the role of dopamine in
Parkinson’s disease
Extract from the VCE Psychology Study Design
(2016–2021), p 24; © VCAA.
Used with permission

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 CH 03 THE ROLE OF NEURONS & NEUROTRANSMITTERS 65

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The role of neurons in Neuron structure
transmitting information
The role of neurotransmitters The lock and key process
in transmitting information Transmitting neural information between neurons
> glutamate and GABA
Neurotransmitters and their effects
Changes to neurotransmitter Dopamine and Parkinson’s disease
function

CONTENT MAP
The role of neurons
and neurotransmitters

Chronic changes
Neurons
in neurotransmitters

Axon Parkinson’s
Soma Axon Myelin Dendrites
terminal disease

Neurotransmitters

Synaptic Lock and Inhibitory and

transmission key process excitatory effects
 es g e Note: beg ew sp ead

66 U3 AOS 1 HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ENABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING?

The role of neurons in transmitting

information
To understand how information is processed in the brain, it is important to know
that it is a physiological process. Cells called neurons receive information from other
neurons, process this information, and then communicate it to other neurons. These
cells share similarities with other cells in the body in that they are surrounded by a
cell membrane, have a nucleus that contains genes, and are made up of cytoplasm,
mitochondria and other organelles. However, they also differ in structure and the
manner in which they communicate with each other.

Neuron structure
The structure of neurons is important knowledge to recall from VCE Psychology
Units 1&2. Although there are many types of neurons of all different shapes and
sizes, they are generally comprised of dendrites, the soma, the axon and the axon
terminals. Most axons are coated with myelin (a myelin sheath). Table 3.1 describes
the different elements that make up the structure of a neuron.

TABLE 3.1 The structure of a neuron

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION

Dendrites A neuron can have hundreds or thousands of dendrites that look like
branches coming off the soma (the word dendron is Greek for ‘tree’). The
dendrites receive information from other neurons, which they carry from
the synapse to the soma.
Soma The largest part of the neuron is the soma or cell body. It controls the
metabolism and maintenance of the neuron. In most neurons, the soma
receives messages from other neurons.
Axon The axon is a nerve fibre that extends from the soma and carries
information towards the cells that communicate with that neuron. Some
axons have two or more offshoots, and some can be up to a metre long.
Myelin The axons of most neurons are covered in a myelin sheath, which is a
coating of cells that facilitates the transmission of information to other
neurons. Axons with myelin are white rather than grey. Myelin protects
the axon from potential chemical and physical interference to the
electrical impulses that travel along it. The insulation provided by the
myelin sheath also enables information to travel much faster – up to
400 kph.
Axon Axon terminals are found at the end of the axon branch and function to
terminals transmit messages to the next neuron. Axon terminals have terminal
buttons. These terminal buttons have sacs that secrete a chemical
called a neurotransmitter whenever electrical impulses are sent down
the axon (see Figure 3.3). Although they never actually touch, the axon
terminals of one neuron link with the dendrites of the next neuron.

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 CH 03 THE ROLE OF NEURONS & NEUROTRANSMITTERS 67

↙
Did you
know?
Not all synapses
are the same. In the
brain, the synapses
are often located on
other parts of the cell,
besides the dendrites.
Additionally, in other
parts of the nervous
system, neurons might
send their signals to
the glands or muscles
FIGURE 3.1 A neuron is typically made up of dendrites, a soma, an axon and axon terminals.
rather than other
neurons.

presynaptic neuron
dendrites
myelin sheath terminal buttons
axon around axon of axon terminals

direction of impulse
dendrites

nucleus soma
presynaptic
terminal button of axon terminal neuron
sacs (vesicles)
of neurotransmitters
(receiving end)
synaptic cleft postsynaptic neuron
postsynaptic
dendrite neuron (receptor) (transmitting end)

FIGURE 3.2 Information received by dendrites travels along the axon to the axon terminals.

1 Describe the structure of a neuron.

2 What is the function of the myelin sheath?
RE VIEW

3 Where are terminal buttons and what is their function?

3.1
68 U3 AOS 1 HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ENABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING?

