BRM

1. Steps in Research Design

1. Formulating the research problem – Clearly define the problem or question you want
to study. This is the foundation of research and should be specific and focused.
2. Extensive literature survey – Read and review previous research to understand
existing knowledge and identify gaps that your study can fill.
3. Developing hypotheses – Create an assumption or educated guess based on prior
research. This guides your study by providing a statement to test.
4. Preparing the research design – Decide how the research will be conducted, including
choosing methods, tools, and a framework to ensure a structured approach.
5. Determining the sample design – Choose a group of people, objects, or events to
study that best represents the whole population. This affects the accuracy of results.
6. Collecting data – Gather information using surveys, interviews, experiments, or
secondary data sources. The method should match the research objectives.
7. Execution of the project – Carry out the research by following the planned design,
ensuring consistency and avoiding errors.
8. Data analysis and hypothesis testing – Use statistical or qualitative techniques to
study the data and see if the findings support the hypothesis.
9. Interpretation and generalization of findings – Explain what the data means and how
the results apply to a larger population or future studies.
10. Report writing – Present the entire research process and findings in a structured report
that can be understood by others.

2. Steps in Hypothesis Testing

1. Formulating the null and alternative hypotheses – The null hypothesis (H₀) assumes
no effect, while the alternative hypothesis (H₁) suggests an effect or relationship exists.
2. Selecting a significance level – Choose the margin of error allowed (often 5% or 0.05),
which determines the probability of accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis.
3. Deciding the appropriate test statistic – Pick a statistical method (Z-test, T-test, Chi-
square, etc.) that matches your data and research type.
4. Selecting a random sample – Ensure fairness by choosing participants or data points
that accurately represent the entire population.
5. Computing the test statistic value – Use the selected statistical method to calculate
results based on collected data.
6. Calculating the probability – Find the p-value, which tells you how likely your results
occurred by chance.
7. Comparing with the significance level – If the p-value is lower than the chosen
significance level, the null hypothesis is rejected.
 8. Accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis – A decision is made based on the
comparison, either confirming the hypothesis or suggesting an alternative conclusion.

3. Types of Research Reports

1. Technical report – A detailed and data-heavy report mainly used in scientific or

industrial research, including methodologies and technical data.
2. Popular report – A simpler, easy-to-understand report for the general public, often
found in magazines and news articles.
3. Business report – Used in companies to present market trends, financial analysis, or
strategic plans based on research findings.
4. Government report – Reports that help policymakers make informed decisions on
public policies, economy, and development.
5. Case study report – Focuses on a single individual, company, or event to draw in-depth
conclusions. Often used in business, law, and healthcare research.
6. Experimental research report – Provides detailed findings from a controlled
experiment, commonly used in science and psychology.
7. News report – Summarizes research findings for newspapers, media outlets, or
websites in an easy-to-read format.
8. Ph.D. thesis and dissertation – A highly detailed research document required for
earning a doctoral degree, often involving original contributions to the field.

4. Ethical Norms in Research

1. Honesty and integrity – Researchers should not lie about data or results; everything
must be truthful and accurate.
2. Objectivity in data collection and analysis – Researchers should avoid bias and
ensure results are neutral and fair.
3. Confidentiality of information – If personal data is collected, it must be protected and
not shared without permission.
4. Avoidance of plagiarism – All ideas, quotes, and research findings from others must
be properly credited to avoid stealing someone’s work.
5. Proper citation of sources – Using correct referencing styles (APA, MLA, etc.) ensures
credit is given to original authors.
6. Respect for intellectual property – Patents, copyrights, and other legal protections
must be acknowledged when using external data.
7. Avoiding fabrication and falsification of data – No making up or altering results to fit
a desired conclusion.
8. Transparency in methodology – Researchers must fully explain how they conducted
the study so others can verify or replicate it.
5. Advantages of Secondary Data

1. Saves time and effort – The data is already collected, so researchers don’t have to
conduct new surveys or experiments.
2. Cost-effective – Since no additional money is spent on data collection, it reduces
research costs.
3. Provides a broad data set – Includes information from different sources, making the
study more reliable and comprehensive.
4. Available from multiple sources – Can be found in books, reports, online databases,
and government records.
5. Helps in longitudinal studies – Useful for studying trends over time, such as
population growth or climate change.
6. Allows trend analysis – Helps researchers see patterns and predict future
developments.
7. Facilitates comparative research – Enables comparison with similar studies conducted
in different locations or time periods.
8. Reduces duplication of research – Avoids unnecessary repetition of studies that have
already been done.

