Unit-1

Indus valley Civilaization

Indus civilization, also called Indus valley civilization or Harappan civilization is the earliest known urban
culture of the Indian subcontinent. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban
civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, which
flows through the length of Pakistan, along with a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once
coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan. Phases
of Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization is divided into three phases, namely: •

Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BCE): It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-
Hakra River Valley, with the earliest examples of the Indus script. This phase is characterized by a
centralized authority, urban quality of life, established trade networks and cultivation of crops. •

Mature Harappan Phase (2600 to 1900 BCE): It is characterized by Kot Diji. The early Harappan
communities were turned into large urban centres, like Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-Daro in modern-
day Pakistan and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern-day India. •

Late Harappan Phase (1900 to 1300 BCE): It signifies the gradual decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization. Though, archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000-
900 BC.

Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after its first site was excavated, in what
was then the Punjab province of British India and is now in Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa and soon
after Mohenjodaro was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological
Survey of India during the British Raj. Nevertheless, there were earlier and later cultures in the same area
often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan. There are five major urban sites, the most important being:
Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi.

Architecture and Town Planning of Indus Valley Civilization

Architecture and town planning was the most striking feature of the Indus valley civilization. The town
planning of the Indus Valley Civilization proves that the IVC people lived a highly civilized and developed
life. Indus people were the first to build planned cities with a scientific drainage system. For architecture, it
can be said that the Indus cities were built on a uniform plan and the town planning was amazing in nature.
Life in the Indus cities gives the impression of a democratic bourgeois economy like that of ancient Crete.
Streets The streets were 13 to 34 feet wide and were well lined, straight and cut each other at right angles.
The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular blocks. The presence of dustbins proves the presence
of good municipal administration. Archaeologists have

also discovered the lamp posts at intervals, which suggests the existence of street lights. Drainage System
The cities of the Indus valley civilization were provided with an excellent closed drainage system. Brick-
laid channels flowed through every street. Each house had its own drainage and soak pit which was
connected to the public drainage. They were covered and had manholes at intervals for cleaning and
clearing purposes. Indus people had a perfect underground drainage system. Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and
the recently partially-excavated Rakhigarhi demonstrate the world's first known urban sanitation systems.

Granaries They constituted an important part of the Harappan cities. The largest building in Mohenjodaro
was the granary which was 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide. In Harappa, there are a series of brick
platforms which formed the base for two rows of 6 granaries each. These granaries safely stored the grains,
which were probably collected as revenue or storehouses to be used in emergencies. In the Southern part of
Kalibangan brick platforms have also been found.

Architecture and Buildings The houses and other buildings were built by the side of roads by the people
of the Indus Valley Civilization. The houses were terraced houses made up of burnt bricks. Standardized
burnt bricks of ratio 1:2:4 were found in all the sites. No stones were used. Every house had two or more
rooms. There were also more than one-storied houses. The houses were designed around an inner courtyard
and contained pillared halls, bathrooms, paved floors, kitchen, well etc. There was an excellent system of
water supply which is verified by public wells by the side of the streets. Every big house had its own well.
The workmen's quarters are also found. The quality of urban planning suggests efficient municipal
governments that placed a high priority on hygiene or religious ritual. Harappans demonstrated advanced
architecture with dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. They also built a
dockyard at Lothal.

The Great Bath The most striking feature in Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath, which is a large quadrangle
structure. In the centre, there is a huge swimming pool with the remains of galleries and rooms on all four
sides. The Great bath had 8 ft thick outer walls. The water was discharged by a huge drain with a corbelled
roof more than 6 ft in depth. There were arrangements for a hot water bath in some rooms. Most scholars
agree that this tank would have been used for special religious functions where water was used to purify and
renew the well-being of the bathers. Characteristic features of Harappan cities: There was great
uniformity in Harappan town planning. Town planning was based on a grid pattern or chessboard pattern.
Streets and lanes intersect at right angles, creating a number of rectangular blocks in the city. The entire city
was divided into two major areas; The Citadel and Lower Town. • The Citadel was a fortified area with vital
public buildings, including granaries and dwellings for the ruling class. The lower town was larger and lay
east of the Citadel. • The lower town was intended for the common public, while the Citadel and the lower
town were separated by an area of ground.

Agricultural Pattern of Indus Valley Civilization The Indus people were the earliest people to produce
cotton. The Harappan villages were situated mostly near the flood plains and produced sufficient foodgrains,
such as wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard. Millets were found at sites in Gujarat.
Animals were also reared on a large scale. Representations on seals and terracotta sculptures indicate that
the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for ploughing. They also
developed some new tools known as plough which was used to dig earth for planting the seeds and turning
the soil. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan.

Economy during Indus Valley Civilization Indus Valley Civilization was a prosperous civilization. Indus
Valley Civilization’s economy was largely based on agriculture and animal husbandry, supplemented by the
exploitation of natural and wild resources. The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is
witnessed by the presence of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide
area. The Harappans carried on a considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. Metal money was not used
and trade was carried by a barter system.

