LANDSCAPES AND LANDFORMS

SNAPSHOT 1: GEOMORPHIC
PROCESSES
that shape
landscapes and
landforms
Lorraine Chaffer,
Vice President GTA NSW & ACT
Canyons National Park, USA. Image source: L Chaffer

GLOSSARY
Landscape – the appearance of an area created by a combination of physical and cultural features that
have evolved over time e.g. coastal or urban landscapes.
Landforms – individual features of the Earth’s crust identified by their shape e.g. beach
Geomorphic processes – natural processes including weathering, erosion, deposition, mass movement
and tectonic activity that transform the lithosphere
Geomorphic hazard – hazard events originating in the lithosphere e.g. volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
tsunamis and mass movement (landslides or avalanches).

GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
1. Tectonic processes (Earth’s tectonic plates)
Earth’s crust is broken into segments known as tectonic plates which move slowly in different directions due to currents
in the mantle. Plate movements create distinctive landforms at the plate boundaries (margins) such as mountains and
valleys and also cause geomorphic hazards such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

SOURCE A: Earths tectonic plates THINK

How does the
location of Australia
compare to New
Zealand in relation
to Earth’s tectonic
plates.
Is this good or bad
for Australia?

N
Source: Shutterstock

8 Geography Bulletin Vol 52, No 2 2020

LANDSCAPES AND LANDFORMS – SNAPSHOT 1

The direction of plate movements will determine the known as subduction). Crust is destroyed during
geomorphic processes that change the Earth’s crust. subduction e.g. Peruvian Trench and Andes
Mountains
• At DIVERGENT boundaries the plates move apart
allowing molten magma to rise and form new * Crust is destroyed on convergent boundaries.
crust in the form of ridges, valleys and volcanoes.
• At TRANSFORM boundaries rift valleys and block
Landforms created by divergent plates include the
mountains form when plates move vertically along
Mid Atlantic Ridge and the Great African Rift Valley.
their boundaries. Eg East African Rift Valley. Plates
* New crust is created on divergent boundaries. moving horizontally frequently become stuck
resulting in tension building up. Earthquake are
• At CONVERGENT boundaries plates collide
common along transform boundaries such as the
–– mountains form where the crust is folded under San Andreas Fault when built up tension caused by
pressure and forced upwards e.g. Himalayan plates ‘sticking’ is released.
Mountains
* Crust is cracked and broken at transform
–– trenches and mountains form where an oceanic boundaries but is not created or destroyed.
plate dives beneath a continental plate (this is

SOURCE B: Tectonic processes at plate boundaries

Source: Shutterstock

• The MID ATLANTIC RIDGE

The mid ocean ridge, one of the largest geological landforms on Earth, consists of an underwater mountain range
in the Atlantic Ocean running from 87°N to 54°S and rising approximately 3 km above the ocean floor. The ridge is
a divergent plate boundary with successive underwater ridges created from magma rising between the tectonic
plates. The youngest rocks are nearest to the fault and the combined features extend 1000 to 1500 km wide.
There are many transform faults where movements occur sideways or vertically at breaks in the crust. Although
mostly underwater there are many volcanic islands of varying size along the ridge including Iceland where many
landscapes and landforms are shaped by volcanic and geothermal activity. The ridge, is growing at a rate of about
2.5 cm per year in an east-west direction, widening the Atlantic Ocean in the process.

Geography Bulletin Vol 52, No 2 2020 9

 LANDSCAPES AND LANDFORMS – SNAPSHOT 1

SOURCE C: Geomorphic hazards at plate boundaries

Source: https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter01-platetectonics/
3A This map shows the location of volcanoes that have been active within the 3B This map shows the locations of all earthquakes with a magnitude greater
past 10,000 years (red triangles). than 4.5 for the years 2015 and 2016. The colours indicate earthquake depth; red
<35 km, green 35-100 km, and blue >100 km.

2. Weathering, erosion and deposition Chemical weathering occurs when rock minerals react
to compounds in the air and water. Some chemical
Weathering, erosion and deposition are the main weathering processes include carbonation (a weak acid
geomorphic processes transforming the Earth’s surface forms when Carbon dioxide mixes with rainwater) and
into distinct landscapes and unique landforms. oxidation (Oxygen reacts to iron in rock).
SOURCE D: Geomorphic processes: Weathering,
Erosion and Deposition. SOURCE E: How water and plants can physically
weather rocks

Source: Shutterstock

How does weathering shape the land?