6. Observation Method: Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

1. Direct data collection – Researchers see events as they happen, ensuring accuracy.
2. Real-time information – Data is fresh and not based on memory or past records.
3. Avoids respondent bias – Since there are no questionnaires, people cannot give
misleading answers.
4. Suitable for behavioral studies – Helps in understanding human or animal behavior
naturally.
5. Useful in qualitative research – Often used in social sciences to get deep insights into
emotions and interactions.

Disadvantages:
6. Time-consuming – Observing behavior for long periods can take a lot of time.
7. Observer bias – The researcher's personal opinions or expectations may affect the way they
interpret observations.
8. Ethical concerns – Some observations, such as watching people without consent, may be
considered unethical.
9. Limited scope in some research fields – Not useful in studies that require historical data or
numerical analysis.
7. Essentials of Data Interpretation

1. Understanding the research context – Analyzing data while keeping the research
question and objectives in mind.
2. Avoiding misinterpretation of data – Ensuring conclusions are based on actual data
and not assumptions.
3. Using appropriate statistical tools – Choosing correct analysis methods like averages,
percentages, or graphs.
4. Correlating findings with hypotheses – Checking if the results support the original
predictions or assumptions.
5. Identifying patterns and trends – Observing common changes or behaviors in the
dataset.
6. Checking for consistency and reliability – Making sure data does not contradict itself
and can be trusted.
7. Avoiding biases in conclusion – The researcher should not let personal beliefs affect
how they interpret results.
8. Drawing meaningful inferences – Explaining what the data means in a way that others
can understand.

8. Purpose of Data Analysis

1. Identifying trends and patterns – Examining data to find repeated behaviors,

relationships, or changes over time.
2. Testing hypotheses – Checking if the data supports or contradicts the research
assumptions.
3. Establishing relationships between variables – Understanding how different factors
influence each other (e.g., how studying affects exam scores).
4. Making informed decisions – Using analyzed data to guide businesses, governments,
or scientific research.
5. Summarizing large data sets – Organizing and simplifying a lot of information so that
it’s easier to understand.
6. Validating research findings – Ensuring the results are accurate, reliable, and not just
due to chance.
7. Supporting business or policy recommendations – Providing insights that help
improve strategies or create better laws and policies.
8. Improving accuracy of conclusions – Avoiding errors and making sure findings reflect
reality.

9. Parametric Tests for Hypothesis Testing

1. Z-test – Used for large sample sizes to compare means and see if there is a significant
difference.
2. T-test – Compares the means of two groups when sample sizes are small.
 3. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) – Checks differences among three or more groups.
4. F-test – Compares the variances (spread of data) between two populations.
5. Regression analysis – Determines how one variable affects another (e.g., how
temperature affects ice cream sales).
6. Correlation tests – Measures the strength of the relationship between two variables.
7. Chi-square test (for categorical data) – Checks if there is an association between two
categories (e.g., gender and product preference).
8. Likelihood ratio test – Compares different models to see which one fits the data better.

10. Types of Data Analysis

1. Descriptive analysis – Summarizes data using statistics like mean, median, and
graphs.
2. Inferential analysis – Uses sample data to make conclusions about a larger population.
3. Exploratory data analysis – Helps discover patterns or unexpected trends in data.
4. Predictive analysis – Uses past data to make future predictions (e.g., sales
forecasting).
5. Prescriptive analysis – Suggests actions based on the results of data analysis.
6. Qualitative data analysis – Focuses on non-numerical data, like text, interviews, and
themes.
7. Quantitative data analysis – Uses numbers and statistics to draw conclusions.
8. Diagnostic analysis – Examines data to understand the causes of trends or issues.

