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BIOFUELS AND BIOENERGY
BIOFUELS AND BIOENERGY
A Techno-Economic Approach

Edited by

BASKAR GURUNATHAN
Department of Biotechnology, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

RENGANATHAN SAHADEVAN
Centre for Biotechnology, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Elsevier
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
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Contents

List of contributors xxv

Preface xxxiii

Section I Biorefinery approaches in biofuels and

bioenergy production
1. Boundaries and openings of biorefineries towards sustainable biofuel
production 3
M. Rajamehala, Renugaa Su, B. Gopalakrishnan, A. Muthu Kumara Pandian,
M. Vijay Pradhap Singh and S. Chozhavendhan

1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Biorefinery 4
1.2 Sources of biorefinery 4
1.2.1 Phase I biorefinery 6
1.2.2 Phase II biorefinery 6
1.2.3 Phase III biorefinery 6
1.3 Classification of biofuels based on biomass 6
1.3.1 First-generation fuels 7
1.3.2 Second-generation fuels 7
1.3.3 Third-generation fuels 7
1.3.4 Fourth-generation fuels 7
1.4 Production methods of biofuel 8
1.5 Pretreatments 8
1.5.1 Mechanical methods 9
1.5.2 Thermochemical methods 9
1.5.3 Chemical pretreatment 10
1.5.4 Biological pretreatment 10
1.6 Production of different biofuels 11
1.6.1 Bioelectricity generation 11
1.7 Production of ethanol and electricity 11
1.8 Production of ethanol, lactic acid, and electricity 12
1.9 Furfural, ethanol and electricity production 12
1.10 Coproduction of butanol and electricity 12
1.11 Production of methanol and electricity 13
1.12 Purification process 13
1.13 Biogas—biomethane production 14

v
vi Contents

1.14 Applications 15
1.15 Limitations of biorefineries 16
1.16 Future perspectives of biorefineries 16
1.17 Conclusion 16
References 17

2. A perspective on the biorefinery approaches for bioenergy production

in a circular bioeconomy process 23
Abiram Karanam Rathankumar, Kongkona Saikia, Senthil Kumar Ponnusamy,
Jenet George, Priyanka Saravanan, Anna Shaji, Upasana Mohanty and
Vinoth Kumar Vaidyanathan
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Bioenergy 24
2.2.1 Biorefinery 25
2.2.2 Valorization of biomass 28
2.3 Bioeconomy, circular economy, and green economy 31
2.3.1 Circular bioeconomy 32
2.3.2 Biorefinery and circular bioeconomics 33
2.4 Limitations and future perspective of circular bioeconomy 38
2.5 Conclusion 39
Acknowledgment 40
References 40

3. A comprehensive integration of biorefinery concepts for the production

of biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass 45
Kongkona Saikia, Abiram Karanam Rathankumar, Senthil Kumar Ponnusamy,
Jenet George, Anna Shaji, Priyanka Saravanan, Upasana Mohanty and
Vinoth Kumar Vaidyanathan
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Biomass for biorefinery 46
3.2.1 Algal biorefinery 46
3.2.2 Lignocellulosic biorefinery 48
3.3 Biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass 51
3.4 Strategies for the treatment of lignocellulosic biomass 55
3.4.1 Pretreatment 55
3.4.2 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation 58
3.4.3 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation 59
3.5 Metabolic engineering approaches for biofuel production 60
3.6 Integrated biorefinery 61
3.7 Constrains and challenges 63
3.8 Economic aspects and future of lignocellulosic biorefinery 63
3.9 Conclusion 64
 Contents vii

Acknowledgments 65
References 65

4. Evaluation of activated sludge derived from wastewater treatment

process as a potential biorefinery platform 71
Jyotika Thakur and Shyam Kumar Masakapalli

4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Activated sludge as a potential resource for fermentative products 72
4.2.1 Analytical techniques to characterize organic valuables in sludge fermentation 73
4.2.2 Organic molecules characterized in sludge fermentation 75
4.3 Activated sludge as refinery for biogases (methane and hydrogen) 76
4.3.1 Physicochemical parameters for activated sludge as biorefinery 76
4.3.2 Biogas yields obtained using sludge fermentation 77
4.3.3 Limitations of sludge bioprocessing and refinements 78
4.4 Activated sludge as a source of other organic by-products
(fertilizer, refuse-derived fuel) 79
4.4.1 Reduced sludge for agricultural use 79
4.4.2 Other biorefinery perspectives for reduced sludge 80
4.5 Conclusion 80
Acknowledgments 80
References 81

