DATA BASE MANAGMENT SYSTEM

Overview of Database Management System-UNIT 1

Data:- Data is raw facts which can be stored and recorded. The data consist of facts such as
text, graphics, images, video and audio segments which gives more meaning to the user
environment.

Ex. S.No, Name, marks, address . .

Information:- Information is processed data. Information helps to improve the knowledge of a

person who is using the data.

Ex: Vinod is 20 years old .

Vani got 89 marks out of 100

Data Base:- A database is a collection of interrelated data for an organization.

Ex: college database, aadhar database etc

Data base is represented by this symbol

 [ Optional info: Example of commercial database is Amazon.com which support 20 million
books, CDS, DVD A data of 2terabytes (2048GB) and stored in 200 servers ]

Data Base Management System:- A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of

programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. The DBMS is hence a general-
purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining, constructing, manipulating,
and sharing databases among various users and applications.

File System :- A file system is a type of software that allows users to access and organize
small groups of data. It is usually integrated into a computer's operating system and is
responsible for storing and retrieving files from a storage medium, such as a hard disk or
flash drive.

File based system:-

A file based system is a collection of application programs that perform services for
the users wishing to access information. Each program within a file based system defines and
manages its own data.

File based systems were developed as better alternatives to paper based filing systems. By
having files stored on computers, the data could be accessed more efficiently. It was
common practice for larger companies to have each of its departments looking after its
own data.

Drawbacks /Disadvantages of File based System :-

Data Redundancy:- Due to decentralized approach, the same information may be

duplicated in different files. This leads to : i) wastage of storage space ii) costs time and
 money to enter the data more than once. For example, consider a person has both savings
and current account. In this case, customers personal details(name, address…) will be
stored in both files. This results in wastage of memory.

Data Inconsistency:- Two reasons for inconsistency: i) more than one person modifies the
data simultaneously. ii) wrong data is entered. For example, consider a person has both
savings and current account. Consider that the address of a person is changed only in one
file. This creates data inconsistency.

Difficulty in Accessing Data:- It becomes difficult to access data when data is stored in
different files. When data is stored in more than one file it becomes extremely difficult to
access data as large amount of data has to be searched.

Limited Data Sharing:- Data are stored in different files. Different files may have
different formats and these files may be stored in different folders. So, due to this data
isolation, it is difficult to share data among different applications.

Integrity Problems:- Data integrity means that the data contained in the database in both
correct and consistent. For this purpose the data stored in database must satisfy correct and
consistent. For example, balance for any account should not be less than 0, this should be
specified in the system by adding appropriate code .

Data dependence:- File structure is stored in program code. Its very difficult to change
the existing structure. The programmer will have to find all the affected programs, modify
and change them. This characteristic is known as program data independence.

Incompatible file formats:- File structure is stored in program code, therefore the
structure is dependent on programming language. This makes it difficult to process jointly.

Fixed Queries:- File based systems are dependent on application program. Programs are
written to satisfy particular functions. Any new requirement needs a new program.

Maintenance:- Maintenance of file based system is difficult.

Security:- There is no provision for security. Paper files can be lost leading to permanent
data loss.

Recovery:- Recovery is non-existent or inadequate.

Difference between File System and DBMS

File System DBMS

A file system is a software that manages and DBMS or Database Management System is a
organizes the files in a storage medium. It software application. It is used for accessing,
controls how data is stored and retrieved. creating, and managing databases.
The file system provides the details of data DBMS gives an abstract view of data that
representation and storage of data. hides the details

Storing and retrieving of data can't be done DBMS is efficient to use as there are a wide
efficiently in a file system. variety of methods to store and retrieve data.

It does not offer data recovery processes. There is a backup recovery for data in DBMS.

The file system doesn't have a crash recovery DBMS provides a crash recovery mechanism
mechanism.

Protecting a file system is very difficult. DBMS offers good protection mechanism.

In a file management system, the redundancy of The redundancy of data is low in the DBMS
data is greater. system.

Data inconsistency is higher in the file system. Data inconsistency is low in a database
management system.