11. Importance of Report Writing

1. Communicates research findings – Summarizes results so others can understand

them.
2. Ensures research is useful – Allows findings to be applied in real-world situations.
3. Enhances credibility of research – A well-written report makes the study more reliable
and trustworthy.
4. Helps in decision-making – Provides a basis for companies, scientists, or governments
to make choices.
5. Contributes to knowledge repository – Adds valuable information to existing
research.
6. Facilitates peer review and validation – Other researchers can check and confirm the
results.
7. Essential for academic and business research – Research reports are required in
universities and companies.
8. Supports future research – Helps other researchers build on the findings.
12. Importance of Research

1. Basis for policy-making – Governments use research to make better laws and policies.
2. Solves business and economic problems – Helps companies improve strategies and
performance.
3. Enhances knowledge and innovation – Leads to new discoveries and improvements
in technology.
4. Helps in social and scientific advancements – Research contributes to medicine,
education, and societal improvements.
5. Supports decision-making processes – Ensures choices are based on facts and
evidence.
6. Identifies trends and patterns – Helps businesses and organizations predict future
changes.
7. Facilitates evidence-based solutions – Ensures solutions are backed by solid data.
8. Improves quality of life – Research leads to better healthcare, infrastructure, and
services.

13. Ways to Avoid Plagiarism

1. Proper citation of sources – Give credit to the original authors when using their work.
2. Using quotation marks for direct quotes – Clearly indicate when using someone
else’s exact words.
3. Paraphrasing correctly – Rewrite information in your own words while keeping the
original meaning.
4. Keeping track of sources – Maintain a record of all references to ensure proper
citation.
5. Using plagiarism detection tools – Software like Turnitin can check for unintentional
copying.
6. Citing common knowledge when necessary – Even well-known facts should be
credited if required.
7. Giving credit to authors – Always acknowledge the contributions of other researchers.
8. Following academic integrity guidelines – Adhere to ethical research practices and
citation rules.

14. Scope of Research

1. Covers different disciplines – Research is used in science, business, healthcare, and

other fields.
2. Identifies societal issues – Helps solve real-world problems like poverty or climate
change.
3. Develops new methodologies – Creates better ways to conduct research and analyze
data.
4. Solves business challenges – Improves marketing, customer service, and productivity.
 5. Contributes to technological advancements – Leads to the development of new tools
and inventions.
6. Aids in economic development – Helps businesses and governments make informed
financial decisions.
7. Helps in policy formulation – Provides evidence-based support for making laws.
8. Expands academic knowledge – Adds new insights to subjects studied in universities.

15. Preparing a Good Research Design

1. Define research objectives clearly – Make sure the study has a specific purpose.
2. Select appropriate methodology – Choose whether to use surveys, experiments, case
studies, etc.
3. Determine sampling techniques – Decide how participants or data points will be
selected.
4. Identify data collection methods – Pick the best way to gather information (e.g.,
interviews, observations).
5. Plan data analysis techniques – Choose how to examine and interpret the collected
data.
6. Consider ethical aspects – Ensure the research follows ethical guidelines and protects
participants.
7. Allocate time and resources effectively – Manage available resources wisely to
complete the study.
8. Ensure flexibility in design – Allow adjustments if needed during the research process.

16. Stages in Research Process

1. Identifying the problem – Define what needs to be studied and why.

2. Literature review – Research what has already been studied on the topic.
3. Formulating hypotheses – Create a testable statement predicting results.
4. Research design selection – Decide how the study will be conducted.
5. Data collection – Gather information using chosen methods.
6. Data analysis – Organize and examine data to find patterns.
7. Interpretation and conclusion – Explain what the results mean.
8. Report writing – Present findings in a structured document.
17. Characteristics of Research

1. Systematic and structured – Research follows a well-planned process to ensure

accuracy.
2. Objective and logical – Research is based on facts and reasoning, not personal
opinions.
3. Based on empirical evidence – Findings come from actual observations, experiments,
or data.
4. Follows scientific methodology – Uses established techniques for gathering and
analyzing information.
5. Reproducible and verifiable – Other researchers should be able to repeat the study
and get similar results.
6. Aims at problem-solving – Research helps answer questions or solve real-world
issues.
7. Develops new theories and concepts – Expands knowledge by introducing new ideas.
8. Ethical and unbiased – Researchers must follow ethical guidelines and avoid personal
biases.