The role of neurotransmitters in

transmitting information
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to the
next. Neurons do not actually come into contact with each other, rather there is
always a tiny space, or synapse, between them. The exact location of synapses along
the neuron can vary, but it is easiest to think of communication between neurons
beginning with information being transmitted from the synapse to the dendrites. This
information, in the form of an electrical impulse, is then passed through the soma and
along the axon. A neurotransmitter is then secreted from the terminal buttons on the
axon terminal to a synapse shared with the dendrites of another neuron. The process
of neurons transmitting information between each other is known as synaptic
transmission.
postsynaptic
presynaptic neuron
neuron

electrical
impulse
presynaptic terminal button of
neuron axon terminal of
presynaptic neuron

neurotransmitter
FIGURE 3.3 The released from
presynaptic terminal button
neuron releases into synaptic cleft dendrite
neurotransmitters that postsynaptic
fit into receptor sites neuron
on the postsynaptic (receptor)
neuron.

The lock and key process

Neurotransmitters are contained in small sacs known as synaptic vesicles within
the terminal button of each neuron’s terminal axon. When a presynaptic neuron
fires, the synaptic vesicles move towards the presynaptic membrane. Some synaptic
vesicles stick to the membrane and break open to release the neurotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft. Once in the synaptic cleft, some of the neurotransmitters will bind
with protein molecules known as ‘receptors’ that are located in the dendrites of the
postsynaptic neuron. The receptors act like locks that can only be opened with one
particular ‘key’ or neurotransmitter. When a receptor binds with the neurotransmitter
that ‘fits’ it (that is, has the appropriate molecular structure and electrical charge), the
postsynaptic neuron is either activated or inhibited. This is referred to as the ‘lock and
key process’.
 CH 03 THE ROLE OF NEURONS & NEUROTRANSMITTERS 69

Transmitting neural information axon terminal

between neurons presynaptic membrane

In communication between neurons there are either postsynaptic

receptor
synapses that are excitatory and cause the neuron to fire
synaptic cleft
or synapses that are inhibitory and reduce this likelihood.
When an axon of a neuron fires, the terminal
buttons of the excitatory synapses release a
neurotransmitter that ‘excites’ the postsynaptic neuron
or causes it to reach its action potential. This
‘excitement’ increases the amount of firing of the axon postsynaptic membrane
of the postsynaptic neuron.
In contrast, when inhibitory synapses are activated
the ‘firing’ rate of the postsynaptic neuron is reduced,
and sometimes it does not fi re at all.
How much a neuron ‘fires’ will depend on the molecules of
amount of activity of all of the synapses on the neurotransmitter
being released from
dendrites of the neuron, and also how active the soma terminal button
of the neuron is. For example, if the excitatory synapses
are mostly active, the neuron will fire much more
than if the inhibitory synapses are mostly active. The
excitation or inhibition effects produced by a synapse
only last for a fraction of a second.

GLUTAMATE AND GABA

Glutamate can excite almost every neuron in the
brain and the rest of the nervous system. It is involved
activation of postsynaptic
in many psychological processes but has an important receptor
postsynaptic receptor
role in learning and memory. has excitatory or activated by
GABA has an inhibitory effect on the brain. inhibitory effect on neurotransmitter
Approximately one third of all neurons in the brain use postsynaptic neuron
GABA and it is important in regulating anxiety.

Neurotransmitters and their

effects
A single neuron can release more than one
neurotransmitter. So far, research has identified more
than 100 neurotransmitters in existence. Table 3.2
FIGURE 3.4 The lock and key process
outlines the effects of some neurotransmitters and
hormones. Although hormones and neurotransmitters
are different kinds of chemical messengers,
some molecules function as both hormones and
neurotransmitters. For instance, norepinephrine is
excreted as a hormone by the adrenal glands, but it
can also be excreted as a neurotransmitter by nerve
endings.
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↙ TABLE 3.2 The effects of neurotransmitters and hormones

NEUROTRANSMITTER EFFECTS
Did you Acetylcholine > Memory and memory loss, learning

know? >
>
Muscle movement
Activates cerebral cortex
Monosodium glutamate > Controls REM sleep
(MSG) is commonly > Controls hippocampus
found in Chinese
food. After eating it, Dopamine > Emotional arousal, pleasure and reward, voluntary
some people display movement, attention
neurological symptoms > Facilitates movement, attention, learning, reinforcement of
learning
such as tingling or a
> Deficiency in dopamine is related to epilepsy, and an
feeling of numbness
increase in dopamine is known to assist in the treatment of
in the face, neck and
Parkinson’s disease
chest because their
glutamate receptors Serotonin > Regulates mood
have been activated. > Controls eating, sleep, arousal, pain
Gamma-amino butyric > The main inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms nervous
acid (GABA) activity
> Responds to alcohol, benzodiazepines
Glutamate > Excitation of neurons throughout the nervous system
> Necessary for the changes in synapses that occur with
memory formation
Norepinephrine > Hormone released by the adrenal medulla that affects
(noradrenalin) emotional arousal, anxiety, fear
Epinephrine > Hormone released by the adrenal medulla that affects
(adrenalin) emotional arousal, anxiety, fear
Cortisol > Repairs the body
Endorphins > Pain relief and elevation of mood (often after intense
physical exercise or activity)

Select three neurotransmitters or hormones from the list above.