The file system offers lesser security. Database Management System offers high
security.

File System allows you to stores the data as Database Management System stores data as
isolated data files and entities. well as defined constraints and interrelation.

Not provide support for complicated Easy to implement complicated transactions.

transactions.

The centralization process is hard in File Centralization is easy to achieve in the DBMS
Management System. system.

It doesn't offer backup and recovery of data if it DBMS system provides backup and recovery
is lost. of data even if it is lost.
There is no efficient query processing in the file You can easily query data in a database using
system. the SQL language.

These system doesn't offer concurrency. DBMS system provides a concurrency facility.

Database Approach:-

The Database is a shared collection of logically related data, designed to meet

the information needs of an organization. A database is a computer based record keeping
system whose over all purpose is to record and maintains information.
The database is a single, large repository of data, which can be used simultaneously
by many departments and users.

The database is no longer owned by one department but is a shared corporate

resource. The database holds not only the organization’s operational data but also a
description of this data. For this reason, a database is also defined as a self-describing
collection of integrated records.
The description of the data is known as the Data Dictionary or Meta Data (the ‘data
about data’). It is the self-describing nature of a database that provides program-data
independence.
A database implies separation of physical storage from use of the data by an application
program to achieve program/data independence. Using a database system, the user or
programmer or application specialist need not know the details of how the data are stored
and such details are “transparent to the user”. Changes (or updating) can be made to data
without affecting other components of the system. These changes include, for example,
change of data format or file structure or relocation from one device to another.

In the DBMS approach, application program written in some programming language

like Java, Visual Basic.Net, and Developer 2000 etc. uses database connectivity to access
the database stored in the disk with the help of operating system’s file management system.

Classification of Database Management Systems:-

Database management systems can be classified based on several criteria, such as the data
model, user numbers and database distribution, all described below.
Classification Based on Data Model:- hierarchical data models, network data models and
network data models.

The most popular data model in use today is the network data models. The DBMSs like
Oracle, MS SQL Server, DB2 and MySQL support this model.

The hierarchical data models and network data models, are still used in industry
mainly on mainframe platforms. However, they are not commonly used due to their
complexity.

In recent years, the newer object-oriented data models were introduced. This model is
a database management system in which information is represented in the form of objects as
used in object-oriented programming. Object-oriented database management systems
(OODBMS) combine database capabilities with object-oriented programming language
capabilities.

OODBMS : O2, ObjectStore and Jasmine.

Classification Based on User Numbers: A DBMS can be classification based on the

number of users it supports. It can be a single-user database system, which supports one
user at a time, or a multiuser database system, which supports multiple users
concurrently.

Classification Based on Database Distribution:-

There are four main distribution systems for database systems and these, in turn, can be used
to classify the DBMS.

Centralized systems:-

With a centralized database system, the DBMS and database are stored at a single site that is
used by several other systems too. This is illustrated in Figure
Distributed database system:-

In a distributed database system, the actual database and the DBMS software are distributed
from various sites that are connected by a computer network, as shown in Figure

Homogeneous distributed database systems:-

Homogeneous distributed database systems use the same DBMS software from multiple
sites. Data exchange between these various sites can be handled easily.

For example, library information systems by the same vendor, such as Geac Computer
Corporation, use the same DBMS software which allows easy data exchange between the
various Geac library sites.

Heterogeneous distributed database systems:-

In a heterogeneous distributed database system, different sites might use different DBMS
software, but there is additional common software to support data exchange between these
sites. For example, the various library database systems use the same machine-readable
cataloguing (MARC) format to support library record data exchange.

Characteristics of database approach:-

The characteristics of database approach are

1. Self-describing nature of a database system

2. Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction

3. Support of multiple views of the data

4. Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing

1. Self-Describing Nature of a Database System :-A fundamental characteristic of the

database approach is that the database system contains not only the database itself but also a
complete definition or description of the database structure and constraints. This definition is
stored in the DBMS catalog, which contain information such as the structure of each file, the
type and storage format of each data item, and various constraints on the data. The
information stored in the catalog is called meta-data, and it describes the structure of the
primary database

2. Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction :-In traditional file
processing, the structure of data files is embedded in the application programs, so any
changes to the structure of a file may require changing all programs that access this file. By
contrast, DBMS access programs do not require such changes in most cases. The structure of
data files is stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the access programs. We call this
property program-data independence.