18. Advantages of Primary Data

1. Accurate and reliable – Data is collected directly from the source, reducing errors.
2. Specific to research needs – The data is gathered for a particular study, making it
more relevant.
3. Provides fresh insights – Offers up-to-date information not available from secondary
sources.
4. Enables control over data collection – The researcher decides how the data is
gathered.
5. Facilitates deeper analysis – Data can be examined in detail according to research
needs.
6. Reduces data bias – Since data is collected firsthand, it is less likely to be influenced by
other studies.
7. Ensures up-to-date information – Since it is collected in real time, it reflects current
situations.
8. Supports hypothesis testing – Helps researchers confirm or reject assumptions.

19. Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1. May be outdated – The data might not reflect current conditions or trends.
 2. Less relevant to specific research needs – It was collected for a different purpose and
may not fully match the study.
3. Possibility of bias in data collection – Original researchers may have influenced the
results.
4. Lack of control over data accuracy – The researcher cannot verify how accurately the
data was collected.
5. May not be comprehensive – Some important details may be missing.
6. Inconsistent formats – Different sources may present data in different ways, making
comparison difficult.
7. Requires additional validation – The researcher needs to cross-check data for
accuracy.
8. Limited availability in some cases – Some subjects may not have enough published
data.

20. Importance of Editing

1. Ensures clarity and readability – Makes sure the report is easy to understand.
2. Eliminates grammatical errors – Corrects spelling and punctuation mistakes.
3. Improves logical flow – Arranges ideas in a way that makes sense.
4. Removes redundancy – Cuts unnecessary repetition to keep the writing concise.
5. Enhances professionalism – A polished report looks more credible and well-prepared.
6. Helps in standardizing content – Ensures consistency in formatting and style.
7. Improves accuracy of information – Reduces factual errors or misleading statements.
8. Ensures adherence to guidelines – Makes sure the report follows the required
formatting rules.

21. Stages of Data Processing

1. Data collection – Gathering information from various sources.

2. Data cleaning – Removing mistakes or incomplete entries.
3. Data coding – Converting responses into a structured format for analysis.
4. Data classification – Grouping similar data together for better understanding.
5. Data tabulation – Arranging data into tables for easier comparison.
6. Data analysis – Examining the data using statistical tools.
7. Interpretation of results – Understanding what the data means.
8. Report generation – Presenting the final findings in an organized way.

22. Significance of Tabulation

1. Organizes data systematically – Makes large amounts of information easier to

understand.
 2. Facilitates comparison – Helps compare different sets of data side by side.
3. Helps in trend analysis – Identifies patterns or changes over time.
4. Reduces complexity of large data sets – Summarizes information in a simple format.
5. Enhances clarity in presentation – Tables make data easier to read and interpret.
6. Supports statistical analysis – Helps researchers apply mathematical tools for deeper
insights.
7. Aids in decision-making – Provides clear information for making informed choices.
8. Saves time in data interpretation – Speeds up the process of drawing conclusions.

23. Features of Research

1. Objective and systematic – Research follows a structured and unbiased approach.

2. Follows a structured methodology – Uses planned steps to gather and analyze data.
3. Based on empirical evidence – Uses real data, observations, or experiments.
4. Reproducible and verifiable – Other researchers should be able to repeat the study.
5. Ethical and unbiased – Maintains honesty in collecting and interpreting data.
6. Problem-solving oriented – Helps answer questions or solve real-world challenges.
7. Aims at innovation – Encourages new discoveries and improvements.
8. Contributes to knowledge – Adds valuable information to existing fields of study.

24. Non-Parametric Tests for Hypothesis Testing

1. Chi-square test – Used for analyzing categorical (non-numerical) data.

2. Mann-Whitney U test – Compares differences between two independent groups.
3. Kruskal-Wallis test – Analyzes differences among three or more groups.
4. Wilcoxon signed-rank test – Compares two related samples to see if they differ.
5. Spearman’s rank correlation – Measures the relationship between two ranked
variables.
6. Friedman test – Examines differences in more than two repeated measurements.
7. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test – Compares the distribution of two datasets.
8. Kendall’s tau – Measures the strength of association between two variables.

