OSI Model (7 Layers)

1. Physical Layer – Deals with transmission of raw bits over a physical

medium.
2. Data Link Layer – Handles error detection, flow control, and MAC
addressing.
3. Network Layer – Manages routing and logical addressing (IP
addresses).
4. Transport Layer – Provides end-to-end communication (TCP, UDP).
5. Session Layer – Manages sessions and controls dialogues between
applications.
6. Presentation Layer – Handles data format conversion, encryption,
and compression.
7. Application Layer – Provides network services like HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
etc.

TCP/IP Model (4 Layers)

1. Network Interface (Link) Layer – Equivalent to OSI’s Physical & Data
Link layers.
2. Internet Layer – Equivalent to the OSI Network layer (uses IP).
3. Transport Layer – Provides end-to-end communication (TCP, UDP).
4. Application Layer – Equivalent to OSI’s top three layers.

Network Topology
Defines the physical or logical arrangement of network devices.
Types of Topologies
1. Bus Topology – Single backbone cable, low cost, but collision-prone.
2. Star Topology – Central hub/switch, reliable, but expensive.
 3. Ring Topology – Each device connected to two others, avoids
collisions but failure in one link affects the whole network.
4. Mesh Topology – Every device connected to every other, highly
redundant but costly.
5. Tree Topology – Hierarchical star-bus combination, scalable but
complex.
6. Hybrid Topology – Mix of two or more topologies for flexibility.

Transmission Media
The physical path for data communication.
Types of Transmission Media:
1. Guided (Wired) Media:
o Twisted Pair Cable (Shielded & Unshielded)
o Coaxial Cable
o Fiber Optic Cable
2. Unguided (Wireless) Media:
o Radio Waves
o Microwaves
o Infrared
Factors Affecting Transmission:
• Bandwidth
• Attenuation
• Interference

1. Modem (Modulator-Demodulator)
A modem is a network device that connects a computer or network to the
internet by converting digital data from a computer into an analog signal
for transmission over telephone lines, fiber optics, or cable networks. It
also converts incoming analog signals back into digital data for the
computer to process.
Functions of a Modem:
1. Signal Conversion – Converts digital signals to analog for
transmission and vice versa.
2. Establishing Internet Connection – Provides access to the internet
by communicating with the ISP.
3. Data Compression & Error Correction – Some modems include
features for efficient data transfer.
4. Dial-up or Always-On Connection – Supports various types of
connections (DSL, cable, fiber, dial-up).
Types of Modems:
1. Dial-up Modem – Uses a telephone line; slow (56 kbps).
2. DSL Modem (Digital Subscriber Line) – Uses a telephone line but
offers higher speeds (up to 100 Mbps).
3. Cable Modem – Uses coaxial cable for internet access; faster than
DSL (up to 1 Gbps).
4. Fiber Optic Modem – Uses fiber optics, providing speeds over 1
Gbps.
5. Wireless Modem – Uses cellular networks (3G, 4G, 5G) for internet
access.
Advantages of a Modem:
Enables internet access
Provides reliable signal conversion
Supports multiple types of connections
Disadvantages of a Modem:
 Requires an ISP subscription
Limited to the speed provided by the ISP
Cannot distribute internet to multiple devices directly (requires a
router)

2. Router
A router is a network device that directs data packets between different
networks. It connects local devices (computers, phones, smart TVs) to the
internet and manages traffic to ensure efficient communication.
Functions of a Router:
1. Network Traffic Management – Directs data packets to their correct
destination.
2. IP Address Assignment – Uses DHCP to assign local IP addresses.
3. NAT (Network Address Translation) – Allows multiple devices to
share a single public IP address.
4. Firewall and Security Features – Protects against unauthorized
access.
5. Wireless Connectivity (Wi-Fi Router) – Provides wireless internet
access.
Types of Routers:
1. Wired Router – Connects devices using Ethernet cables.
2. Wireless Router – Provides Wi-Fi connectivity.
3. Core Router – Used in large enterprise networks for high-speed
data routing.
4. Edge Router – Connects local networks to the internet.
5. Virtual Router – Software-based routing solution.
Router Modes:
• Access Point Mode – Extends an existing network.
 • Repeater Mode – Boosts weak Wi-Fi signals.
• Bridge Mode – Connects two networks together.
Advantages of a Router:
Connects multiple devices to the internet
Improves network security with firewalls
Supports both wired and wireless connections
Disadvantages of a Router:
Can be expensive
Configuration may be complex
Limited range for wireless routers