5. Insights into the impact of biorefineries and sustainable green

technologies on circular bioeconomy 85
R. Kheerthivasan, Nadeem Siddiqui, E. Nakkeeran and K. Divakar
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Bioeconomy and circular economy collide in the circular bioeconomy 86
5.3 Impact of biorefinery processes on circular bioeconomy 88
5.4 Product usage strategies for circular bioeconomy 90
5.4.1 Biomimicry and waste biorefinery 91
5.4.2 Metabolic approach 91
5.4.3 Lignocellulosic biorefinery 91
5.4.4 Municipal waste biorefinery 92
5.5 Reusing bio-based high-value products 93
5.6 Effect of biomass utilization on circular bioeconomy 94
5.6.1 Cascading the use of biomass 94
5.6.2 Waste-to-energy technologies 96
5.7 Agriculture management for sustainable circular bioeconomy 97
5.8 Industrial and environmental policy for promoting circular bioeconomy 97
5.9 Conclusion 99
References 99
viii Contents

Section II Biofuels and bioenergy production - I

6. Fermentation technology for ethanol production: current trends and
challenges 105
Mani Jayakumar, Selvakumar Kuppusamy Vaithilingam, Natchimuthu Karmegam,
Kaleab Bizuneh Gebeyehu, Maria Susai Boobalan and Baskar Gurunathan
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2 Lignocellulosic biomass 105
6.3 The electronic structure chemistry of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin 108
6.4 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass 110
6.5 Fermentation technology 111
6.5.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation 111
6.5.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation 117
6.6 Ethanol production using native microbes 117
6.6.1 C5 sugar fermentative microbes 118
6.6.2 C6 sugar fermentative microbes 119
6.7 Fermentation technology for ethanol production using recombinant
engineered microbes 119
6.7.1 Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) 120
6.7.2 Zymomonas mobilis 120
6.7.3 Escherichia coli 121
6.8 Trends, challenges, and future prospects in the bioethanol production 121
6.8.1 Trends 121
6.8.2 Challenges and prospects 122
6.9 Conclusion 123
References 123

7. Improved enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic waste biomass:

most essential stage to develop cost-effective second-generation
biofuel production 133
Pinaki Dey, Geetika Gupta, Jayato Nayak and Kevin Joseph Dilip
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 Enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic feedstocks 135
7.2.1 Different modes of enzymatic saccharification and their technical aspects 139
7.3 Factors influences in efficient enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass 141
7.3.1 Ideal pretreatment of biomass 141
7.3.2 Utilization of potent enzymes, produced from waste biomasses and
high-yield microbes 144
7.3.3 Reaction conditions influencing enzymatic hydrolysis process 148
7.4 Reusability of cellulase enzyme to develop cost-effective enzymatic saccharification
process 152
 Contents ix

7.5 Economic aspects and future prospective of enzymatic saccharification-based

lignocellulosic biofuel production 156
7.6 Conclusion 157
References 158

8. Advances and sustainable conversion of waste lignocellulosic biomass

into biofuels 167
J. Iyyappan, Baskar Gurunathan, M. Gopinath, A. Vaishnavi, S. Prathiba,
V. Kanishka, K. Gomathi and V. Dhithya
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 Biofuel: a sustainable fuel for future 168
8.3 Lignocellulose: a potential substrate for the biofuel product 169
8.4 Pretreatment methods for lignocellulose biomass 171
8.4.1 Physical methods 172
8.4.2 Mechanical pretreatment methods 173
8.4.3 Irradiation pretreatment method 173
8.4.4 Pyrolysis 174
8.4.5 Chemical methods 175
8.4.6 Biological pretreatment methods 177
8.4.7 Microbial pretreatment method 178
8.5 Sources of lignocellulose biomass 178
8.5.1 Agricultural biomass 178
8.5.2 Forestry biomass 181
8.5.3 Industrial and municipal biomass 184
8.5.4 Wasteland biomass 187
8.6 Analysis 190
8.6.1 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy/X-ray 190
8.7 Potential microbial strains involved in biofuel productions 190
8.8 Fermentation methods for biofuel production 194
8.8.1 Separated hydrolysis and fermentation 194
8.8.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation 195
8.9 Reactor configuration 195
8.10 Future perspectives 196
8.11 Challenges 198
8.12 Conclusion 199
References 200

9. Lignocellulosic biomass as an alternate source for next-generation biofuel 207

M. Rajamehala, A. Kaviprabha, A. Muthu Kumara Pandian, M. Vijay Pradhap Singh,
S. Karthikadevi, B. Gopalakrishnan and S. Chozhavendhan
9.1 Introduction 207
x Contents

9.2 Raw materials 209

9.2.1 Wheat 209
9.2.2 Corn 209
9.2.3 Sugarcane 210
9.2.4 Wood/straw dust 211
9.3 Lignocellulosic material 211
9.3.1 Composition of lignocellulosic feedstocks 211
9.4 Process for converting the lignocellulose to biofuels 212
9.4.1 Biological process 213
9.4.2 Thermochemical process 217
9.5 Conclusion 218
References 218