Agricultural economy The main crops produced were Wheat, Barley, Rice, Dates, Mustard, and Cotton.
The use of wooden ploughshare, well irrigation, dams, and irrigation canals shows the advancement of
Harappans in agriculture technology. The Indus people set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan
which facilitated trade with Central Asia. hey also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and
the Euphrates.

Manufacturing A large number of terracotta articles show that it was used by common people. Harappans
were the first to use silver in the world and the people did not use an iron but used Copper, bronze, silver,
and gold. Owing to this, the Harappan people were good at metallurgy and producing alloys. The Indus
Valley people were an expert in beadmaking jewellery.

Pottery The Harappans used Red and Black pottery (redware painted with black designs) and also knew the
use of Potter’s wheel with ease. It shows the expertise of Harappans in pottery making e.g. Glazed pottery,
incised pottery, perforated pottery, etc. Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was
glossy and shining. Trade Harappans had trade with Mesopotamia (Sumeria), Central Asia, Persia,
Afghanistan Makan (Oman), and Dilmun (Bahrain). Trade was through the barter system. Trade shows the
advanced trade relation of Harappan civilization with other parts of India as well as also with other
contemporary civilizations. Export items included Teak ( obtained from Gujrat), Amazonite (Hirapuri, GJ),
Slate (Kangra), Lead (Kashmir and South India), and Copper (from Baluchistan), whereas the import items
include Jade (from Central Asia), Turquoise (from Khorasan), Lapis Lazuli, Gold, Silver, Tin ( from
Afghanistan), Gold was also obtained from Iran and Kolar mines in Karnataka and Steatite (Iran).

Weights and Measures The weights followed a binary system of 1, 2, 8, 16, 32 to 64, 160, 320, 640, 1600,
3200, and so on. Weights were made of chert, limestone, and steatite and were generally cubical. The
standardization and accuracy of weights and measures throughout the IVC were remarkable.

Seals Harappan seals are the greatest artistic creation and were used to mark ownership of property and in
trade. They were made up of Steatite (soft stone) and were half an inch to 2.5 inches. The seals were
generally square and rectangular with carved animals and inscriptions. The humpless bull is the most used
animal in seals.

Religion during Indus Valley Civilization In Harappa, numerous terracotta figurines of women have been
found. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her in the
same manner as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis. The male deity is represented on a seal
with three-horned heads, represented in the sitting posture of a yogi. This god is surrounded by an elephant,
a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo below his throne. At his feet appear two deer. The depicted god is
identified as Pashupati Mahadeva. The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and animals. The
most important of them is the one-horned unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros and the next
important was the humped bull. The absence of any palace or temple despite structures like granaries and
public baths led historians to believe that the Indus Valley society was an egalitarian one.

Important Sites and Findings of Indus Valley Civilization

In the 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein
the ruins of the two old cities, Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed. In 1924, John Marshall, the then
Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of the Indus valley to the world. Over 1400 Indus
Valley Civilization sites have been discovered, of which 925 sites are in India and 475 sites in Pakistan,
while some sites in Afghanistan are believed to be trading colonies. Site Excavated By Location Important
Findings Harappa Daya Ram Sahni in 1921 Situated on the bank of river Ravi in Montgomery district of
Punjab (Pakistan). Granaries, bullock carts and sandstone statues of Human anatomy Mohenjodaro a.k.a.
Mound of Dead R.D Banerjee in 1922 Situated on the Bank of river Indus in Larkana district of Punjab
(Pakistan). Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva, Bronze dancing girl, Great bath, Granary, Steatite statue of beard
man and a piece of woven cotton. Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 In southwestern Balochistan province,
Pakistan on Dast river Trade point between Harappa and Babylon Chanhudaro N.G Majumdar in 1931
Sindh on the Indus river Bead makers shop and footprint of a dog chasing a cat. Amri N.G Majumdar in
1935 On the bank of Indus river Antelope evidence Kalibangan Ghose in 1953 Rajasthan on the bank of
Ghaggar river Wooden plough, Fire altar and Camel's bones. Lothal R.Rao in 1953 Gujarat on Bhogva river
near Gulf of Cambay Dockyard, First manmade port, Rice husk, Fire altars and Chess playing. Surkotada
J.P Joshi in 1964 Gujarat Bead and Bones of horses. Banawali R.S Bisht in 1974 Hisar district of Haryana
Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture Beads and Barley. Dholavira R.S Bisht in 1985
Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh Water harnessing system and Water reservoir.

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization declined around 1800 BCE. The
reasons behind the demise of Civilization are still debated. Many scholars believe that the collapse of the
Indus Valley Civilization was caused by climate change. Some experts believe the drying of the Saraswati
River, which began around 1900 BCE, was the main cause of climate change, while others conclude that a
great flood struck the area. Many scholars argue that changes in river patterns caused the large civilization
to break up into smaller communities called late Harappan cultures. Another disastrous change in the
Harappan climate might have been eastward-moving monsoons or winds that bring heavy rains.