INVESTIGATE

Use the internet to research each one. Develop a list of their effects on
the human body and another list of the problems that might arise if that
neurotransmitter or hormone was not present in the body.
3.1 You may present your information in a table, as a presentation to the class or as
a poster.

1 What are neurotransmitters?

2 Identify the pathway that an electrical impulse might take through the
structures of a neuron to get to the next neuron.
RE VIEW

3 What is synaptic transmission?

3.2 4 Describe the lock and key process.
5 What are GABA and glutamate?

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 CH 03 THE ROLE OF NEURONS & NEUROTRANSMITTERS 71

Changes to neurotransmitter function

Neurotransmitters that do not function normally can cause problems for the nervous
system. For instance, acetylcholine affects many things including memory. A decrease
in the concentration of acetylcholine in the central nervous system is the hallmark
of both progressive dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease, a condition associated with
severe memory loss and disorientation.
Interference in the nervous system caused by neurotransmitter malfunction
is thought to stem from both environmental and genetic factors. Anything from
ongoing high levels of stress to simple things such as diet (like too much sugar or
caffeine) can have an impact. However, some people are just born without the ability
to synthesise certain neurotransmitters.

putamen
striatum
caudate nucleus

dopamine pathway
FIGURE 3.5 The
substantia nigra substantia nigra is
In Parkinson’s patients, dopamine located in the midbrain
neurons in the nigro-striatal pathway and is affected by
degenerate Parkinson’s disease.

Dopamine and Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological condition that affects more than
80 000 people in Australia. Symptoms are caused by the degeneration of dopamine-
releasing neurons in the substantia nigra. The substantia nigra is part of the basal
ganglia, located in the midbrain, and is responsible for reward, addiction and,
most importantly to Parkinson’s disease, the coordination of movement. Dopamine
is a neurotransmitter that helps control the brain’s reward and pleasure centres,
including the basal ganglia. Dopamine is needed to control messages as they pass
between neurons in the substantia nigra and the striatum (responsible for balance
and control of movement). Without enough dopamine, the neurons of the striatum
fire uncontrollably, which essentially prevents a Parkinson’s disease sufferer from
adequately controlling their movement.
People with Parkinson’s disease develop symptoms such as slowness of movement,
rigidity, and involuntary movement of the hands, arms, feet, legs, jaws or head.
They might also experience difficulty starting or stopping body movements such
as walking. They can also experience non-motor symptoms including reduced
facial expressions, pain, depression, dementia and difficulty sleeping. Symptoms of
Parkinson’s disease only develop when the drop in dopamine levels is significant
enough to affect functioning. This usually equals an approximate 80 per cent drop,
accompanied by a 50 per cent drop in the substantia nigra neurons.
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↙ A drop in dopamine also influences acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that also

affects movement. The striatum requires a balance of dopamine and acetylcholine

Did you for effective motor function. The imbalance of these neurotransmitters therefore
contributes to the progression of Parkinson’s disease and its symptoms.
know? CAUSES OF PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Consumption of Scientists are still searching for the cause of Parkinson’s disease, however it appears to
caffeine has been be activated by a combination of factors including those outlined in Table 3.3.
found to decrease Treatment of Parkinson’s disease includes drugs that are precursors of dopamine.
the risk of developing These precursors are then converted into dopamine so there is an increase in the level
Parkinson’s disease. A of dopamine that reaches the brain. Other treatment involves drugs that block the
trial in Japan found that action of other chemicals that affect dopamine.
suffers of the disease
who were administered TABLE 3.3 Suspected causes of Parkinson’s disease
a pill equivalent to
three cups of coffee Genetics > Protein mutations have been linked to the disease where this blocks
a day over six weeks the disposal of abnormal cells.
showed a decrease in Environmental > The pesticide Rotenone (which is used in Australia to control pests
their tremors and an factors on fruit and vegetables) has been found to cause Parkinson’s
increase in mobility. disease in rats.
> MPTP, a common contaminant found in street drugs causes
Parkinson’s disease in users.
Diet > Vitamin B (folic acid) deficiency has been linked with the
development of Parkinson’s disease.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

FIGURE 3.6 Celebrity Michael J. Fox was

diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease in 1991
and now works extensively with his foundation
to find a cure.