10. Process intensification in biobutanol production 223

Kailas L. Wasewar
10.1 Introduction 223
10.2 Biobutanol 225
10.2.1 Need of biobutanol 225
10.2.2 Characteristics of biobutanol 226
10.2.3 Applications of butanol 227
10.3 Production of biobutanol 228
10.3.1 Preface for biobutanol production 228
10.3.2 History of biobutanol production 229
10.3.3 Categories of biobutanol 231
10.3.4 Microorganism for biobutanol production 231
10.3.5 Challenges in biobutanol production 232
10.4 Process intensification 232
10.5 Process intensification in production of biobutanol 233
10.5.1 Bioreactors 234
10.5.2 Continuous biofilm fixed bed reactor 235
10.5.3 Membrane methods 236
10.5.4 Distillation methods 242
10.5.5 Fermentation with gas stripping 242
10.5.6 Liquid liquid extraction methods 245
10.5.7 Adsorption methods 246
10.5.8 Hybrid methods 248
10.5.9 Other methods 250
10.6 Conclusion 253
References 253
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 Contents xi

11. Production of cellulosic butanol by clostridial fermentation:

a superior alternative renewable liquid fuel 263
Gobinath Rajagopalan and Chandraraj Krishnan

11.1 Introduction 263

11.2 Production of butanol by Clostridium sp 264
11.2.1 ABE fermentation 264
11.2.2 IBE fermentation 266
11.3 Factors affecting butanol production 268
11.4 Enhancement of ABE fermentation 269
11.4.1 Coculture of Clostridium sp 269
11.4.2 Metabolic engineering 272
11.5 Butanol production from LCB 273
11.5.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation 273
11.5.2 Consolidated bioprocessing of LCB 277
11.6 Technoeconomic analysis 279
11.7 Conclusion 280
References 280

12. Biobutanol separation using ionic liquids as a green solvent 291

Kailas L. Wasewar

12.1 Introduction 291

12.2 Butanol 292
12.2.1 Background 292
12.2.2 Characteristics 292
12.2.3 Applications 293
12.2.4 Production 293
12.2.5 Separation 296
12.3 Liquid liquid extraction and ionic liquids 297
12.3.1 Separation 297
12.3.2 Liquid liquid extraction 297
12.3.3 Ionic liquids 298
12.4 Butanol separation by ionic liquids 300
12.4.1 Imidazolium-based ionic liquids 302
12.4.2 Phosphonium-based ionic liquids 305
12.4.3 Piperidinium-based ionic liquids 306
12.4.4 Pyrrolidinium-based ionic liquids 306
12.4.5 Morpholinium-based ionic liquids 306
12.4.6 Ammonium-based ionic liquids 307
12.4.7 Supported ionic liquid membrane 307
12.4.8 Perstraction using ionic liquids 310
xii Contents

12.5 Toxicity and biocompatibility of ionic liquids 310

12.5.1 Biocompatibility 310
12.5.2 Toxicity 311
12.6 Recovery and reuse of ionic liquids 312
12.7 Future perspectives 313
12.8 Conclusion 317
References 318

13. Synergistic prospects of microalgae after wastewater treatment to be

used for biofuel production 323
Louis Anto Nirmal, Sholinghur Asuri Bhakthochidan, Ravichandran Vishal,
Veeraraghavan Babulu Roshini and Samuel Jacob

13.1 Introduction 323

13.2 Appropriate selection methods for effective biofuel production 324
13.2.1 Potential microalgae for biofuel production through wastewater
treatment 324
13.2.2 Selection of appropriate media for enhanced microalgal biomass and
lipid yield 325
13.2.3 Selection of wastewater for microalgal growth 326
13.2.4 Selection of wastewater pretreatment 327
13.2.5 Free cell versus immobilized cell 327
13.3 Types of microalgae cultivation 328
13.3.1 High rate algal ponds 328
13.3.2 Photobioreactor 329
13.3.3 Hybrid system 330
13.3.4 Microalgae turf scrubber 331
13.4 Harvesting microalgal biomass 331
13.4.1 Chemical extraction 331
13.4.2 Mechanical extraction 332
13.4.3 Electrical extraction 332
13.4.4 Biological method of extraction 332
13.5 Biofuel production from wastewater using microalgae 333
13.5.1 Biodiesel 333
13.5.2 Bioethanol and biohydrogen 335
13.5.3 Syngas 336
13.5.4 Biomethane 337
13.5.5 Jet fuel 337
13.6 Greenhouse gas mitigation 338
13.7 Future perspectives 339
13.8 Conclusion 341
References 341
 Contents xiii

14. Concurrent reduction of CO2 and generation of biofuels by

electrified microbial systems—concepts and perspectives 347
Bhargavi Gunturu, Adam Shahul Hameed and Renganathan Sahadevan

14.1 Introduction 347

14.1.1 Electrode and possible effects on microbial electrosynthesis 354
14.1.2 Membrane configurations 360
14.2 Bacterial electrotrophs 360
14.3 Mechanism of electron uptake 363
14.3.1 Indirect extracellular electron transfer or mediator-dependent transfer 364
14.3.2 Direct extracellular electron transfer or mediator-free transfer 365
14.4 Carbon dioxide reduction and biofuels generation 365
14.5 Challenges and future prospects 371
14.6 Conclusion 372
References 372