In DBMS environment we just need to change the description of STUDENT

record in catalog to reflect add new data item Date of Birth.
 In object oriented database management System we write operational methods, where
the user can get the functionality without knowing the implementation code this property is
called as Operational Independence. Data Abstraction in DBMS is support for program –data
independence, Operational Independence.

Data Abstraction:- The characteristic that allows program data independence and program
operation independence is called data abstraction. DBMS provides essential information to a
user by hiding the internal details

3. Support of Multiple Views of the Data:- A database typically has many users, each of
whom may require a different perspective or view of the database. A view may be a subset of
the database or it may contain virtual data that is derived from the database files but is not
explicitly stored. Some users may not need to be aware of whether the data they refer to is
stored or derived. A multiuser DBMS whose users have a variety of distinct applications
must provide facilities for defining multiple views. For example, student wants to get his
exam results, so his number, marks are given as student view which satisfy his need.

4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing :-A multiuser DBMS must allow
multiple users to access the database at the same time. This is essential if data for multiple
applications is to be integrated and maintained in a single database. The DBMS must include
concurrency control software to ensure that several users trying to update the same data do so
in a controlled manner so that the result of the updates is correct.

For example, when several reservation clerks try to assign a seat on an airline flight,
the DBMS should ensure that each seat can be accessed by only one clerk at a time for
assignment to a passenger. These types of applications are generally called online transaction
processing (OLTP) applications

ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE APPROACH:

The advantages of DBMS are

1. Controlling Data Redundancy

2. Restricting unauthorized access

3. Providing persistent storage

4. Providing storage structure and search technique for efficient query processing

5. Providing Backup and Recovery

6. Providing multiple user interface

7. Represent Complex relationship among data

8. Enforcing Integrity Constraints

1. Controlling Redundancy:- In file system, each application has its own private files, which
cannot be shared between multiple applications, this can often lead to considerable
redundancy in the stored data, Redundancy is storing same data multiple times this has
several problems like

1. Storage wastage due storing same data

2. Time Waste because of duplication

3. Data Inconsistency, as any updations needed it has to be performed in all places.

DBMS allows sharing of data between tables and controls duplication of data.

2. Restricting unauthorized access:- DBMS provides username and password to give

permission to unauthorized user.

Thus by using security and authorization subsystem, DBMS gives access to data from
database only to privileged users (with valid username and password). This helps in
maintaining security and confidentiality of data.

3. Providing persistent storage:- Database provides permanent storage for all data. Even after
the usage of data and terminating the program we can access the data from the storage.

4. Providing storage structure and search technique for efficient query processing :- In
DBMS indexes are useful in providing specialized data structures and search techniques to
speedup disk search for desired records. For the fast accessing of frequent queries DBMS
uses buffering or caching module. The query processing and optimizing module of DBMS is
responsible for choosing an efficient query execution plan

5. Providing Backup and Recovery:- A DBMS must provide facilities for recovering from
hardware or software failures. The backup and recovery subsystem of the DBMS is
responsible for recovery. For example, if the computer system fails in the middle of a
complex update transaction, the recovery subsystem is responsible for making sure that the
database is restored to the initial state.

6. Providing multiple user interface:- Many types of users with different levels of technical
knowledge uses the database. DBMS provides multiple user interfaces such as queries,
application programs, forms, menu driven programs for different types of user to interact
with users to interact with database.

7. Represent Complex relationship among data:- A database may include numerous varieties
of data that are interrelated in many ways. A DBMS must have the capability to represent a
variety of complex relationships among the data, to define new relationships as they arise,
and to retrieve and update related data easily and efficiently.