3. Hub
A hub is a basic network device that connects multiple devices within a
local network. Unlike routers and switches, hubs do not filter data; they
simply broadcast it to all connected devices.
Functions of a Hub:
1. Broadcasting Data – Sends incoming data to all devices in the
network.
2. Simple Connectivity – Provides basic networking for multiple
devices.
3. Physical Layer Operation – Operates at the OSI model's Physical
Layer (Layer 1).
Types of Hubs:
1. Passive Hub – Simply connects devices without amplifying signals.
2. Active Hub – Boosts signals before sending them out.
3. Intelligent Hub – Has monitoring capabilities to manage network
traffic.
Advantages of a Hub:
Easy to install and use
Cheap and simple solution for small networks
Disadvantages of a Hub:
No data filtering (sends data to all devices)
Inefficient and slow compared to switches
Creates network congestion

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

Definition:
ISDN is a set of communication standards for digital transmission of voice,
video, data, and other services over traditional telephone networks. It
replaces analog telephone systems with digital technology, improving
speed and quality.
Functions of ISDN:
1. High-Speed Digital Communication – Offers faster and clearer
communication than analog systems.
2. Simultaneous Transmission – Allows voice, video, and data to be
sent at the same time.
3. Improved Security & Reliability – Offers better encryption and
stability over analog systems.
4. Better Call Management – Supports call forwarding, conferencing,
and direct dialing.
Types of ISDN:
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI):
o Suitable for small businesses and homes.
o Provides two 64 Kbps B-channels (for data/voice) and one 16
Kbps D-channel (for signaling).
 o Total bandwidth: 144 Kbps.
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI):
o Used by large businesses.
o Provides 23 B-channels (in North America) or 30 B-channels
(in Europe) and one 64 Kbps D-channel.
o Total bandwidth: 1.544 Mbps (T1 line) or 2.048 Mbps (E1
line).
3. Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN):
o Uses fiber-optic cables for higher speeds.
o Supports multimedia applications like video conferencing.
Advantages of ISDN:
Faster than traditional analog modems.
Supports multiple services (voice, video, and data).
Provides dedicated and secure connections.
Disadvantages of ISDN:
Expensive compared to DSL or fiber networks.
Requires special digital devices and hardware.
Limited availability in rural areas.

2. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

Definition:
TDM is a multiplexing technique that divides a communication channel
into multiple time slots, allowing multiple signals to share the same
transmission medium without interference.
How TDM Works:
• Data from different sources is divided into time slots.
• Each source is given a slot in a repeating cycle.
 • Data is transmitted in a synchronized manner to avoid overlap.
Types of TDM:
1. Synchronous TDM:
o Each device is assigned a fixed time slot, even if it has no data
to send.
o Wastes bandwidth when devices are inactive.
o Example: T1 and E1 lines.
2. Asynchronous (or Statistical) TDM:
o Time slots are dynamically allocated based on demand.
o More efficient since slots are used only when needed.
o Example: Packet switching networks.
Advantages of TDM:
Efficient use of a single transmission channel.
Eliminates the need for separate lines for each device.
Used in digital telephony and modern communication systems.
Disadvantages of TDM:
Requires precise synchronization.
Fixed slots in Synchronous TDM can waste bandwidth.

3. FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)

Definition:
FDM is a multiplexing technique where multiple signals are transmitted
simultaneously over a single communication channel, with each signal
occupying a different frequency range.
How FDM Works:
• The total bandwidth is divided into multiple frequency bands.
 • Each signal is modulated to a unique frequency band.
• At the receiver end, signals are demodulated and separated.
Examples of FDM:
1. Radio & TV Broadcasting: Different channels operate on different
frequencies.
2. Cable TV: Multiple TV channels are transmitted over a single coaxial
cable.
3. DSL Internet: Voice and internet data share the same telephone line
but operate at different frequencies.
Advantages of FDM:
Supports simultaneous transmission of multiple signals.
Works well for analog signals (radio, TV, telephony).
No synchronization required between users.
Disadvantages of FDM:
Bandwidth limitation due to channel spacing.
Susceptible to interference and crosstalk.

Definition of Protocol:
A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is
transmitted and received over a network. It ensures that devices
communicate correctly and efficiently.
Types of Protocols:
A. Network Communication Protocols
These protocols manage data exchange between devices.
1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
o The backbone of the internet.
 o TCP ensures reliable data delivery; IP handles addressing and
routing.
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
o Faster but less reliable than TCP (used in real-time
applications like gaming and VoIP).
3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
o Used for error messages and diagnostics (e.g., ping
command).
4. HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure)
o Used for web browsing. HTTPS encrypts data for security.
5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
o Transfers files between computers over a network.