Section III Biofuels and bioenergy production—II

15. Challenges and opportunities in large-scale production of biodiesel 385
Umaiyambika Neduvel Annal, Arunodhaya Natarajan, Baskar Gurunathan,
Vijay Mani and Renganathan Sahadevan

15.1 Introduction 385

15.2 Assessment from small-scale to large-scale production 387
15.2.1 Supply chain and logistics 387
15.2.2 Storage of oil seed 388
15.3 Commercial-scale production of triglycerides 389
15.3.1 Source of triglycerides 389
15.3.2 Large scale oil production 389
15.3.3 Vegetable oil refining process 390
15.3.4 Degumming 391
15.3.5 Deacidification process 391
15.3.6 Bleaching 392
15.3.7 Deodorization process 392
15.4 Large-scale production structure of biodiesel plant 393
15.4.1 Refining process for biodiesel production 394
15.4.2 Esterification process 394
15.4.3 Transesterification process 394
15.4.4 Pumps and pipelines used 395
15.4.5 Reactors used 396
15.4.6 Product separation 397
xiv Contents

15.4.7 Neutralization 398

15.4.8 Methanol recovery 398
15.4.9 Biodiesel purification 398
15.4.10 Biodiesel drying 399
15.4.11 Recovery of methanol 399
15.5 Glycerol purification 400
15.5.1 Free fatty acid treatment 400
15.6 Wastewater treatment 401
15.6.1 Generation of wastewater 401
15.6.2 Significance of wastewater treatment method 401
15.6.3 Physical methods 403
15.6.4 Electrochemical method 403
15.6.5 Biological methods 404
15.7 Cost analysis of wastewater treatment 404
15.7.1 Economic analysis of biodiesel production 404
15.8 Conclusion 405
References 406

16. Lipid-derived biofuel: production methodologies 409

Umaiyambika Neduvel Annal, Arunodhaya Natarajan, Baskar Gurunathan and
Renganathan Sahadevan

16.1 Introduction 409

16.2 Properties of biodiesel 410
16.3 Biodiesel production methodologies 410
16.3.1 Direct use and blending 410
16.3.2 Microemulsion 411
16.3.3 Pyrolysis 413
16.4 Transesterification process 416
16.4.1 Parameters affecting transesterification process 417
16.4.2 Types of transesterification process 419
16.5 Overview of production methods 430
16.6 Conclusion 431
References 431

17. Interesterification reaction of vegetable oil and alkyl acetate as

alternative route for glycerol-free biodiesel synthesis 435
Ratna Dewi Kusumaningtyas, Indah Purnamasari, Ririn Mahmudati and
Haniif Prasetiawan
17.1 Introduction 435
17.2 Biodiesel 436
17.3 Interesterification reaction 439
 Contents xv

17.4 Kinetic model of interesterification reaction 440

17.5 Case study: kinetic study on the biodiesel synthesis from Jatropha
(Jatropha curcas L.) with methyl acetate in the presence of sodium methoxide
catalyst 442
17.5.1 Methods 442
17.5.2 Kinetic model 443
17.5.3 Characterization of Jatropha oil 443
17.5.4 Effect of catalyst concentration 444
17.5.5 Effect of Jatropha oil to methyl acetate molar ratio 445
17.5.6 Effect of reaction time and temperature 447
17.5.7 Kinetic study 448
17.6 Conclusion 450
Acknowledgment 450
References 450

18. Recent advances of lipase-catalyzed greener production of biodiesel

in organic reaction media: economic and sustainable viewpoint 453
Kirtikumar C. Badgujar, Vivek C. Badgujar and Bhalchandra M. Bhanage
18.1 Introduction 453
18.2 Recent literature survey of lipase-catalyzed synthesis of biodiesel 454
18.3 Reaction parameters 461
18.3.1 Biocatalyst screening 461
18.3.2 Effect of oil-to-alcohol mole ratio 463
18.3.3 Effect of stepwise addition of alcohol 463
18.3.4 Effect of solvent and cosolvent 466
18.3.5 Effect of temperature 467
18.3.6 Effect of water content 469
18.3.7 Effect of biocatalyst amount 471
18.3.8 Effect of mass transfer 473
18.3.9 Effect of adsorbent 473
18.3.10 Effect alcohol chain length 473
18.3.11 Effect of feedstock (waste or fresh oils) from various sources 474
18.3.12 Effect of recycle 474
18.4 Economic and sustainable viewpoint 475
18.4.1 Catalyst lipase and immobilization 475
18.4.2 Use of waste feedstock 475
18.4.3 Processing parameters and optimization 476
18.4.4 Scale-up synthesis 476
18.4.5 Greenness of the process 477
18.5 Conclusion 477
References 477
xvi Contents