25. Content of a Report

1. Title page – The first page that includes the report title, author’s name, date, and
institution or organization.
2. Abstract – A short summary of the entire report, highlighting key findings and
conclusions.
3. Introduction – Explains the background of the research, the problem being studied, and
the objectives.
 4. Literature review – Discusses previous studies related to the topic and shows how the
current research builds on them.
5. Research methodology – Describes how the data was collected, including tools,
techniques, and sample selection.
6. Data analysis and findings – Presents the results using graphs, tables, and
explanations.
7. Conclusion and recommendations – Summarizes the main findings and suggests
actions based on the results.
8. References and appendices – Lists all sources cited in the report and includes
additional material like charts or questionnaires.

26. Functions of Report Writing

1. Documents research findings – Keeps a detailed record of the study for future
reference.
2. Provides a basis for decision-making – Helps businesses, governments, and
researchers make informed choices.
3. Communicates results effectively – Presents findings in a clear and structured way.
4. Facilitates peer review – Allows other experts to check and validate the research.
5. Enhances credibility of research – A well-written report increases the reliability of the
study.
6. Supports future research – Helps other researchers build upon the findings.
7. Helps in knowledge dissemination – Spreads important insights to a wider audience.
8. Guides policy formulation – Provides data that can influence laws and regulations.

27. Significance of Hypothesis

1. Helps in guiding research – Provides a clear focus and direction for the study.
2. Provides direction to data collection – Determines what type of data is needed.
3. Assists in formulating research objectives – Defines what the researcher aims to
achieve.
4. Tests relationships between variables – Helps check if one factor affects another.
5. Aids in statistical analysis – Uses mathematical methods to examine data.
6. Supports decision-making – Helps researchers draw conclusions based on facts.
7. Reduces uncertainty in research – Ensures studies are structured and not random.
8. Encourages logical reasoning – Promotes critical thinking and systematic
investigation.

28. Disadvantages of Primary Data

1. Time-consuming to collect – Gathering firsthand data takes a lot of time.

 2. High cost of data collection – Requires financial resources for surveys, interviews, or
experiments.
3. Requires skilled personnel – Needs trained researchers to collect and analyze data
properly.
4. May have response bias – Participants may not always give truthful or accurate
answers.
5. Difficult to access large samples – Finding enough respondents can be challenging.
6. Possibility of errors in data collection – Mistakes can occur while recording or
interpreting data.
7. Limited to current situations – Primary data does not provide historical comparisons.
8. May require extensive validation – The data needs to be checked for accuracy before
use.

29. Limitations of Questionnaires

1. Low response rates – Many people may not fill out or return the questionnaire.
2. Respondents may misunderstand questions – Poorly worded questions can lead to
incorrect answers.
3. Cannot probe for detailed answers – Unlike interviews, follow-up questions are not
possible.
4. Limited flexibility in responses – Participants can only select from given options.
5. Time-consuming for respondents – Long questionnaires can discourage participation.
6. May have biased responses – People might answer in a way they think is expected.
7. Difficult to verify accuracy – Researchers cannot confirm if respondents provided
truthful answers.
8. Not suitable for illiterate respondents – Requires reading and writing skills.

30. Methods of Data Interpretation

1. Qualitative interpretation – Analyzing non-numerical data like opinions, interviews, and

case studies.
2. Statistical analysis – Using numbers and formulas to find patterns and trends.
3. Comparative analysis – Comparing data sets to find similarities and differences.
4. Trend analysis – Looking at changes over time to predict future patterns.
5. Graphical representation – Using charts, graphs, and tables to present data visually.
6. Content analysis – Studying text, images, or media to understand themes and patterns.
7. Correlation studies – Checking how strongly two variables are related.
8. Hypothesis testing – Using statistical tests to confirm or reject assumptions.
31. Methods of Tabulation

1. Simple tabulation – Arranges data in rows and columns for easy reading.
2. Complex tabulation – Involves multiple variables for detailed comparisons.
3. One-way tables – Displays data based on a single factor (e.g., age groups).
4. Two-way tables – Compares two different factors (e.g., age and gender).
5. Three-way tables – Analyzes relationships between three variables.
6. Cross-tabulation – Studies how two or more variables interact.
7. Mechanical tabulation – Uses manual methods like tally marks.
8. Electronic tabulation – Uses computer software like Excel or SPSS.