8 Enforcing Integrity Constraints:- Most database applications have certain integrity

constraints that must hold for the data. A DBMS should provide capabilities for defining and
enforcing these constraints.Integrity constraints are datatypes, length, uniqueness, not null,
check.
Disadvantages of DBMS :-

1. Size:- DBMS software is complex and extremely large piece of software, it occupies many
megabytes of disk space and need memory to run efficiently

2. Cost:- The cost of DBMS varies significantly, depending on the environment and
functionality provided. There is also the recurrent annual maintenance cost.

3. High degree of failure:- The centralization of resources increases the vulnerability of the
system. Since all users and applications rely on the availability of DBMS i.e. centralized
databases, the failure of any component can bring operations to a halt. If at all serer fails
entire system stops functioning. 4.Performance of DBMS:- Performance of DBMS is
considerably slow .

Data Models:- Data Model can be defined as an integrated collection of concepts for
describing and manipulating data, relationships between data, and constraints on the data in
an organization.

The purpose of a data model is to represent data and make data understandable. The three
categories of data models are

1. Object based data models

2. Physical data models

3. Record based data models

Object based data models:- This model use concepts such as entities, attributes, and
relationships. Entity - Object, Attribute – property, relationship –association between entities

Ex: ER Model

Physical data models:- Physical data models describe how data is stored in the computer.
Ex: tables

Record based data models:- Record based logical models are :

1. Hierarchical model

2. Network model

3. Relational model

Hierarchical model:- Hierarchical Database model is one of the oldest database models.
Information Management System (IMS) is based on this model.

This model is like a structure of a tree with records forming the nodes and fields forming the
branches of a tree.

The tree structure contain nodes .In general, a root node can contain any number of
dependents. Each of these dependents can have any number of lower level dependents .

The different elements present in the hierarchical tree structure have Parent-Child
relationship. A parent element can have many children elements but a child element cannot
have many parent elements. That is, hierarchical model cannot represent many to many
relationships among records(M:M Relations).

EX: Great grandparent is the root of the structure. Parents can have many children exhibiting
one to many relationships. The great grandparent record is known as the root of the tree. The
grandparents and children are the nodes or dependents of the root.

A Sample database:- Let us take the example of the sample database consisting of parts,
supplier and shipments.
Each row in Supplier table is identified by a unique SNO (Supplier Number) that uniquely
identifies the entire row of the table. Likewise each part has a unique PNO (Part Number).
Not more than one shipment exists for a given supplier/part combination in the shipments
table.

Hierarchical View for the Supplier-Part Database:-

The tree structure is built with PART node as parent node and SUPPLIER node as child
node. Each of the 3 Trees in figure, consists of one PART record occurrence, together with a
set of subordinate SUPPLIER record occurrences. There is one supplier record for each
supplier of a particular part. Each supplier occurrence includes the corresponding shipment
quantity.

Part P1 is supplied by supplier S1, similarly P2 is supplied S2, P3 is supplied by S1, S3.

Operations on Hierarchical Model:- There are four basic operations Insert, Update, Delete
and Retrieve that can be performed on Hierarchical Model

Insert Operation:- A part P4 that is not supplied by any supplier can be inserted without any
problem, because a parent can exist without any child. It is not possible to insert the
information of the supplier e.g. S4 who does not supply any part. This is because a node
cannot exist without a root. Since, we can say that insert anomaly exists only for those
children, which has no corresponding parents.

Update Operation: -To update city of supplier S1 we need to perform multiple updates.
Which leads to inconsistency in data.

Delete Operation:- If we delete part P3 information we will lose supplier S3 data too.

Record Retrieval:- Record retrieval methods for hierarchical model are complex .

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hierarchical Model:-

Simplicity:- since the database is based on hierarchical structure, the relationship between
various layers is logically simple. Thus, the design of hierarchical database is simple.

Data Security:- hierarchical model was the first database model that offered the data security
That is provided and enforced by the DBMS.
 Database Integrity:- Because of its inherent parent-child structure, database integrity is
highly promoted in these systems.

Efficiency:- The hierarchical database model is a very efficient, one when the database
contains a large number of 1: N relationships (one-to-many relationships) and when the users
require large number of transactions, using data whose relationships are fixed.