About Saraswati River

The Saraswati River is a historical river that was recorded in the Vedas, Puranas, and epics, including the
Mahabharata and Smritis. According to Hindu scripts and texts, the Saraswati River is one of the principal
Rigvedic Rivers. It is also well-known by the name Ghaggar-Hakra River.

● In the early Rigvedic "Nadistuti" hymn, the Saraswati River is mentioned between the east of the
Yamuna and the west of the Sutlej.
● Yet, it is later claimed in other Vedic texts that the Saraswati River dried up in a desert. Saraswati river
forms a transboundary between India and Pakistan. Additionally, only during the monsoon does this
river cross both countries.
● The Saraswati River was formerly known as the Ghaggar in the region before the Ottu barrage, and it
takes the name Hakra when it crosses this barrier.
● During the monsoon season, the Ghaggar river serves as a trans-border river between Pakistan and
India, while the Hakra, an extension of the Ghaggar in India, turns into a dried-up canal in Pakistan.
● The Ghaggar originates in the Himachal Pradesh state's Shivalik Mountains and flows through Punjab,
Haryana, and even certain areas of Rajasthan. This river in Rajasthan provides water to two irrigation
channels.
Historical Evidence of the Saraswati River

● The Saraswati River is mentioned in the Rigveda, the oldest Hindu scripture. It is a mighty river that
flowed through the land of the Aryans. It is also mentioned in other Vedic texts, as well as in the
Puranas and other Hindu scriptures.
● Geologists have found evidence of a large river system that flowed through northwestern India and
Pakistan. This was during the Holocene epoch (the past 11,700 years). This river system is now known
as the Ghaggar-Hakra River system.
● Archaeologists have found evidence of Harappan settlements along the dried-up bed of the Ghaggar-
Hakra River. This suggests that the Harappans were dependent on the Saraswati River for their
livelihood.
● Radiocarbon dating of sand dunes in the Ghaggar-Hakra basin has shown that they were deposited by a
large river system between 9,000 and 4,500 years ago.
● Geologists have also found evidence of river channels, floodplains, and meanders in the Ghaggar-Hakra
basin.
● Archaeologists have found Harappan settlements along the dried-up bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra River in
Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
● In addition to Harappan settlements, archaeologists have also found evidence of earlier human
occupation along the Ghaggar-Hakra River. This dates back to the Mesolithic period (10,000-5,000
years ago).

Ghaggar-Hakra River System

The Ghaggar-Hakra River System is an intermittent river system in India and Pakistan. It flows only during
the monsoon season. The river is known as Ghaggar before the Ottu barrage and as Hakra downstream of
the barrage in the Thar Desert. The Ghaggar-Hakra River System is believed to be the remnant of the
ancient Saraswati River.
Religious Significance of Saraswati River
The Sarasvati River has significant religious importance in Hinduism.

● It is mentioned in ancient scriptures such as the Vedas and other Vedic texts.
● The river is revered as a sacred and powerful entity, both as a physical river and as a goddess.
● In the Rigveda, it is described as a great and holy river in northwestern India.
● It is also depicted as a smaller river that ends in a terminal lake or ocean in later texts.
● Sarasvati is worshipped as the goddess of knowledge, wisdom, music, arts, and learning.
● Devotees seek her blessings for intellectual pursuits, artistic endeavors, and spiritual growth.
● The Sarasvati River holds a metaphysical significance and is believed to merge with the Ganges and
Yamuna rivers at the Triveni Sangam.
● This confluence is considered highly auspicious, and pilgrims gather there during the Kumbh Mela for
spiritual purification.
● The identification of the Sarasvati River is a subject of scholarly debate.
● Some scholars propose that it corresponds to the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra River system.
● The religious significance of the Sarasvati River represents the divine flow of knowledge, creativity,
and spirituality.
● Devotees believe that connecting with the essence of Sarasvati can lead to inner wisdom and spiritual
enlightenment.
● The Sarasvati River continues to inspire devotion and reverence among millions of Hindus worldwide
The Saraswati River is a legendary river mentioned in ancient Indian texts such as the Rigveda,
one of the oldest sacred scriptures of Hinduism. It is often considered a sacred river in Hinduism,
though its exact location and existence remain a topic of debate among scholars. Descriptions in
ancient texts suggest that the Saraswati River was significant and revered in ancient India, flowing
between the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers.
Let us learn more about the Saraswati River!
Saraswati River: An Overview
Origin Himalayas

Length 1,400 km

States Flowed
Punjab, Haryana, Western Rajasthan and Gujarat
Through

Drishadvati, Satudri (Sutlej), Chandrabagha (Chenab), Vipasa (Vyas)

Major Tributaries and Iravati (Ravi)