32. Scaling Techniques

1. Nominal scale – Classifies data into categories without ranking (e.g., male/female).
2. Ordinal scale – Ranks data in order, but the distance between ranks is unknown (e.g.,
satisfaction levels).
3. Interval scale – Measures differences between values, but without a true zero (e.g.,
temperature in Celsius).
4. Ratio scale – Has equal intervals and an absolute zero, allowing mathematical
operations (e.g., weight, height).
5. Likert scale – Measures attitudes with a scale (e.g., strongly agree to strongly
disagree).
6. Semantic differential scale – Uses opposite adjectives to measure perception (e.g.,
good-bad, strong-weak).
7. Guttman scale – Measures agreement with statements in increasing difficulty.
8. Thurstone scale – Uses expert opinions to assign weights to statements.

33. Bibliography

1. Lists sources used in research – Includes books, journals, and websites referenced.
2. Provides references for further study – Helps readers find more information.
3. Ensures academic credibility – Shows the research is based on established
knowledge.
4. Prevents plagiarism – Acknowledges original authors of cited works.
5. Uses standard citation styles – Formats sources using APA, MLA, or other styles.
6. Includes books, articles, and reports – Covers different types of references.
7. Organized alphabetically – Makes it easy to find sources.
8. May include annotations – Provides short descriptions of the sources.
34. Non-Probability Sampling

1. Convenience sampling – Selects participants based on accessibility and ease.

2. Judgmental sampling – Uses the researcher’s judgment to choose the sample.
3. Quota sampling – Ensures certain groups are represented proportionally.
4. Snowball sampling – Participants refer others to join the study.
5. Voluntary response sampling – People decide whether they want to participate.
6. Purposive sampling – Targets a specific group relevant to the study.
7. Haphazard sampling – Randomly selects participants without a structured plan.
8. Theoretical sampling – Used in qualitative research to refine theories.

35. Semantic Differential Scale

1. Measures attitudes and perceptions – Used to understand how people feel about a
topic, product, or service.
2. Uses bipolar adjective pairs – Respondents rate something between two opposite
words like "good-bad" or "strong-weak."
3. Developed by Charles Osgood – A psychological tool designed to measure meaning
and opinions.
4. Provides quantitative analysis of opinions – Converts subjective feelings into
measurable numbers.
5. Applied in psychological and market research – Helps in branding, consumer
research, and attitude measurement.
6. Uses numerical scaling – Responses are plotted on a scale (e.g., 1 to 7, where 1 is
negative and 7 is positive).
7. Helps in brand image assessment – Businesses use it to evaluate how consumers
perceive their brand.
8. Simple and effective for surveys – Easy for respondents to complete and provides
clear insights.

36. Chi-Square Test

1. Used for categorical data – Analyzes data divided into groups like gender,
preferences, or locations.
2. Tests independence of variables – Checks if two factors are related (e.g., does gender
affect product preference?).
3. Compares observed and expected frequencies – Measures if real data matches
expected outcomes.
4. Non-parametric test – Does not require normally distributed data, making it widely
applicable.
5. Applicable in survey analysis – Helps researchers analyze large datasets, like
customer satisfaction surveys.
6. Requires large sample sizes – Works best when there is enough data to detect
patterns.
 7. Uses contingency tables – Data is arranged in a table to compare different variables.
8. Determines statistical significance – Helps decide whether a relationship between two
variables is meaningful.

37. Variables

1. Independent variable – The factor that is changed or controlled in an experiment (e.g.,

amount of sunlight for plants).
2. Dependent variable – The outcome being measured (e.g., plant growth in different light
conditions).
3. Control variable – Factors kept constant to ensure fair testing.
4. Extraneous variable – Unwanted variables that may influence the results.
5. Categorical variable – Divides data into categories (e.g., education level: high school,
college, university).
6. Continuous variable – Can take any value within a range (e.g., height, weight,
temperature).
7. Discrete variable – Only whole number values are possible (e.g., number of students in
a class).
8. Intervening variable – Affects the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables (e.g., stress affecting exam performance).