Disadvantages:-

Implementation Complexity:- The actual implementation of a hierarchical database depends

on the physical storage of data. This makes the implementation complicated.

Database Management Problems:- If we make any changes in the database structure of a

hierarchical database, then we need to make the necessary changes in all the application
programs that access the database. Thus, maintaining the database and the applications can
become very difficult.

Lack of structural independence:-If the physical structure is changed the applications also
have to be modified. Thus in hierarchical database the benefits of data independence is
limited by structural dependence.

Operational Anomalies : - Hierarchical model suffers from the Insert anomalies, Update
anomalies and Deletion anomalies, also the retrieval operation is complex and asymmetric,
and thus hierarchical model is not suitable for all the cases.

Implementation Limitation: - Many of the common relationships do not conform to the l: N

format required by the hierarchical model. The many-to-many (N: N) relationships, which are
more common in real life are very difficult to implement in a hierarchical mode.

Network Model:-The Network model uses a graph model to represent general connections
among the nodes. A network structure allows 1:1 (one: one), l: M (one: many), M: M (many:
many) relationships among entities. In network database terminology, a relationship is a set.
Each set is made up of at least two types of records: an owner record (equivalent to parent in
the hierarchical model) and a member record (similar to the child record in the hierarchical
model).

Sample Database: - Let us take the example of the sample database consisting of supplier,
parts and shipments.
Network view of Sample Database:- supplier-part database network view is shown in the
following diagram. A connector occurrence specifies the association (shipment) between one
supplier and one part. All the supplier occurrences are placed on the chain. Similarly all part
occurrences are placed on chain.

Operations on Network Model

Insert Operation: if supplier S2 starts supplying P3 part with quantity 100, then a new
connector containing the 100 as supplied quantity is added in to the model and the pointer
of S2 and P3 are modified as shown in the below.

We can summarize that there is no insert anomalies in network model as in hierarchical

model.
Update Operation: - We can change the city of S1 from VJA to VZG without search or
inconsistency problems because the city for S1 appears at just one place in the network
model. Similarly, same operation is performed tochange the any attribute of part.
Delete operation: - If we want to delete the information of any part say P3, then that
record occurrence can be deleted by removing the corresponding pointers and connectors,
without affecting the supplier information.
 Retrieval Operation:- Record retrieval methods for network model are symmetric but
complex.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORK MODEL
The main advantages of the network model are:
Conceptual simplicity:- The network model is conceptually simple and easy to design.

Supports more relationship types:- The network model can support the one to- many (l :
N) and many to many(N : N) relationships, which helps in modeling the real life situations.
Data access: - The data access is easier than the hierarchical model.
Data Integrity: - The network model does not allow a member to exist without an owner.
Thus, a user must first define the owner record and then the member record. This ensures
the data integrity.
Data independence: - The network model is better than the hierarchical model in
isolating the data from the application programs.
Database Standards: - The standards included a Data Definition Language (DDL) and
the Data Manipulation Language (DML), thus greatly enhancing database
administration and portability.

DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORK MODEL

Even though the network database model was significantly better than the hierarchical
database model, it alsohad many drawbacks. Some of them are:
System complexity:- All the records are maintained using pointers and hence the
whole database structurebecomes very complex.
Implementation complexity:- Network model's insertion, deletion and updating
operations of any record require large number of pointer adjustments, which makes its
implementation very complex and complicated.
Absence of structural independence:- If changes are made to the database structure
then all the applicationprograms need to be modified before they can access data.

Relational model:-

Relational model stores data in the form of tables. This concept proposed by Dr.
E.F.Codd. The relational model consists of three major components:

1. The set of relations and set of domains that defines the way data can be represented (data
structure).

2. Integrity rules that define the procedure to protect the data (data integrity).

3. The operations that can be performed on data (data manipulation).

Characteristics:

● In relational model data is represented as ordered collection of rows and columns called
relation (table).
● All values are scalar. (At any given row/column position in the relation there is one and
only one value).
● operations performed on a relation will result in other relation
Basic Terminology used in Relational Model

The figure shows a relation with the. Formal names of the basic components marked the
entire structure is, as we have said, a relation.