19. Efficient utilization of seed biomass and its by-product for the biodiesel
production 483
Praveena Nagarajan, Baskar Gurunathan, Sivakumar Pandian, Ilango Karuppasamy,
Geethalakshmi Ramakrishnan and Renganathan Sahadevan
19.1 Introduction 483
19.2 Second-generation feedstock for biodiesel production 484
19.2.1 Advantages of nonedible oils 484
19.3 Problems in the exploitation of nonedible oils 485
19.4 Deoiled seed meal after oil extraction 485
19.4.1 Sulfonation 486
19.4.2 Carbonization followed by sulfonation 486
19.4.3 Hydrothermal carbonization 486
19.4.4 Pyrolyzation followed by sulfonation 486
19.5 Seed cake as a catalyst for esterification process 486
19.6 Factors influencing seed cake catalyst preparation 487
19.6.1 Reusability of catalyst 490
19.7 Characterization of catalyst 491
19.8 Conclusion 491
References 492

20. Catalytic pyrolysis for upgrading of biooil obtained from biomass 495
Nidhi Agnihotri and Monoj Kumar Mondal
20.1 Introduction 495
20.2 Catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass 496
20.2.1 Advantages of catalytic pyrolysis 498
20.3 Commercial-scale pyrolysis plant 498
20.4 Types of catalysts used in pyrolysis 499
20.4.1 Zeolites 499
20.4.2 Mesoporous catalyst 500
20.5 Chemical reactions in catalytic fast pyrolysis 501
20.5.1 Deoxygenation 501
20.5.2 Cracking 501
20.5.3 Dehydration 501
20.5.4 Decarboxylation 502
20.6 Reactors for catalytic pyrolysis 502
20.7 Process parameters 504
20.7.1 Temperature 505
20.7.2 Ratio of biomass to catalyst 505
20.7.3 Catalyst contact time 505
20.7.4 Vapor residence time 506
 Contents xvii

20.8 Challenges and recommendations 506

20.9 Future perspectives 507
20.10 Conclusion 507
Acknowledgments 508
References 508

21. Recent trends in the pyrolysis and gasification of lignocellulosic biomass 511
Vinoj Kurian, Manjot Gill, Bijay Dhakal and Amit Kumar

21.1 Introduction 511

21.1.1 Background 511
21.1.2 Potential feedstocks for pyrolysis and gasification 513
21.1.3 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass 517
21.2 Pyrolysis 518
21.2.1 Types of pyrolysis 519
21.2.2 Reactor configuration 521
21.2.3 Factors affecting pyrolysis products 527
21.2.4 Recent developments in pyrolysis 530
21.2.5 Current status and challenges of pyrolysis 532
21.3 Gasification 533
21.3.1 Gasification theory 533
21.3.2 Gasifier types 536
21.3.3 Current status and challenges of gasification 541
21.4 Future of pyrolysis and gasification 542
21.4.1 Biomass-based hydrogen 542
21.4.2 Bioethanol 545
21.5 Conclusion 546
References 547

22. Experimental investigation of performance of bio diesel with different

blends in diesel engine 553
P. Saranya, R. Anantharaj, D. Gnana Prakash and M. Vichitra
22.1 Introduction 553
22.1.1 Need for alternative green fuel 553
22.1.2 Cashew nut shell liquid 553
22.1.3 Cardanol 554
22.2 Experimental section 555
22.2.1 Materials 555
22.2.2 Measurements 555
22.2.3 Blending of auxiliaries with cardanol 556
22.2.4 Engine performance analysis 558
xviii Contents

22.3 Results and discussion 560

22.3.1 Density of pure components 560
22.3.2 Performance and emission characteristics of alternative green fuel 560
22.4 Conclusion 566
References 567

Section IV Technoeconomic and environmental impact

analysis of biofuels and bioenergy
23. Technoeconomic evaluation of 2G ethanol production with coproducts
from rice straw 571
Panneerselvam Ranganathan
23.1 Introduction 571
23.2 Process description of rice straw to ethanol and coproducts 576
23.2.1 Pretreatment of rice straw 577
23.2.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis 577
23.2.3 Glucose (C6) fermentation 577
23.2.4 Xylose (C5) fermentation 578
23.2.5 Coproducts from rice straw 578
23.3 Process design 578
23.3.1 Various cases 578
23.3.2 Simulation methodology 582
23.4 Results and discussion 583
23.4.1 Material flow 583
23.4.2 Economic analysis 585
23.4.3 Sensitivity analysis 586
23.5 Future perspective 587
23.6 Conclusion 587
References 588

24. Technoeconomic analysis of biodiesel production using noncatalytic

transesterification 591
E. Yuvanashree, Renganathan Sahadevan and Baskar Gurunathan
24.1 Introduction 591
24.2 Characteristics of supercritical methanol 593
24.3 Reaction kinetics of transesterification 594
24.4 Upshots of operating parameters on biodiesel using SCM 595
24.4.1 Temperature 595
24.4.2 Pressure 596
24.4.3 Alcohol/oil ratio 597
 Contents xix

24.4.4 Feedstock handling 597

24.5 Technoeconomic analysis of SCM method 597
24.5.1 Case study 598
24.5.2 Process results 598
24.5.3 Economic review 598
24.6 Conclusion 599
References 599