38. Footnotes

1. Provides additional information – Gives extra details without interrupting the main
text.
2. Cites sources in academic writing – Used for references and citations.
3. Clarifies complex terms – Helps readers understand difficult words or concepts.
4. Enhances credibility of research – Shows thorough research and attention to detail.
5. Used in books and journal articles – Common in formal academic writing.
6. Positioned at the bottom of pages – Keeps references close to the relevant text.
7. Follows standard citation styles – Adheres to APA, MLA, or Chicago formatting.
8. Helps avoid plagiarism – Ensures proper credit is given to original sources.

39. Z-Test

1. Used for hypothesis testing – Checks if sample data supports a claim about a
population.
2. Compares sample and population means – Determines if the sample represents the
larger group.
3. Requires large sample size – Works best with more than 30 data points.
4. Assumes normal distribution – The data should follow a bell-shaped curve.
 5. Tests population proportions – Used in studies like election polling.
6. Applied in medical and business research – Common in clinical trials and market
analysis.
7. Uses standard deviation for calculations – Measures data spread and variability.
8. Determines statistical significance – Helps researchers make conclusions based on
probability.

40. Experimental Method of Data Collection

1. Involves controlled experiments – Researchers change one factor to see its effect on
another.
2. Tests cause-and-effect relationships – Helps find out if one thing influences another
(e.g., does exercise improve memory?).
3. Uses independent and dependent variables – The independent variable is changed,
and the dependent variable is measured.
4. Requires manipulation of variables – The researcher intentionally changes conditions
to study their impact.
5. Can be conducted in laboratories – Ensures accurate and controlled conditions.
6. Ensures high reliability – Results can be repeated and verified.
7. May have ethical concerns – Some experiments might not be ethical (e.g., testing on
animals or humans).
8. Applied in scientific research – Common in medicine, psychology, and engineering
studies.

41. Probability Sampling

1. Simple random sampling – Every person or item has an equal chance of selection.
2. Systematic sampling – Selection occurs at regular intervals from a list (e.g., every 5th
person).
3. Stratified sampling – The population is divided into groups, and samples are taken
from each group.
4. Cluster sampling – Whole groups are selected instead of individuals.
5. Multistage sampling – A combination of different sampling techniques is used.
6. Probability proportional to size sampling – Larger groups have a higher chance of
selection.
7. Sequential sampling – The sample size is adjusted based on results as data is
collected.
8. Area sampling – Uses geographic locations to select samples.
42. Plagiarism

1. Using others’ work without credit – Copying without giving proper acknowledgment.
2. Violates academic integrity – Considered unethical and dishonest in research.
3. Leads to legal consequences – Can result in fines, lawsuits, or reputation damage.
4. Avoided through proper citation – Citing sources correctly prevents plagiarism.
5. Can be intentional or unintentional – Even accidental copying is considered
plagiarism.
6. Includes self-plagiarism – Reusing one's previous work without citation is also
plagiarism.
7. Checked using plagiarism detection tools – Software like Turnitin helps detect copied
content.
8. Can damage professional reputation – Academic or career consequences for
plagiarism can be severe.

43. Types of Questionnaires

1. Structured questionnaire – Contains predefined questions with fixed answer choices.

2. Unstructured questionnaire – Open-ended questions allow for detailed responses.
3. Open-ended questionnaire – Respondents answer in their own words.
4. Close-ended questionnaire – Provides limited answer options (e.g., Yes/No).
5. Pictorial questionnaire – Uses images to gather responses, useful for children or
illiterate people.
6. Rating scale questionnaire – Measures responses on a scale (e.g., 1 to 5).
7. Dichotomous questionnaire – Provides only two answer choices (e.g., True/False).
8. Mixed questionnaire – Combines different question types for flexibility.

44. Likert Scale

1. Measures attitudes on a scale – Used to assess opinions or behaviors.

2. Uses agree-disagree statements – Respondents rate their agreement with statements.
3. Popular in social sciences – Used in psychology, sociology, and market research.
4. Provides ordinal data – Measures ranking but not exact differences between
responses.
5. Typically uses a 5 or 7-point scale – More response options improve accuracy.
6. Simple to construct and analyze – Easy to use in surveys.
7. Helps in quantitative research – Converts opinions into measurable data.
8. Effective for large surveys – Works well for gathering data from many respondents.