The Saraswati River has been talked about in the ancient Rigveda hymns and in old Indian
stories for thousands of years. People have always been interested in it. Even though we are still
trying to figure out exactly where it flowed, the Saraswati River is important in many ways. It is
seen as a symbol in stories, a really important part of history, and a mystery for scientists to solve.
People are still trying to learn more about it because it is fascinating in so many different ways.
Origin of Saraswati River
The Saraswati River, mentioned in ancient Indian texts, is believed to have originated in the
Himalayas, flowing into the northwest region of India and merging with the Ganga and Yamuna at
Prayag. Its course and existence have been subjects of speculation and research, with some
theories suggesting it went underground or dried up in the Thar Desert, due to geological changes
over millennia.
Saraswati River- States
The Saraswati River, as referenced in ancient Indian texts, is believed to have flowed through
parts of present-day states in northwest India before disappearing. These include Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan, and possibly extending into Gujarat. Research and excavations suggest that
the river played a crucial role in supporting the Harappan civilization. Its course is thought to have
shifted or dried up due to climatic changes and geological events, affecting settlements along its
banks.
Saraswati River Route
The Saraswati River is theorized to have originated in the Himalayas, flowing through the states of
Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and possibly into Gujarat, before merging with the Ganga and
Yamuna rivers. Over time, changes in the river's course, possibly due to tectonic activities or
climate changes, led to its disappearance or underground flow in parts of its trajectory,
significantly impacting the civilizations it once nurtured.
Did Saraswati River Dissapear?
Yes, the Saraswati River, mentioned in ancient Indian texts, is believed to have gradually
disappeared due to a combination of climatic changes, tectonic activities, and river course
diversions over millennia. It is thought to have once flowed through parts of present-day northwest
India before drying up or becoming subterranean, impacting the civilizations it supported.

Mythology and Cultural Significance

● In Hindu mythology, the Saraswati personifies the essence of knowledge, music, arts, and
learning.
● Often depicted clad in white, symbolizing purity, and seated on a white lotus, represents
enlightenment, Saraswati is looked upon as the embodiment of intellectual and creative
faculties.
● The Saraswati River is believed to be her earthly manifestation, a lifeblood not just for physical
nourishment but also for spiritual nourishment.
● Vedic literature and the epic Mahabharata extensively mention the Saraswati River,
portraying it as a mighty river that sustained a flourishing civilization.

The Saraswati River: History

In recent years, archaeologists have found strong evidence supporting the existence of the
Saraswati River. With new technology like remote sensing and satellite imagery, they have
spotted the remains of a dried-up riverbed. This river stretches from the Himalayan foothills to the
Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. By digging at different spots along this path, they've uncovered old
settlements and artifacts from the time of the Vedas. This discovery gives us real proof of a time
long ago.

The Saraswati River: Science

● The exact course and disappearance of the Saraswati River are yet to be fully understood.
● Geologists have proposed various theories, including the possibility of tectonic activity or
drastic climate change diverting the river's course.
● Extensive research involving geomorphological analysis, hydrological studies, and further
excavations are important to unravel the scientific mysteries surrounding the Saraswati.
The Saraswati's Enduring Legacy
The Saraswati River, even in its current state, continues to hold immense cultural significance.
Several present-day rivers, including the Ghaggar-Hakra, are considered remains of the mighty
Saraswati. Places along its course are still admired by the pilgrims, and the Saraswati Puja, a
celebration of knowledge and learning, is observed across India.

KNOWLEDGE TRADITIONS OF GLORIOUS BHARAT

The knowledge traditions of Glorious Bharat (India) have a rich and diverse history that spans several
millennia. These traditions encompass various fields of knowledge, including philosophy, science,
mathematics, medicine, arts, literature, and spirituality. Here are some of the prominent knowledge
traditions of Glorious Bharat:
Vedic Knowledge: The Vedas, composed around 1500–500 BCE, form the foundation of Vedic
knowledge. They consist of four main texts: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. These
sacred scriptures contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical discussions that have shaped the religious
and spiritual beliefs of the Indian subcontinent.
Hindu Philosophical Systems: Bharat has given rise to several philosophical systems, each offering
unique perspectives on the nature of reality, self, and existence. Six orthodox schools of Hindu
philosophy, known as the "Darshanas," include Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and
Vedanta. These schools delve into various aspects of metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.
Ayurveda: Ayurveda, an ancient system of medicine, is among the world's oldest healthcare traditions. It
emphasizes a holistic approach to health, focusing on balancing the three doshas (Vata, Pitta, and
Kapha) to maintain well-being. Ayurveda encompasses herbal medicine, diet, yoga, and various
therapeutic practices.
Mathematics and Astronomy: India made significant contributions to mathematics and astronomy. The
concept of zero and the decimal system, which are fundamental to modern mathematics, were
developed in India. Ancient Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata and Brahmagupta made noteworthy
contributions to algebra, trigonometry, and number theory. In astronomy, India's knowledge of celestial
movements was advanced, leading to the creation of precise calendars and observatories.
Yoga and Meditation: India is renowned for its tradition of yoga and meditation. Yoga, a system of
physical, mental, and spiritual practices, aims to achieve harmony between body and mind. Meditation, as
practiced in various forms, is a key component of yoga and serves as a tool for self-realization and
inner peace.
Classical Arts and Literature: Bharat has a rich heritage of classical arts and literature. Indian classical
dance forms, such as Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri, and others, are known for their intricate
footwork, gestures, and expressive storytelling. Classical music, with its various ragas and talas, has a
profound impact on the emotions of the audience. Indian literature, encompassing ancient epics like
Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as classical works of poets and writers, reflects the country's deep
cultural and moral values.
Spiritual Traditions: Bharat has been the birthplace of several spiritual traditions, including Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Each of these traditions has its unique philosophical and spiritual
teachings, contributing to the diversity of spiritual practices in India.
Guru-Shishya Parampara: The knowledge traditions of Bharat are often passed down through the guru
shishya parampara, an ancient system of education where knowledge is transmitted from a guru
(teacher) to a shishya (student) through personal guidance and discipleship.
Literature and Languages: India's literary heritage is extensive, with classical works in Sanskrit, Pali,
Prakrit, Tamil, and other languages. The vast literary corpus includes religious scriptures, epics, poetry,
plays, and philosophical treatises.
Non-violence and Ethical Values: Bharat's knowledge traditions have long emphasized the importance of
non-violence (ahimsa) and ethical values. Mahatma Gandhi's practice of non-violence during India's
freedom struggle had a profound impact on the nation and inspired similar movements worldwide.
These knowledge traditions of Glorious Bharat have left an indelible mark on the world's intellectual,
spiritual, and cultural heritage. They continue to influence modern thought and inspire people globally
to seek knowledge, wisdom, and a deeper understanding of life and existence

