TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE

(8TH -10TH CENTURY)

• The Tripartite Struggle (8th to 10th century CE) was a prolonged
conflict among three major powers in early medieval India—the
Pratiharas, the Palas, and the Rashtrakutas—for control over the
fertile and strategically important region of Kannauj (in present-day
Uttar Pradesh).

Strategic Importance of Kannauj

• Geopolitical Significance: Kannauj was located in the fertile
Gangetic plains, making it a prosperous and
agriculturally rich region.
• Political Prestige: Kannauj had been the capital of the powerful
Harsha Empire (7th century CE), and
controlling it symbolized political dominance in northern India.
• Trade and Commerce: Kannauj was a major trade hub, connecting
northern and western India, which
made it economically valuable.
FIRST TRIPARTITE WAR (AD 785–790)
• The first move was made by Vatsaraja(G-P), soon after the
ascension of the new king of Kannauj, Indrayudha of Ayudha
Dynasty. He swiftly invaded Kannauj and defeated the king.
• Vatsaraja later defeated Dharmapala(Palas) near Prayagraj.
• Rashtakuta ruler Dhruva dharavarsha intervened Vatsaraja and
defeated him. Following this, Dhruva met and defeated Dharmapala
in the Doab. Dhruva however, had no intentions for any permanent
territorial conquests and only intended to raid the invaded regions.
He thus returned.
• Following the departure of Dhruva, Dharmapala grabbed the
opportunity and invading the kingdom of Kannauj around 791,
defeated Indrayudha and installed his brother Chakrayudha as his
vassal and puppet.

SECOND TRIPARTITE WAR(798-816CE)

• Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III Inavded north India and Defeated
Nagabhatta II of Gurjar Pratiharas near
Jhansi, While Chakrayudha of ayudha dynasty and Dharmapala of
Pala Dynasty submitted before
Govinda III.
• After the death of Govinda III, Nagabhatta II defeated Dharmapala
near Mungyr and Captured Kannauj
by defeating Chakrayudha.
• Kannauj became Capital of Gurj
PALAS OF BENGAL
• The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala in the 8th century.
• The Empire has been named ‘Pala’ as the rulers of this Empire had a
suffix added to their names ‘Pala’, which means – protector in
Sanskrit language.
• Gopala elected to the throne as the first emperor as the Bengal
region was in a state of rebellion after the fall of the Shashanka’s
kingdom, and lack of any central authority to govern the state as
there was matsyanyaya.(According to khalimpur copperplate
inscription)
Gopala (750–770 AD)
 Gopala was the founder of the Pala dynasty and the first emperor
of the dynasty. He was the son of Vapaata, who was a warrior.
 He is assumed to have not been elected by the group of people
directly, but in fact, by a group of chieftains.
 According to Buddhist scholar Taranath Gopala had built the
monastery at Odantapuri situated in Bihar. He is also considered to
be the first (1st) Buddhist king of Bengal.
Dharmapala (770–810 AD)
 Dharmapala was the son and successor of Gopala under whom the
kingdom had expanded considerably and is considered to be a pious
Buddhist.
 Dharmapala had a range of wars with the Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas.
 Famous Buddhist scholar Santarakshita was in his court who
founded sautantrika sect of Buddhism.
 Dharmapala also laid the foundation of Vikramshila University in
Bhagalpur in the state of Bihar.
 He also founded the somapuri Vihara. Donated 200 villages to
Nalanda University

Vikramshila Mahavihara, Bihar

Devapala (810–850 AD)
 Devpala was the son of Dharampal and Rannadevi, who was the
princess of the Rashtrakuta kingdom. He shifted the capital to
Mungyr.
 He had built many monasteries including temples in Magadha as he
was a loyal Buddhist.
 It is known through the Nalanda inscription that Sailendra ruler
balaputradeva ordered the construction of a Buddhist monastery in
Nalanda after seeking permission from devapala.
 Famous Buddhist scholar Vajradatt was in his court who authored
Lokeshwar Shataka
 Arab traveler Suleiman visited his court and Called his kingdom as
Ruhimi.

Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar (UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITE)

Mahipala I
Mahipala I acquired the throne in 988 AD.
It was under Mahipala I’s rule when the Pala empire began its revival
and again acquired the Northern and the Eastern parts of Bengal and
Bihar. He was defeated by Rajendra Chola.
Rampala(1077-1120) founded Jagaddala Mahavihara
Last ruler was Madanpal (1144-62)
The scholars of Sanskrit were also patronized by the kings of the Pala
Empire

Pala Bronze sculpture

CONTRIBUTIONS OF PALAS
• The Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhism. They played a
crucial role in the development and spread of Buddhism, especially
Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
• They established and supported major Buddhist universities and
monasteries, such as Nalanda, Vikramashila, and Somapura
Mahavihara. These monasteries were large complexes with multiple
courtyards, prayer halls, living quarters for monks, and stupas.
• Odantpuri Mahavihara was so magnificent that it was used as a
model for the first Tibetan monastery. Dharmapala renovated the
Nalanda university and built the Vikramasila University and
Somapura Mahavihara, all of which were Buddhist academic centres.
• These institutions became centers of learning and attracted scholars
and students from across Asia, including Tibet, China, and Southeast
Asia.
• During the Pala period, many Buddhist scholars and monks traveled
to Tibet, taking with them Buddhist texts, teachings, and practices.
• Padmasambhava , also known as Guru Rinpoche , was a tantric
Buddhist Vajra master from India who may have taught Vajrayana in
Tibet and built samya Monastery in Tibet in 8th Century.
• 11th-century scholar atisadipankara from Vikramashila spread of
Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism in Asia, flowing from Tibet to
Sumatra.
• Although the Pala emperors were Buddhists, they built several
Hindu temples. These temples were built in the Vanga style, which is
a well-known temple style. The temples were often adorned with
intricate carvings of deities, floral motifs, and geometric patterns.
Apart from Vihara, Chaitya and temple construction, they focused on
paintings also.
• In painting, two forms were practised by them. One is Manuscripts/
Miniature painting and the other is Wall Painting/ Mural painting. The
Pala School of Painting is one of India's earliest examples of
miniature painting. They are considered the founder of the Miniature
form of painting in India. Astasahasrika-Prajnaparamita and
'Panchraksh' are two important miniature paintings.
• Under their patronage, the 'Pala School of Sculptural Art' was
established. And a new type of stone and bronze sculpture evolved
and Palas were known for their bronze casting.
GURJARA PRATIHARAS
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern
India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain
and later at Kannauj.
They claimed descent from the legendary hero Lakshmana, who is
said to have acted as a pratihara ("doorkeeper") for his brother Rama
According to Prithviraj Raso they were from Agni Kula.

Nagabhatta 1(730-760)
Nagabhata I , was originally perhaps a feudatory of the Chavdas of
Bhillamala.
He fought against Arab invasions from Junaid abdul rehman and Ibn
Tamin.(According to Gwalior Inscription- defeated mlechchas)

• Vatsaraja (775-800 CE) conquered most of central

Rajasthan after defeating the Bhandi or
Bhatti clan. He then tried his hand at Kanyakubja politics, defeating
Palas and securing the throne for
his Ayudha nominee. Dhruva Rashtrakuta dealt him a severe blow,
capturing the royal insignia that
Vatsaraja had captured from the Palas and driving him to seek refuge
in the Rajasthan deserts.

• Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata II (800-833 CE) attempted to resurrect