25. Techno-economic analysis of biodiesel production from nonedible

biooil using catalytic transesterification 601
Naveenkumar Rajendran, Ashok Pandey, Edgard Gnansounou, Baskar Gurunathan
and Jeehoon Han
25.1 Introduction 601
25.2 Nonedible source for biodiesel production 602
25.2.1 Gossypium 602
25.2.2 Jatropha curcas 602
25.2.3 Simmondsia chinensis 603
25.2.4 Millettia pinnata 603
25.2.5 Linum usitatissimum 603
25.2.6 Madhuca longifolia 603
25.2.7 Azadirachta indica 604
25.2.8 Hevea brasiliensis 604
25.2.9 Nicotiana tabacum 604
25.2.10 Callophyllum inophyllum 604
25.3 Catalyst for biodiesel production 605
25.3.1 Homogeneous Catalyst 605
25.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst 606
25.4 Techno-economic analysis 611
25.4.1 Steps involved in techno-economic analysis 613
25.4.2 Economic factors 613
25.5 Techno-economic analysis of biodiesel production 615
25.6 Conclusion 618
Reference 619

26. Technoeconomic analysis of biofuel production from marine algae 627

G. Kalavathy, Ashok Pandey, Edgard Gnansounou and Baskar Gurunathan
26.1 Introduction 627
26.2 Macroalgae production 629
26.2.1 Cultivation 630
26.2.2 Harvesting 631
26.2.3 Postharvesting 632
xx Contents

26.3 Extraction of oil from macroalgae for biodiesel production 633

26.3.1 Pretreatment of algal biomass 633
26.3.2 Soxhlet extraction 633
26.3.3 Factors affecting extraction of algal oil 634
26.4 Production of biodiesel 636
26.4.1 Transesterification of algal oil 636
26.5 Production of biogas from macroalgae 639
26.5.1 Anaerobic digestion 640
26.6 Production of bioethanol from marine macroalgae 640
26.7 Technoeconomic analysis 642
26.7.1 Hatchery and grow-out systems 642
26.7.2 Drying systems 643
26.7.3 Transportation systems 643
26.7.4 Algal oil extraction systems 643
26.7.5 Transesterification of algal oil 644
26.7.6 Fermentation 644
26.7.7 Technoeconomic analysis of biofuel from macroalgae 644
26.8 Conclusion 646
References 646

27. Techno-economic assessment of biofuel production using

thermochemical pathways 653
Prasad Mandade and Yogesh M. Nimdeo
27.1 Introduction 653
27.2 Thermochemical pathways of biofuel production 656
27.2.1 Torrefaction 657
27.2.2 Hydrothermal liquefaction 658
27.2.3 Pyrolysis 659
27.2.4 Gasification 660
27.3 Techno-economic assessment of biofuels using thermochemical methods 660
27.3.1 Methodological framework of techno-economic assessment 660
27.3.2 Overview of the techno-economic assessment studies of biofuel
production using thermo-chemical pathways 663
27.4 Challenges, progress, opportunities, and future perspectives 666
27.5 Conclusion 668
References 668

28. Modeling and technoeconomic analysis of biogas production from

waste food 673
G. Srinivas, P. Ramesh, G.B. Radhika and T. Srinivas
28.1 Introduction 673
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 OUVRE

uvre les yeux, réveille-toi;

Ouvre l’oreille; ouvre ta porte:
C’est l’Amour qui sonne, et c’est moi
Qui te l’apporte.

Ouvre la fenêtre à tes seins;

Ouvre ton corsage de soie;
Ouvre ta robe sur tes reins:
Ouvre qu’on voie!

Ouvre à mon cœur ton cœur trop plein:

J’irai le boire sur ta bouche.
Ouvre ta chemise de lin:
Ouvre qu’on touche!

Ouvre les plis de tes rideaux;

Ouvre ton lit que je t’y traîne:
Il va s’échauffer sous ton dos.
Ouvre l’arène.

Ouvre tes bras pour m’enlacer.

Ouvre tes seins que je m’y pose.
Ouvre aux fureurs de mon baiser
Ta lèvre rose!
Ouvre tes jambes; prends mes flancs
Dans ces rondeurs blanches et lisses;
Ouvre tes deux genoux tremblants...
Ouvre tes cuisses!

Ouvre tout ce qu’on peut ouvrir

Dans les chauds trésors de ton ventre:
J’inonderai sans me tarir
L’abîme où j’entre!
 SONNET A MA MIE

Je regrète le tems où, tout bardé de fer,

Hampe au poing, dague au flanc, on errait par le monde;
Le temps où l’on vêtait le heaume à grille ronde,
Le gorgerin de cuir, la gambe et le hauber.

Coups de masse et d’estoc! On était fort et fier:

On se navrait gaiement pour le los de sa blonde;
Le cœur était loyal et la valeur féconde:
Les gentils preux n’avaient souci que de l’Enfer.

