The origins of the Cold War

Why did the US–Soviet alliance begin to break down in 1945?

The US-Soviet alliance, formed during World War II to defeat the Axis powers, began to break
down in 1945 due to several key factors:

1. Ideological Differences:
The United States and the Soviet Union were fundamentally opposed in their ideologies. The US was
a capitalist democracy, while the Soviet Union was a communist state. During the war, these
differences were set aside for the common goal of defeating Nazi Germany, but once the war ended,
these ideological differences resurfaced and began to cause friction.

2. Post-War Power Vacuum:

With the defeat of Germany and Japan, a power vacuum emerged in Europe and Asia. Both the US
and the Soviet Union sought to fill this vacuum, leading to competition for influence in these regions.
The Soviet Union, under Stalin, sought to expand its influence over Eastern Europe, while the US
aimed to contain the spread of communism.

3. Disagreements Over Eastern Europe:

One of the most significant points of contention was the future of Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union
wanted to establish pro-Soviet governments in countries like Poland, Hungary, and Romania as a
buffer zone against future invasions. The US, on the other hand, advocated for free elections and
democratic governments, leading to a clash over the fate of these nations.

4. The Fate of Germany:

The Allies disagreed on how to deal with post-war Germany. The Soviet Union wanted to keep
Germany weak and demanded heavy reparations. The US, however, wanted to rebuild Germany as a
strong, stable state that could serve as a bulwark against Soviet expansion in Europe. This
disagreement contributed to the division of Germany into East and West, with East Germany falling
under Soviet control and West Germany becoming a US ally.

5. Nuclear Tensions:
The United States' development and use of the atomic bomb in 1945 further strained relations. The
Soviet Union viewed this as a direct threat, and the lack of cooperation on nuclear weapons
development led to mutual distrust. This marked the beginning of the nuclear arms race, a major
component of the Cold War.

6. Differing Visions for the Post-War World:

The US envisioned a world order based on democratic principles, free trade, and international
cooperation through institutions like the United Nations. The Soviet Union, however, was more
interested in securing its own security and influence, particularly in Eastern Europe. These differing
visions for the post-war world were incompatible, leading to increasing tensions.
 The origins of the Cold War
Yalta Conference
The Yalta Conference, held in February 1945, was a critical meeting between the leaders of the
United States (President Franklin D. Roosevelt), the Soviet Union (Premier Joseph Stalin), and the
United Kingdom (Prime Minister Winston Churchill). The conference aimed to discuss the post-war
reorganization of Europe and the world. Several important agreements and disagreements emerged
from this meeting:

Agreements at Yalta:
Division of Germany: The leaders agreed that Germany would be divided into four occupation
zones, each controlled by one of the Allies: the United States, the Soviet Union, the United
Kingdom, and France. Berlin, the German capital, would also be divided into four zones.
United Nations: The three leaders agreed on the establishment of the United Nations, an
international organization intended to promote peace and cooperation among nations. The
Soviet Union agreed to join the UN, with a provision that each of the five permanent members of
the Security Council would have veto power.
Free Elections in Eastern Europe: It was agreed that countries in Eastern Europe liberated from
Nazi control would have free elections to determine their post-war governments. This agreement
was particularly focused on Poland, where there was significant controversy over the future
government.
Poland's Borders: The conference attendees agreed to move Poland's eastern border westward,
along the Curzon Line, giving the Soviet Union control over parts of eastern Poland. Poland would
be compensated with land from Germany's eastern territories.
War Against Japan: Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan
within three months after the defeat of Germany. In return, the Soviets were promised territorial
concessions in the Far East, including the return of territories lost to Japan in the Russo-Japanese
War of 1904-1905.