DISSEMINATION AND CONTRIBUTION OF BHARATIYA KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS IN THE

WORLD
GLORIOUS TRADITION OF SCIENCE AND ARTS IN BHARAT
The dissemination and contribution of Bharatiya knowledge systems in the world have had a profound
impact on the glorious tradition of science and arts in India. Over the centuries, India's knowledge and
wisdom have spread far beyond its borders, influencing various cultures and civilizations. Let's explore
how Bharatiya knowledge systems have been disseminated and their contributions to the world's
tradition of science and arts:
Dissemination of Knowledge:
a. Ancient Trade Routes: India's strategic location on ancient trade routes, such as the Silk Road and
maritime trade, facilitated the exchange of knowledge and ideas with neighboring regions and distant
lands.
b. Travelers and Scholars: Indian scholars, monks, and travelers like Bodhidharma, Faxian, and Xuanzang
journeyed to other countries, carrying with them Indian knowledge and culture. Their interactions with
foreign civilizations fostered intellectual exchange and mutual learning.
c. Maritime Connections: India's maritime connections with Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa
allowed the dissemination of Indian art, culture, and religious practices to these regions.
Contributions to Science:
a. Mathematics: India's contributions to mathematics include the decimal system, concept of zero, and
algebraic methods. The works of Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata and Brahmagupta significantly
influenced mathematical developments in the world.
b. Astronomy: Indian astronomers made notable observations of celestial bodies and developed
advanced astronomical instruments. The concept of the heliocentric solar system was proposed by
Indian astronomers before Copernicus.
c. Medicine: Ayurveda, India's ancient system of medicine, emphasized a holistic approach to health and
influenced traditional medicine systems in other countries, such as Traditional Chinese Medicine.
d. Metallurgy: India's expertise in metallurgy, particularly in iron and steel production, was highly
regarded and sought after by other civilizations.
Contributions to Arts:a. Indian Classical Arts: Indian classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathak,
Odissi, and others, with
their intricate movements and expressive storytelling, have captivated audiences worldwide.
b. Indian Classical Music: Indian classical music, with its unique ragas and rhythmic patterns, has inspired
musicians and music enthusiasts across the globe.
c. Visual Arts: Indian art, characterized by intricate paintings, sculptures, and architectural wonders like
the Taj Mahal, has influenced artistic traditions in neighboring regions.
Spiritual and Philosophical Contributions:
a. Yoga and Meditation: The practice of yoga and meditation, rooted in ancient Indian spiritual
traditions, has gained global popularity as a means of promoting physical, mental, and spiritual well
being.
b. Philosophy: Indian philosophical traditions, such as Vedanta, Samkhya, and Buddhism, have been
studied and appreciated by scholars and seekers of wisdom worldwide.
Influence on Southeast Asia and Beyond:
a. Indian cultural and religious influences spread to Southeast Asia through trade and cultural
exchanges. Indian architecture, art, and religious practices left a lasting impact on the region's temples
and cultural practices.
b. Indian philosophies and spiritual traditions, particularly Buddhism, spread to East Asia, including
countries like China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet.
In conclusion, the dissemination and contribution of Bharatiya knowledge systems in the world have
enriched the global tradition of science and arts. India's ancient knowledge, philosophy, and artistic
expressions continue to be celebrated and respected internationally, reflecting the enduring legacy of
Bharatiya culture and its profound impact on humanity's quest for knowledge and beauty.