On ne se cachait point pour rêver à sa mie:

On s’aimait sans remors, et nul n’en gaussait mie:
Seul, le parjure aux vœux d’amour était félon.

Beau tems! J’eusse porté tes couleurs, ta devise,

Et ton nom brodé d’or sur mon blanc gonfalon.
—Une nuit m’eût faict roi, qui t’eût faicte marquise.
 DANAÉ

A Paul et Gustave Philippart.

e soleil meurt: Hesper flambe.

La tour d’Argos
Est de bronze massif et ses murs sont bien clos.
Trente Achaïens, héros de haute et forte taille,
Casqués et cuirassés comme pour la bataille,
Le javelot au poing et le glaive au côté,
Veillent, gardiens jurés d’une virginité.
Donc, Acrise a bâti dans la voûte sonore
Un cachot que Phoïbos Hékébolos ignore:
Quinze verrous d’airain que l’on ferme à secret
En défendent l’entrée à l’Eros indiscret.

C’est là que Danaé, l’Argienne aux nattes blondes,

La fille aux languissants regards, aux fesses rondes,
Sans amour, à vingt ans, se déflore et languit.

«—Oh, vivre ainsi loin d’eux, loin du ciel, loin du bruit!

Vénus, je veux aimer!» Et débordant de sève,
Elle tord sur le lit, complice de son rêve,
Les longs et chauds ennuis de sa lourde vertu.
Elle a senti le soir, et son cœur a battu.
«—Seule une nuit encor, hélas!» Elle soupire.

Car c’est l’heure d’aimer! C’est l’heure où le Satyre

Poursuit par les bois sourds et les sentiers ombreux
La Dryade qui rit et fuit vers l’antre creux.
C’est l’heure où le soleil se penche sur la terre;
L’heure où les myrtes blancs de Gnide et de Cythère
Aux chansons des baisers mêlent des chants d’oiseaux;
L’heure où le vent lascif caresse les roseaux,
Tout plein de voluptés et de senteurs de roses.
C’est l’heure de l’amour! C’est le réveil des Causes!

—«Seule encor!» Danaé se pleure dans la nuit.

Mais, là haut, l’œil d’un dieu la guette et la poursuit.
Elle a mis dans ses mains son beau front qui s’incline:
Elle songe aux raideurs de la chair masculine;
Aux grands boucs qu’elle a vus courir parmi les prés,
Serrant la chèvre en rut contre leurs dards pourprés,
Aux taureaux traversant le flanc des vaches rousses,
Et par élans fougueux, par bonds et par secousses,
Devenant tout d’un coup semblables à des dieux!
Elle songe aux assauts de l’amant radieux,
Aux muscles étreignant le baiser qui s’y plonge,
Au frottement qui brûle et qui noie! Elle songe...

Silence! Elle s’endort les deux bras grands ouverts....

Il pleut de l’or, il pleut!

Des plafonds découverts,

Le scintillant métal miroite et tombe en pluie.
Et la vierge, les yeux fermés, mais éblouie,
Voit passer dans le bleu des gouttes de soleil.
C’est bien de l’or: il pleut! A travers son sommeil
Elle rit à la blonde averse. Goutte à goutte!
Or, azur! Que c’est beau! Comme il pleut! Elle écoute:
Chaque perle en passant siffle gaîment dans l’air,
Et dans le cœur qui bat son crépitement clair
Fait chanter un écho qui vibre avec sa chute.

L’orage étincelant grossit. Chaque minute

Verse par milliers les belles larmes d’or.
Le flot torrentiel se presse. Encor! Encor!
Le sol a disparu. L’or coule, l’or ruisselle.
Rien que de l’or; de l’or partout. L’or s’amoncelle:
Ici, là. Sur le sol, la couche et les coussins;
Sur elle: sur le front, les bras, le cou, les seins;
Sur les flancs arrondis, sur le ventre qu’il baise;
La poitrine se gonfle et palpite. L’or pèse,
Lourd, massif, étouffant, sur ce corps endormi.
Il s’échauffe,—il s’anime...

O Pan! Il a frémi.
Les molécules d’or se cherchent et s’unissent.
C’est comme un cœur qui bat. Les formes s’arrondissent.
Il prend un corps! Il prend une âme...

Un homme? Un Dieu?
Qu’importe, puisqu’il vit, que sa lèvre est en feu,
Et que son bras musclé sait étreindre une femme.
Il vit, il sait! Il a la vigueur et la flamme!
C’est un être viril: la Vierge l’a compris!
C’est le mâle rêvé qui l’assiège... Oh, ces cris!
Elle ouvre ses genoux, ses baisers, tout son être.
L’or brûlant se raidit, se tend... L’or la pénètre...
Zeus! Au fond! Zeus, plus loin! Le Dieu peut ce qu’il veut.

Il pleut! Mais ce n’est plus de l’or! Il pleut! Il pleut!

 L’ÉTERNITÉ

A un compositeur de musique religieuse.

’​Éternité!—Dieu m’en préserve;

C’est assez de vivre une fois.
Moisir à l’état de conserve
Comme un bocal de petits pois.
Dieu m’en préserve!