Tuple:- Row / Record of a Relation is called Tuple. Field: Column / Attribute of a

Relation is called Field.

Cardinality:- The number of tuples in a relation determines its cardinality.

The PART relation has a cardinality of 3.

Degree of a relation:- The number of attributes in a relation is its degree.

The PART relation has degree of 2.

Domains:- A domain is the set of all possible values that an attribute may validly contain.
Domains are often confused with data types, but this is inaccurate. Data type is a physical
concept while domain is a logical one. "Number" is a data type and "Age" is a domain.
Body of a Relation:- The body of the relation consists of an unordered set of zero or more
tuples.
Keys of a Relation:- It is a set of one or more columns (attributes) specifying uniqueness.
Some different types of keys are:

Primary key:- it is an attribute or set of attributes of a relation which identify each row
uniquely. A Primary key satisfies properties of Uniqueness and NOT NULL

Ex: PNO in PART Relation, SNO in SUPPLIER Relation, SNO, PNO in SHIPMENT
 Relation.

Foreign key:- is the attributes of a relation, which refers to the primary key of some other
relation.

Relational View of Sample database:

Let us take the example of the sample database consisting of supplier, parts and shipments.

Operations in Relational Model

The four basic operations Insert, Update, Delete and Retrieve operations are
shown below on the sampledatabase in relational model:

Insert Operation:- Suppose we wish to insert the information of supplier who does not
supply any part, can be inserted in SUPPLIER table without any anomaly. So, we can say
that insert operations can be performed in all the cases without any anomaly.

Update Operation:- Update operation in relational model is very simple and without any
anomaly in case of relational model.

Suppose supplier S1 has moved from VJA to VZG. In that case we need to make
changes in the record, so that the supplier table is up-to-date. Since supplier number is
the primary key in the SUPPLIER table, so there is only a single entry of S 1, which
needs a single update.

Delete Operation:- Deletion of tuples is possible without anomalies in Relational Model.

Record Retrieval:- Record retrieval methods for relational model are simple.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Relational Model :-

The major advantages of the relational model are:

Structural independence:- Relational database model has structural independence. In

relational model, changes made to the database structure do not affect the data access.
 Conceptual simplicity:- The relational database model is even simpler at the conceptual
level.

Design, implementation, maintenance and usage ease:- The relational database model
achieves both data independence and structure independence making the database design,
maintenance, administration and usage much easier than the other models.

Query capability:- SQL is a fourth generation language (4GL). A 4 GL allows the user to
specify what must be done without specifying how it must be done.

Disadvantages of Relational Model

Some of the disadvantages are:

Hardware overheads:- Relational database system hides the implementation

complexities and the physical data storage details from the users. For doing this, i.e. for
making things easier for the users, the relational database systems need more powerful
hardware computers and data storage devices. So, the RDBMS needs powerful machines
to run smoothly. But, as the processing power of modem computers is increasing at an
exponential rate and in today's scenario, the need for more processing power is no longer a
very big issue.
Ease of design can lead to bad design:- The ease of design and use can lead to the
development andimplementation of very poorly designed database management systems.

'Information island' phenomenon:- The relational database systems are easy to

implement and use. This will create a situation where too many people or departments will
create their own databases and applications.

These information islands will prevent the information integration that is essential
for the smooth and efficient functioning of the organization. These individual databases
will also create problems like data inconsistency, data duplication, data redundancy and so
on.

Components of DBMS:
There are five major components in the database system environment and their
interrelationship are.
• Data
• Software
• Hardware
• Users
• Procedures

1. Data: The database contains the operational data and the meta-data,
the 'data aboutdata'. Operational Data is day-to-day entered into the
database tables.
Meta Data is data description stored in data dictionary.

2. Software: The software is

The DBMS that allows the users to create and maintain database.
Eg: Oracle, My-Sequel, MS-Access
Operation System, Which acts as interface between user and system.
Eg: Windows, UNIX, Linux . . .