A NEW TREATMENT FOR PARKINSON’S DISEASE

C A SE S TUDY

Scientists at Rutgers and Stanford adult tissue-derived stem cells into

universities have created a new human neurons on 3D ‘scaffolds’, or
technology that could someday help tiny islands, of fibres, said Prabhas
treat Parkinson’s disease and other V. Moghe, a distinguished professor
devastating brain-related conditions in the departments of Biomedical
that affect millions of people. Engineering and Chemical and
The technology – a major Biochemical Engineering at Rutgers
innovation – involves converting University ...

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 CH 03 THE ROLE OF NEURONS & NEUROTRANSMITTERS 73

‘If you can transplant cells in a way that And that may eventually help people suffering
mimics how these cells are already configured in from Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis,
the brain, then you’re one step closer to getting amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or Lou
the brain to communicate with the cells that Gehrig’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord
you’re now transplanting,’ said Moghe ... ‘In and traumatic brain injuries, and concussions, he
this work, we’ve done that by providing cues for said.
neurons to rapidly network in 3D.’ These diseases and conditions often arise
In their multidisciplinary study, published from the loss of brain cells. Parkinson’s disease,
online today in Nature Communications, a for example, is caused by the loss of brain cells
dozen scientists from several Rutgers teams that produce dopamine, a key neurotransmitter ...
and Stanford discuss the 3D scaffolds and their The next step would be to further improve
potentially widespread benefits. the scaffold biomaterials, allowing scientists to
Neurons, or nerve cells, are critical for human increase the number of implanted neurons in the
health and functioning. Human brains have about brain. ‘The more neurons we can transplant, the
100 billion neurons, which serve as messengers more therapeutic benefits you can bring to the
that transmit signals from the body to the brain disease,’ Moghe said. ‘We want to try to stuff as
and vice versa. many neurons as we can in as little space as we
Moghe said a 3D scaffold, developed by can.’
the scientists, consists of tiny polymer fibres. The idea is to ‘create a very dense circuitry
Hundreds of neurons attach to the fibres and of neurons that is not only highly functioning
branch out, sending their signals. Scaffolds are but also better controlled,’ he said, adding that
about 100 micrometers wide – roughly the width testing of mice with Parkinson’s disease is
of a human hair. underway to see if they improve or recover from
‘We take a whole bunch of these islands and the illness.
then we inject them into the brain of the mouse,’ Eventually, with continued progress, the
he said. ‘These neurons that are transplanted researchers could perform studies in people.
into the brain actually survived quite miraculously Moghe estimated that it would take 10 to 20 years
well. In fact, they survived so much better than to test the technology in humans.
the gold standard in the field.’ Todd B. Bates, Rutgers Today, 4 April 2016
Indeed, the scaffold technology results in
a 100-fold increase in cell survival over other
methods, Moghe said.

1 What was the aim of this Parkinson’s study in the case study article?
INVESTIGATE

2 What is a ‘scaffold’ in the context of this research?

3 What does this research hope to achieve and how might it help sufferers?
4 Describe the possible ethical issues surrounding this research.
3.2
1 Why is it important for neurotransmitters to function as they are supposed to?
2 What is Parkinson’s disease? List some of its symptoms and what causes them.
3 What are some of the factors thought to cause Parkinson’s disease?
RE VIEW

3.3
4 Describe the role of dopamine in Parkinson’s disease and its treatment.

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 74 U3 AOS 1 HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ENABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING?

> The neuron is comprised of lock. This is known as the ‘lock

dendrites, the soma, the axon and and key process’.
axon terminals. (Most axons are > Whether or not a neuron fires