Ancient Education System in India- Introduction

The ancient education system in India was very unique. It was based on the Gurukul system.
Students lived with their teachers and learned many subjects. They studied Vedas, mathematics,
medicine, and more. Education was given through storytelling, discussions, and practical learning.
Moral values and discipline were very important. This system helped in the all-round development
of students.

What were the Features of Education System in Ancient India?

The education system in ancient India was well-planned and special. It focused on knowledge,
discipline, and good values.

Gurukul System
In ancient India, students lived with their teacher in a place called a Gurukul. The teacher was
known as the Guru and treated students like family. Students helped with daily chores while
learning. Education was given through listening, writing, and discussions. There were no fixed
classrooms like today.

Subjects Taught
Students learned many subjects like Vedas, mathematics, and science. They also studied
medicine, astronomy, and philosophy. Arts, music, and warfare were important subjects too.
Practical knowledge was as important as book knowledge. Every student was taught according to
their interests and abilities.

Moral and Character Development

Education in ancient India focused on good values. Students learned honesty, kindness, and
respect. They were taught to be hardworking and truthful. Helping others was considered
important. Teachers guided them to become good human beings.

Teaching Methods
Teachers taught pupils in different methods. They employed storytelling to describe lessons.
Learners were required to chant to memorize information. Debates and discussions explained
things to the learners better. They also engaged in the rehearsal of their lessons every day.

Free and Open to All

Education in ancient India was mostly free. Students did not have to pay money to learn. Rich and
poor students were treated equally. Some girls also got an education. Kings and noble people
supported education.

Nalanda University

Nalanda University is often considered one of India’s most important ancient treasures. The site was a hub
of Buddhist learning and knowledge of all kinds. Founded in the 5th century BCE under the Gupta rule, the
university hosted thousands of students from around the world.

Many travellers and scholars talk about the great environment and educational feat of the ancient university
in their accounts. This article covers all the important information about the ancient Nalanda University.

Ancient Nalanda University: Overview

Nalanda is considered one of the first international universities in the world. It is also one of the important
national heritage sites of India. It was established during the great Gupta empire and reached its peak under
the rule of Gupta king Kumaragupta.

● Nalanda is believed to have been founded sometime between the 5th and 6th century BC
● The ruins of Nalanda are located in the modern-day Bihar, around 88 km southeast of the capital city
Patna
● The Buddhist scholars and kings gave the university patronage, and, in later years, it was supported and
preserved by Pala kings
● Many international travellers have mentioned Nalanda in their accounts; the travellers came from
Greece, China, and the Persian empire
● In 1193, following the Turkish invasion of India, the university was ruined by the Turkish ruler
Bhaktiyar Khalji
Historical Background

Nalanda was one of the first international universities of its time. Therefore, it was an important centre for
learning, and many scholars, monks, and travellers visited the site. Kannauj was the seat of power during the
Gupta empire; following its success Nalanda became one of the most important sites in the Kannauj empire.

● The ancient university of Nalanda was established by the Gupta king Kumaragupta in 5th BCE
● A seal was discovered in the archaeological exploration of the site ruins
● This seal gives valuable information about the establishment of the university, confirming that the
university was indeed founded under the rule of Kumaragupta in around 5 BCE
● It is believed that the university hosted around 10,000 students and 2000 scholars at its peak
● A Chinese traveller and scholar, Xuanzang, in his accounts, gives details about the structure of the
university
● In his accounts, he mentions the presence of at least 10,000 students on the site
● After the decline of the Gupta dynasty, the university was given patronage by the Pala kings
The Great Nalanda Library

One of the most distinctive components of Nalanda University was its astonishing library. The library of
Nalanda was a collection of educational books, notes of scholars, and curriculum books on various subjects.

● The accounts show that the library in Nalanda was called “Dharma Gunj,” which means “Mountain of
Truth”
● The library was a great source of Buddhist knowledge
● The other name given to the library was “Dharmagañja,” meaning “Treasury of Truth”
● The library is believed to have a collection of thousands of books
● It is said that when the Mughals sacked the university, the library kept burning for almost three months
● The library of Nalanda was composed of three buildings
● Each building was at least nine stories tall. The Names of the buildings were “Ratnasagar,” meaning
“Sea of Jewels,” and “Ratnodadhi,” meaning “Ocean of Jewel”
Decline and Ruins

After the fall of the Gupta empire, the university continued to remain operational. Pala kings and Buddhist
monasteries gave patronage in later years. Accounts also suggest that many foreign Southeast Asian
kingdoms sent scholars and students to the university.

● The university at its peak hosted scholars not only from Kannauj and India but also from countries like
China, Tibet, Korea, Japan, Persia, Turkey, and Indonesia
● The university declined with the decline of Buddhism in India
● In the 11th century BCE, many sites in India were destroyed following the Turkish advance on the
Indian subcontinent
● In the same period, Bakhtiyar Khalji’s forces ruined Nalanda university
Revival

● After discovering the ruins of the once lively hub of knowledge, many attempts to revive the university
were made in modern times.