L’Éternité!—Point ne m’en faut.

C’est tentant comme un jour de pluie:
Un Enfer où l’on a trop chaud,
Un Paradis où l’on s’ennuie.
Point ne m’en faut!

L’Éternité!—C’est dérisoire:
Pas de corps, des âmes partout:
Rien à peloter, rien à boire;
Pas moyen de tirer son coup.
C’est dérisoire!

L’Éternité! L’Éternité!
Sans amour que faire d’une âme?
Mahomet m’eût bien mieux tenté.
Ah! si l’on passait sur la femme
L’Éternité!
 RONDEL
MÉLANCHOLIQUE

A Jules Lévy.

éez mes plours, oyez mes cryz:

J’ai d’amour mon aame férue,
Et comme un bœuf tirant charrue,
Je trayne mon cueur mal espris.

Ma belle m’a gaussé de ryz

Et s’en est ma tendresse accrue:
Véez mes plours, oyez mes cryz.

Las! Pour endormir ses mespris,

Je l’ai de mes plaintes recrue;
Mais pour que ma peine soit crue,
L’or me fault, à payer son prix:
Véez mes plours, oyez mes cryz!
 LA VIEILLE

A Maurice Rollinat.

elle à faire damner les anges et les saints,

Elle trôna vingt ans, sans amour et sans joie,
Étouffant la splendeur mouvante de ses seins
Dans des murs de velours et des prisons de soie.

Fermant son cœur d’ascète aux hommes méprisés,

Elle régnait, d’en haut, froide comme une Hécate;
Et jamais, jour ou nuit, un frisson de baisers
N’effleura les duvets de sa chair délicate.

Quand elle agenouillait son orgueil aux autels,

Elle remerciait la vierge d’Idumée
D’avoir lavé sa peau de nos désirs mortels,
Et mis dans son corps pur le dégoût d’être aimée.

Une auréole d’or sur l’or de ses cheveux,

Elle allait par la vie, implacable et sereine,
Et riait d’écouter le sanglot de nos vœux
Qui râlaient dans les plis de sa robe de reine.
Vingt ans, et puis trente ans encore elle attendit.
Sa vertu, comme un tigre indompté qu’on affame,
Aiguisa cinquante ans son vorace appétit,
Puis, soudaine, hurla: la statue était femme!

—Le serpent du désir déroule ses anneaux,

Et le remord tardif siffle au cœur qui s’éveille.
L’impassible se tord sur ses draps virginaux:
La Vénus qui se venge écorche sa chair vieille.

Oh, les chassés d’hier, s’ils venaient à présent!

En foule, s’ils passaient! Tour à tour, tous ensemble,
S’ils daignaient la pétrir et sucer jusqu’au sang
Sa mamelle qui glisse et son ventre qui tremble!

Dieu! Comme on vautrerait ses lèvres sous leurs crins!

Dans quelle immense extase on boirait leurs caresses,
Et comme à deux genoux on lécherait leurs reins
Pour y puiser sans fin l’ivresse des ivresses!

Mais les jours sont passés de triomphe et d’orgueil!

Dans l’âpre isolement de sa couche dernière,
Crispant ses membres secs sous ses rideaux en deuil,
Elle bave d’amour en attendant sa bière.

Trop tard! Trop tard! Ses doigts se fouillent en chemin:

Elle tord ses yeux blancs où luit l’éclair d’un rêve;
Et sa virginité d’antique parchemin
Craque, comme la peau d’un vieux tambour qu’on crève.
 LA JEUNE

SONNET

A Charles Buet

J’ai rêvé d’une vierge impeccable, aux yeux froids,

Qui, d’un bond, émergeant des moiteurs de sa couche,
Vient accrocher le poids de son corps à ma bouche
Et pointe sur mon cœur le roc de ses seins droits.

Longtemps, pieuse et chaste, elle a porté la croix

De l’orgueil vertueux que nul désir ne touche;
Mais voilà que le rut s’est éveillé, farouche,
Et la chair en révolte a réclamé ses droits...

Elle plaque à ma peau la peau d’un ventre ferme,

Et furieusement crispée, elle m’enferme
Dans l’effort ingénu de sa lubricité.
Ses canines d’enfant mordent ma chair de mâle...
A moi, toute! Et la fleur de sa nubilité,
Pourpre, s’épanouit sous l’onde baptismale.
 L’OBSESSION

A Charles Morice.

vase de volupté,
Je t’aime, Femme, Beauté!
Je suis un Faune hanté
Par la luxure:
Brute vouée au plaisir,
Chair condamnée à gésir
Sous la meule du désir
Qui me pressure.

Un rut fou tient mon destin:

Mais j’adore le festin
Que du soir jusqu’au matin
Mon sang arrose;
Je suis le joyeux martyr
Qui se grise de sentir
Sa chair vive s’engloutir
Sous la dent rose.

Chaque femme, je la veux!

Des talons jusqu’aux cheveux
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