03
coated in a myelin sheath). One depends in part on whether the
neuron communicates with another synapse is excitatory or inhibitory.
through synapses, which are gaps Excitatory synapses will cause the
located between the axon terminal neuron to fire, whereas synapses
of one neuron and the dendrites of a that are inhibitory reduce this
neighbouring neuron. likelihood.
> Synapse communication happens > Glutamate is an excitatory
through chemicals known as neurotransmitter whereas GABA is
neurotransmitters that are an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
released by the terminal buttons > More than 100 neurotransmitters
of a firing presynaptic neuron into have been identified. Each has a
the synapse, and then taken in by specific effect on the brain and
the neighbouring dendrites of the body.
postsynaptic neuron. > Neurotransmitters that don’t
> Molecules of a specific neuro- function normally can cause
transmitter released by the problems for the nervous system.
terminal buttons bind with relevant A decrease in acetylcholine is
neurotransmitter receptors located implicated in Alzheimer’s disease,
in the postsynaptic membrane and and acetylcholine and dopamine
then either excite or inhibit firing of have key roles in Parkinson’s
the postsynaptic neuron. disease.
> The molecules of neurotransmitters
bind with the neurotransmitter
receptor much like the way that only
a specific key will fit a particular

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 CH 03 THE ROLE OF NEURONS & NEUROTRANSMITTERS 75

ESSENTIAL EXAM KNOWLEDGE

KEY TERMS
For the exam, you must know definitions for the following key terms and concepts and be able to relate
them to an example where appropriate:
> axon > myelin
> axon terminals > neurotransmitter
> dendrite > Parkinson’s disease
> dopamine > synapse
> glutamate > synaptic cleft
> lock and key process > terminal button.

KEY IDEAS
For the exam, you must be able to show your understanding and apply your knowledge of the neural basis of
learning.

RESEARCH METHODS
For the exam, you must be able to:
> use your knowledge of research methods to evaluate a research study
> apply your knowledge and understanding from this chapter to a related research study
> identify ethical considerations in relation to researching the role of neurons and neurotransmitters
in memory.

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 76 U3 AOS 1 HOW DOES THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ENABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING?

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

MULTIPLE CHOICE 6 The information carried along a neuron, which
consists of brief changes in the electrical charge
1 A neuron comprises: of the axon is called:
a soma, neurotransmitter, synapse and axon a the action potential
terminals b the axon potential
b soma, axon, synaptic cleft and terminal c synaptic transmission
buttons
d axon transmission.
c soma, synapse, dendrites and axon terminals
d soma, axon, GABA and acetylcholine. 7 Neurotransmitters include:
a GABA, glutamate and dopamine
2 Most axons are coated with:
b GABA, glutamate and synapses
a GABA
c GABA, dopamine and nitrogen
b adrenalin
d dopamine, glutamate and potassium.
c myelin
d noradrenalin. 8 Parkinson’s disease is associated with a
reduction of dopamine-producing cells in the:
3 The is the primary cell a amygdala
involved in the of information
b terminal button
across a synapse.
c substantia nigra
a neuron; transmission
d striatum.
b neuron; reception
c soma; firing 9 Changes to levels of and
d soma; inhibiting have key roles in Parkinson’s
disease.
4 What is the direction of transmission of the a dopamine; acetylcholine
neural impulse across a synapse?
b serotonin; acetylcholine
a postsynaptic neuron – presynaptic neuron
c dopamine; melatonin
b either presynaptic neuron – postsynaptic
d dopamine; serotonin
neuron or postsynaptic neuron – presynaptic
neuron, at random 10 Parkinson’s disease is characterised most by:
c presynaptic neuron – postsynaptic neuron a deterioration in the myelin sheath
d either presynaptic neuron – postsynaptic b memory loss
neuron or postsynaptic neuron – presynaptic c deterioration of dopamine-releasing neurons
neuron, depending on whether the d immune system breakdown.
neurotransmitter is an agonist or antagonist
SHORT ANSWER
5 Synaptic transmission can best be described as:
a the path of an electrical impulse along a 11 List and describe five structures of a neuron.
neuron 5 marks
b the process by which one neuron can
transmit a message to another neuron. 12 Why is myelin important in the transmission of
c the space between the presynaptic neuron information?
and the postsynaptic neuron 2 marks
d the formation of neurons.
13 What is the effect of the excitatory and inhibitory
synapses on a neuron?
2 marks

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 CH 03 THE ROLE OF NEURONS & NEUROTRANSMITTERS 77

14 How do neurotransmitters influence the 18 What is the difference between the effects of
transmission of messages between neurons? glutamate and GABA?
3 marks 2 marks

15 What are the possible treatments for Parkinson’s 19 What is Parkinson’s disease and how is
disease? it affected by the presence or absence of
2 marks neurotransmitters?
4 marks
16 Why is the lock and key process important for
biological functioning? 20 If the neurotransmitter acetylcholine facilitates
2 marks muscle movement, what might occur if neurons
producing acetylcholine are damaged?
17 Describe the process of synaptic transmission. 2 marks
3 marks

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