● In 2006, the former President of India, Mr A.P.J Abdul Kalam, suggested the revival of the ancient
university in Bihar
● In the same year, the government of Singapore proposed the “Nalanda Proposal” to the government of
India for the same
● Soon a joint venture by India, Singapore, China, and others were announced to revive the ancient
university
● In 2010, the Nalanda University Act was passed by the parliament of India for the re-construction of the
university
● In 2014, Nalanda University started functioning after almost eight hundred years
Conclusion

The ancient Nalanda University was established by Kumaragupta somewhere between 5 and 6 BCE. He was
a king of the great Gupta dynasty. The university was the biggest hub of learning in India and was visited by
hundreds of scholars from neighbouring countries. It reached its peak under the Gupta empire and was
largely patronised by the Buddhist kings.

However, accounts tell that in later years Pala rulers also contributed to the university. The university was
ruined by the Mughal invasion in 11 BCE. After the joint attempts of many countries, the ancient university
has recently been reinstalled in the Indian state of Bihar.

Takshila was a famous University of Ancient India, located on the eastern bank of the Indus River at the
crossroads of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia. It is mentioned in Buddhist literature, particularly
the Jatakas, as the capital of the kingdom Gandhara and a great center of learning. In the mid-nineteenth
century, famous archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham uncovered the remains of Takshila. Here we
will discuss more the ancient University of Takshila, which will be helpful for UPSC IAS Exam
preparation.

Takshila University - Background

● The ancient university of Takshila was located on the eastern bank of the Indus River in Punjab, in
the city of Takshila (modern-day Pakistan).
● Takshila was a Buddhist study center in the early days. It is thought to date back to at least the 5th
century BC, based on existing evidence.
● Takshila was founded in the 6th century BC, according to certain experts.
● Later in Jataka stories, about the 5th century AD, Takshila is mentioned in some detail.
● It was a well-known center of study for at least many decades before Christ, and scholars continued to
flock there until the city was destroyed in the 5th century AD.

Takshila University - Features

● Chanakya's great treatise Arthashastra is claimed to have been written in Takshila.

● During the Maurya Empire and Greek control (Indo-Greeks) in the 3rd and 2nd century BCE, Takshila
university continued to serve as a knowledge hub.
● It was a higher education center and offered over sixty courses in a variety of subjects.
● The Vedas, Vedanta, Vyakaran, Ayurveda, Surgery, eighteen crafts (Sippas), Military education
including warfare and archery, Astronomy, Agriculture, Commerce, Politics, and other subjects were
taught.
● This university educated over 10,500 students from all over Aryavrat and as far away as Greece,
Arabia, and China.
● It was a residential campus that housed thousands of teachers.
● Among the notable teachers who are claimed to have taught at Takshila University are:
● Panini, a renowned Sanskrit scholar, and grammarian, also taught at Takshashila. There, he wrote his
best work, Ashtadhyayi (eight chapters). It was a complex, rule-based grammar book of Sanskrit that
has survived to this day in its entirety.
● Chanakya, the powerful Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire,
is also supposed to have taught in Takshila.
● According to Yuan Chwang, a 3rd-century Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler, Kumaralata, the
founder of the Sautrantika school, was also an exceptional teacher at Takshila university and drew
students from as far as China.
● Several of the Buddha's contemporaries and close followers are reported to have studied at Takshila,
including:
● Jivaka, Rajagriha's court doctor and the Buddha's personal doctor.
● Charaka, the Indian "father of medicine" and one of the foremost Ayurvedic gurus, is also reported
to have studied and practiced at Takshila.
● Though Chandragupta Maurya, the eventual ruler of the Mauryan Empire, was born in Patna (Bihar)
in Magadha, Buddhist literature claims that Chanakya took him to Takshila for his study and education.
● The university's operations appear to have come to an end with the destruction by Toramana in the 5th
century CE.
● Toramana, also known as Toramana Shahi Jauvla, was an Alcon Hun ruler who reigned in northern
India during the late 5th and early 6th centuries CE.
● Conclusion

Hindus and Buddhists regard it as a place of religious and historical sanctity, and it was the seat of Vedic
learning where the emperor Chandragupta Maurya was taken by Chanakya to learn. The institution is
significant in Buddhist tradition because it is thought to be the birthplace of the Mahayana sect of
Buddhism. In the face of constant incursions by western nomads and kingdoms, Takshila University was
essential in developing patriotic beliefs in the Indian subcontinent.
 UNIT-2

Nataraja, as this name depicts art and Natraja means king of the dance, the Nataraja statue is also a
masterpiece in itself. The Nataraja statue is a remarkable representation of Lord Shiva as the cosmic dancer.
This iconic figure symbolizes the dynamic cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction, embodying the
essence of Indian art and spirituality. The intricate artistry, profound symbolism, and historical significance
of the Nataraja statue make it the best representation of Indian art, revered by devotees and art enthusiasts
alike.
Historical Background
The Nataraja statue originated during the Chola dynasty, which ruled South India from the 9th to the 13th
century. The Cholas were great patrons of art, architecture, and culture, and under their reign, the creation of
bronze sculptures reached its zenith. The Nataraja statue, a quintessential example of Chola bronze work,
reflects the technical prowess and artistic brilliance of this period. The Cholas perfected the lost-wax casting
technique, enabling them to create detailed and lifelike sculptures.
Symbolism of the Nataraja Statue
The Nataraja statue is a profound symbol of cosmic rhythm and divine energy. Every element of the statue
has a specific meaning, contributing to its depth and significance.