the dynasty's fortunes. He
conquered the kingdoms of Sindh (now Pakistan) and eastern India,
and later defeated the Palas.
• His subsequent conquests were over the kings of various parts of
Gurjaradesha in western India,
including the Arabs.
• Nagabhata fought the Rashtrakutas for control of Gujarat and was
eventually defeated by Rashtrakuta
Govinda III (793-814 CE), losing south Gujarat and Malwa as a result.
MAHENDRAPALA(890-910)
Called as Nirbhayaraja and Nirbhayanarendra in the plays of
Rajasekhara. Famous Sanskrit poet Rajashekhara was court peot of
Mihira and Mahendrapala.
Rajashekhara Authored vidhasalabhanjika, Karpuramanjari,
Kavyamimansa, Balabharata, Balaramayana
Last rulers
• Rajyapala (960-1018) was defeated by Mohammad Ghazni
• Last ruler was Yashpala(1024-1036)
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
• The Gurjara-Pratihara rulers were avid supporters of the arts,
architecture, and literature. Mihir Bhoj was the dynasty's most
notable ruler.
• Viswaroopa form of Vishnu and the Marriage of Siva and Parvati
from Kannauj are two notable sculptures from this period.
• Beautifully carved panels can also be found on the walls of the
temples at Osian, Abhaneri, and Kotah.
• They also built temples as bateshwar and baroli.(M.P). Siddhanchal
Jain caves were built during their reign.
• The extraordinary Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior fort is the oldest
large-scale Pratihara work still standing.
• The Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior is dedicated to a Shakti cult and
consists of an elevated rectangular mula prasada, a double oblong
shikhara, and a closed portico.
RASHTRAKUTAS OF
MANYAKHETA
• The Rashtrakutas were one of the most prominent dynasties in
early medieval India, ruling from the mid-8th to the 10th century CE.
• Their capitals were Elichpura(Ellora), Mayurkhandi(Karnatakata),
Manyakheta(Karnataka)
• Their emblem was Garuda.
• Their official languages were Sanskrit and kannada.
• The dynasty was founded by Dantidurga.
IMPORTANT RULERS
• Dantidurga (735–756 CE):Founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Expanded the empire by defeating the kirtivarman II of badami
Chalukyas and gaining control of Malwa and other regions.
Dashavatara cave(Cave no 15) of Ellora was built during his reign.
• Krishna I (756–774 CE): Successor of Dantidurga and a
notable ruler. Known for commissioning the construction of the
famous Kailasa Temple at Ellora. Expanded the empire further into
the Deccan and conquered Konkana and northern Karnataka.
• Dhruva Dharavarsha (780–793 CE):A powerful ruler who
expanded the empire to North India. Defeated the Gurjara-Pratiharas
and the Palas of Bengal in the tripartite struggle for Kannauj.
• Govinda III (793–814 CE):Expanded the empire to its greatest
extent, controlling territories from the Vindhyas to Kanchi.
Successfully defeated the Pratiharas, Palas, and the Pallavas. He
obtained the submission of the King of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) without
even going to battle.
• Amoghavarsha I (814–878 CE):Known as the greatest
Rashtrakuta king.He built the capital city of Manyakheta. A patron of
arts, literature, and religion, especially Jainism. He was a scholar
himself and wrote prashnottarmalika(Sanskrit)
• Kavirajamarga, the earliest Kannada literary work was authored by
his court poet Shrivijaya.
• Many Kannada and Sanskrit scholars prospered during his rule,
including the great Indian mathematician Mahaviracharya who wrote
Ganita-sara-samgraha, Jinasena wrote Adipurana, JayaDhawala and
Virasena(a jain scholar and mathematician who proposed ardhacheda)
who authored dhawala.
• He built Veeranarayana temple at Pattadakall.
• Indra III (914–927 CE):Revived the empire’s power after a
period of decline .Defeated the Pratiharas and captured Kannauj.
• Krishna III (939–967 CE):Expanded the empire to the
southernmost regions, including Tamil Nadu.He defeated Parantaka
chola in battle of tekkolam in 949CE. His campaigns were successful
against the Cholas and other southern powers. He patronised the
famous Kannada poets Sri Ponna, who wrote Shanti Purana. Pampa
was a court poet of Vemulavada Chalukya king Arikesari II, who was
a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Emperor Krishna III. Pampa is best
known for his epics Vikramārjuna Vijaya or Pampa Bharata, and the
Ādi purāṇa,
• Last ruler was Karka II(972-991CE) who was defeated by Taila II
who founded Kalyani(Western) Chalukya empire from Manyakheta.
CONTRIBUTIONS
The Rashtrakutas were known for their remarkable rock-cut
architecture, especially at Ellora. Their structures often combined
religious themes with intricate carvings and grand designs.
Kailasa Temple, Ellora (Cave 16):The most famous monument
attributed to the Rashtrakutas. A monolithic rock-cut temple dedicated
to Lord Shiva. Carved from a single block of basalt rock. Resembles
Mount Kailasa, Shiva’s abode. The temple includes a large courtyard,
pillared halls, sculptures of deities, and detailed relief panels. Intricate
carvings depict scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The
Rashtrakutas also extended the Buddhist and Jain caves at Ellora.Jain
caves (e.g., Cave 30-34) include exquisite sculptures and detailed
carvings showcasing their devotion to Jainism.
Elephanta Caves: Located near Mumbai, the Elephanta Caves are
known for their grand sculptures, including the famous Trimurti
(three-faced Shiva). Though earlier constructed by the Kalachuris, the
Rashtrakutas renovated and enhanced these caves.
Other Temples: Temples at Pattadakal and Aihole were influenced
by Rashtrakuta patronage. The Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi
reflects their architectural style.