3. Hardware: Hardware includes Secondary Storage devices like Hard disk, input and
output devices.

4. Users: users are of different people who uses

database at differentlevels DBA: responsible for
administrating all the resources.
End users ex: Casual end user ,Naive user,. Sophisticated users ,
Stand-alone usersDatabase designers
System analyst and application programmers

5. Procedures : Procedures are application programs that perform a specific task or job

Ex: Start Database, Stop Database , logon to DB

 Database System Concepts and Architecture:

Schema: -The description of a database is called the database schema, which is

specified during databasedesign and is not expected to change frequently.

Schema Diagram:- A displayed schema is called a schema diagram. A schema diagram

displays only some aspects of a schema

Instance:- The data in the database at a particular moment in time is called a database
state or snapshot. It is also called the current set of occurrences or instances in the
database.

Three Schema Architecture:

 The goal of the three-schema architecture, illustrated in the Figure, is to separate the
user applications and the physical database. In this architecture, schemas can be defined as
the following three levels:

The internal level:- the internal level has an internal schema, which describes the
physical storage structure of the database. The internal schema uses a physical data model
and describes the complete details of data storage and access paths for the database.

The conceptual level:- the conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which describes the
structure of the whole database for a community of users. The conceptual schema hides
the details of physical storage structures and concentrates on describing entities, data
types, relationships, user operations, and constraints. Usually, a representational data
model is used to describe the conceptual schema when a database system is implemented.
This implementation conceptual schema is often based on a conceptual schema design in
a high-level data model.

The external or view level:- it includes a number of external schemas or user views. Each
external schema describes the part of the database that a particular user group is interested
in and hides the rest of the database from that user group. As in the previous case, each
external schema is typically implemented using a representational data model, possibly
based on an external schema design in a high level data model. The three-schema
architecture is a convenient tool with which the user can visualize the schema levels in a
database system.
Data Independence
The three-schema architecture can be used to further explain the concept of data
independence, which can be defined as the capacity to change the schema at one level of a
database system without having to change the schema at the next higher level. We can
define two types of data independence:
Logical data independence:- it is the capacity to change the conceptual schema without
having to change external schemas or application programs. We may change the
conceptual schema to expand the database (by adding a record type or data item), to
change constraints, or to reduce the database (by removing a record type or data item). In
the last case, external schemas that refer only to the remaining data should not be affected.

Physical data independence:- is the capacity to change the internal schema without
having to change the conceptual schema. Hence, the external schemas need not be
changed as well. Changes to the internal schema may be needed because some physical
files had to be reorganized-for example, by creating additional access structures-to
improve the performance of retrieval or update. If the same data as before remains in the
database, we should not have to change the conceptual schema.

costs and risks of database approach:-

The database approach emphasizes data integration and sharing across organizations. As with
any business decision, the database approach entails some additional costs and risks that must
be recognized and managed when implementing this approach. Mentionable some costs &
risks of database approach are as follows;
New Specialized Personnel:- Frequently, organizations that adopt the database approach
need to hire or train individuals to design & implement databases, provide database
administration services and manage a staff of new people, further, because of the rapid
changes in technology these new people will have to be retrained or upgraded on a regular
basis.
Installation & Management Costs and complexity:- A multi-user database management
system is a large and complex suite of software that has a high initial cost, requires a staff of
trained personnel to install and operate, and also has substantial annual maintenance &
support costs. Installing such a system may also require upgrades to the hardware and data
communications system in the organization.
Conversion Costs:- The cost of converting the traditional file processing systems to modern
database technology: measured in terms of money, time, and organizational commitment.
Need for explicit Backup & Recovery:- A shared corporate database must be accurate and
available at all times. These require that comprehensive procedures be developed and used
for providing backup copies of data and for restoring a database when damage occurs.
Organizational Conflict:- A shared database requires a consensus on data definitions and
ownership as well as responsibilities for accurate data maintenance. Experience has shown
that conflicts on data definitions, data formats, and coding, rights to update shared data are
frequent and often difficult to resolve.