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks or the
loosening of surface minerals when exposed to
processes caused by climate, chemical reactions,
plants and animals. Weathering occurs in place (in situ)
and occurs before erosion. Weathered rock is more
easily eroded. Physical or chemical processes cause
weathering.
Physical weathering processes include the freezing
and thawing of water in crevices and joints; the growth
of salt crystals; the heating and cooling of surface rock; Source: https://geography-revision.co.uk/gcse/agriculture/coastal-
the action of plant roots and animals. transportation-deposition/

10 Geography Bulletin Vol 52, No 2 2020

LANDSCAPES AND LANDFORMS – SNAPSHOT 1

How does erosion shape the land? • attrition is the physical process of transported rocks
colliding and wearing each rock into a smaller, more
Erosion is the natural process of removal and
rounded shape.
transportation of weathered material from its original
location to a place where it will be deposited. The • corrosion is the chemical process of water dissolving
agents of erosion include water, ice, wind and gravity. rock minerals and transporting these in solution
Waterfalls, coastal rock platforms and valleys are formed
Mass movement (mass wasting) is also considered a
by erosion.
process of erosion. When weathered rock can no longer
Moving water collects weathered material with the resist the force of gravity it falls to a new location at a
erosive power of the water increasing with volume lower altitude. Gravity transports the rock or sediment
and the speed at which it moves. Fast flowing rivers in downhill.
mountains have more erosive power than slow flowing
Landscapes shaped by erosion:
rivers on floodplains. Glaciers move millions of tonnes of
rock to create deep steep sided valleys and waves carve • Fluvial landscapes are shaped by rivers
distinctive landform features from rocky headlands on • Glacial landscapes are shaped by ice
coasts. • Mountain landscapes can be shaped by water and/
Erosion processes include: or ice
• hydraulic action is the physical force of water • Coastal landscapes are shaped by ocean waves and
removing and transporting rock particles and currents
sediment • Arid landscapes are shaped by wind and water
• abrasion is the physical action of rocks and sand • Agricultural and urban landscapes are shaped by
transported by water and wind acting like sandpaper human activities that are influenced by the natural
to wear away the land landscape and natural processes.

SOURCE F: Examples of erosion shaping landscapes and landforms

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/erosion-geology

Fluvial, arid, coastal, karst, mountain and glacial landscapes

These landscapes are recognised by unique features and landforms created by geomorphic processes. It is the landforms
that give these landscapes their identity. The vegetation communities and human structures layered onto these features
vary globally. The spatial distribution of these landscapes can be mapped at a range of scales because of the common
landform features they contain.

Geography Bulletin Vol 52, No 2 2020 11

 LANDSCAPES AND LANDFORMS – SNAPSHOT 1

How does deposition shape the land?

Deposition occurs when eroded rock particles are
dropped in a new location usually after the agent of
erosion loses the power to carry the material any further.
Glaciers deposit eroded rock known as moraine at the
sides and front of the glacier. Rivers deposit sediment
when they flow across a flat floodplain. Waves drop
sediment on a beach when the water soaks into a beach.
Wind moves sand in coastal and desert landscapes to
create sand dunes. If dunes are not stabilised by plants
dunes will continue to change size and shape over time.

Large coastal dunes in Oregon USA. L Chaffer

Human or constructed landscapes

Some landscapes are recognised by the dominant
human activity. These include agricultural, industrial
and urban landscapes. These are influenced by the
underlying landform features but are not created by
them. Sometimes the geomorphic forces that created
the landscape can be observed but often these
constructed landscapes hide the natural landscape
below.
Desert dunes in the Sahara Desert Morocco. L Chaffer

Biotic Landscapes
Some landscapes are recognised by their dominant
type of natural vegetation or habitat (biosphere) e.g.
rainforest, coniferous (boreal) forest, grassland and
tundra. It is the features of the biosphere that give these
landscapes their identity, not the underlying landforms.
Rainforests for example are found on floodplains and
mountains while tundra is found at high latitudes such
as the arctic and also at high altitude such as mountain
tops above the treeline.

Capetown, South Africa is an urban landscape influenced by the surrounding

coastal and mountan landscapes.
Source: Shutterstock

THINK
Can you name one place you know
where weathering, erosion and
deposition have all shaped the
landscape?

Tundra landscape. Hannes Grobe, AWI - Own work, CC BY-SA 2.5,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2978170

12 Geography Bulletin Vol 52, No 2 2020