● Ananda Tandava (Dance of Bliss): The statue depicts Shiva performing the Ananda Tandava, a
dance that represents the cosmic cycles of creation and destruction. This dance symbolizes the
eternal rhythm of the universe.
● The Drum (Damaru): In Shiva's upper right hand, he holds a drum (damaru), symbolizing the
sound of creation and the passage of time. The beat of the drum represents the continuous process of
creation, emanating the sacred sound 'AUM,' which is believed to be the sound of the universe.
● The Flame (Agni): In his upper left hand, Shiva holds a flame, representing destruction and
transformation. This flame signifies the dissolution of the universe, making way for new creation.
● Abhaya Mudra: Shiva's lower right hand is raised in the abhaya mudra, a gesture of protection and
reassurance, symbolizing the dispelling of fear and granting of blessings.
● Gaja Hasta: The lower left hand points towards the raised left foot, signifying refuge and liberation
from the cycle of birth and death.
● The Raised Foot: Shiva's raised left foot symbolizes the path to salvation and liberation,
encouraging devotees to seek spiritual enlightenment.
● The Demon Apasmara: Beneath Shiva's right foot lies the demon Apasmara, representing
ignorance and ego. Shiva's act of crushing the demon signifies the triumph of knowledge over
ignorance.
● The Circle of Fire (Prabhamandala): Surrounding Shiva is a circle of fire, symbolizing the cosmic
cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. This circle represents the universe and the perpetual motion of
time.

Artistic Brilliance

The Nataraja Bronze Statue is not only a religious icon but also a testament to the artistic excellence
of Indian sculptors. The Chola artisans achieved a perfect balance between form and expression,
capturing the dynamic motion of the dance while maintaining the serene and composed demeanor of
Shiva. The intricate detailing, fluidity of movement, and graceful proportions make the Bronze
Nataraja statue the best representation of Indian art.
 ● Intricate Detailing:The Nataraja statue is renowned for its intricate detailing, from the elaborate
headdress and jewelry to the delicate features of Shiva's face. Every element is meticulously crafted,
reflecting the skill and precision of the artisans.
● Fluidity of Movement:The statue captures the dynamic motion of the dance, with Shiva's flowing
hair, outstretched limbs, and the rhythmic grace of his posture. This sense of movement is a hallmark
of the Chola bronze sculptures, showcasing the artists' ability to convey energy and vitality.
● Graceful Proportions:The proportions of the Bronze Nataraja statue are meticulously balanced,
with a harmonious blend of symmetry and asymmetry. The depiction of Shiva's body, with its
elegant curves and poised stance, exemplifies the ideal of divine beauty in Indian art.

Cultural and Religious Significance

The Nataraja statue holds immense cultural and religious significance in Hinduism. It is not only an object
of veneration but also a representation of profound philosophical concepts.

● Symbol of Cosmic Balance: The Nataraja statue embodies the concept of cosmic balance,
illustrating the interplay between creation, preservation, and destruction. This balance is central to
Hindu cosmology, emphasizing the cyclical nature of the universe.
● Representation of Shiva's Dual Nature: The statue captures the dual nature of Shiva as both a
fierce destroyer and a benevolent creator. This duality is a recurring theme in Hindu mythology,
reflecting the complexity of the divine.
● Focus of Devotion: The Nataraja statue is a focal point of devotion for millions of Hindus. It is
often placed in temples and homes, where devotees offer prayers and perform rituals to seek
blessings and spiritual enlightenment.
● Inspiration for Art and Literature: The Nataraja statue has inspired countless works of art,
literature, and dance. It is a recurring motif in Indian classical dance forms, such as Bharatanatyam,
where dancers recreate the cosmic dance of Shiva.

Global Influence and Recognition:

The Nataraja statue has transcended cultural boundaries, earning recognition and admiration
worldwide. Its profound symbolism and artistic brilliance have made it an iconic representation of
Indian culture and spirituality.

● Presence in Museums and Galleries: The Nataraja Bronze Statue is featured in prominent
museums and art galleries around the world, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New
York and the British Museum in London. These institutions showcase the statue as a masterpiece of
ancient Indian art.
● Academic Study and Research: The Nataraja statue has been the subject of extensive academic
study and research, with scholars exploring its historical, cultural, and artistic significance. This
research has contributed to a deeper understanding of Indian art and philosophy.
● Cultural Diplomacy: The Nataraja statue has been used as a symbol of cultural diplomacy,
representing India's rich artistic heritage in international forums. It serves as a reminder of India's
contributions to global art and culture.