Disagreements at Yalta:
Poland’s Government: While the leaders agreed on the idea of free elections in Poland, there
was significant disagreement over what kind of government should be established. Stalin insisted
on a pro-Soviet government, while Roosevelt and Churchill wanted a government that was
representative of the Polish people, including members of the London-based Polish government-
in-exile. The vague compromise reached at Yalta led to later disputes.
Reparations and the Future of Germany: There was disagreement over the extent and form of
reparations that Germany should pay. Stalin demanded substantial reparations to compensate
for the devastation the Soviet Union had suffered, while Roosevelt and Churchill were more
cautious, fearing that excessive reparations could cripple Germany’s economy and lead to future
instability.
Eastern Europe and Soviet Influence: Although agreements were made regarding free elections
in Eastern Europe, there was underlying tension and mistrust about Soviet intentions. Roosevelt
and Churchill were concerned about the extent of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, but they
were limited in their ability to push back against Stalin, given the Red Army's control of the
region.
 The origins of the Cold War
Potsdam Conference
The Potsdam Conference, held from July 17 to August 2, 1945, was the last of the major wartime
meetings between the leaders of the United States (President Harry S. Truman), the Soviet Union
(Premier Joseph Stalin), and the United Kingdom (initially Prime Minister Winston Churchill, later
replaced by Clement Attlee after the UK general election). The conference addressed various post-
war issues, building on and revising agreements made at the earlier Yalta Conference. The key
agreements and disagreements at Potsdam can be seen below.

Attlee Truman Stalin

Agreements at Potsdam:
Division and Occupation of Germany: The conference confirmed the division of Germany into four
occupation zones, as agreed at Yalta. Berlin would also be divided into four zones. The Allied
Control Council was established to oversee the administration of Germany as a whole.
It was agreed that Germany would be demilitarized, denazified, and democratized. Nazi war
criminals would be prosecuted, and the Nazi Party would be dismantled.
Reparations: The Allies agreed that each occupying power would extract reparations from its own
occupation zone in Germany. The Soviet Union, which had suffered the most during the war, was
allowed to take additional reparations from the western zones, in exchange for delivering food
and raw materials from the eastern zone to the western zones.
Territorial Adjustments: The conference confirmed the transfer of territory from Germany to
Poland, particularly the Oder-Neisse line, which became the new western border of Poland. This
resulted in the expulsion of millions of Germans from these areas.
It was agreed that Austria would be separated from Germany and would be occupied and
administered separately.
Japan: The Potsdam Declaration was issued, calling for Japan's unconditional surrender and
outlining the terms for Japan’s post-war occupation. This declaration warned Japan of "prompt
and utter destruction" if it did not surrender, which was a veiled reference to the atomic bomb
that the US was preparing to use.
 The origins of the Cold War
Disagreements at Potsdam:
Reparations and Economic Policy: There were significant disagreements over how to handle
reparations and the economic treatment of Germany. The Soviet Union wanted substantial
reparations to rebuild its war-torn economy, while the US and UK were concerned that excessive
reparations would cripple Germany and destabilize Europe. This disagreement led to a
compromise, but tensions over economic policy remained.
Eastern Europe: The future of Eastern Europe was a major point of contention. While the Yalta
Conference had promised free elections in Eastern Europe, by the time of Potsdam, it was clear
that the Soviet Union intended to maintain control over the region. Truman and Churchill (and
later Attlee) expressed concerns about Soviet dominance, but Stalin was unwilling to make
concessions, and the situation in Eastern Europe remained unresolved.
Poland’s Government: There was continued disagreement over the Polish government. The
Western Allies were unhappy with the pro-Soviet government that had been established in
Poland, which they believed violated the spirit of the Yalta agreement on free elections.
However, they were unable to force Stalin to change his position, leading to a stalemate.
Atomic Bomb: Although the atomic bomb was not formally discussed, the US decision to use the
bomb on Japan without consulting the Soviet Union exacerbated tensions. Truman informed
Stalin of the bomb’s existence, but the lack of detailed information and the subsequent bombing
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki contributed to growing mistrust between the US and the Soviet
Union.
 The origins of the Cold War
The Iron Curtain

"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the
continent." - Winston Churchill

Why did the US–Soviet alliance begin to break down in 1945?

The "Iron Curtain" was a term popularized by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to describe the
political, military, and ideological barrier that separated the Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe from
the Western nations, led by the United States and its NATO allies, during the Cold War.

Meaning and Significance:

The Iron Curtain symbolized the division of Europe into two distinct and antagonistic blocs:
Western Bloc: This included countries in Western Europe and North America that were
democratic and capitalist, aligned with the United States and NATO.
Eastern Bloc: This comprised countries in Eastern Europe under the influence or direct control of
the Soviet Union, where communist governments were established.

The Iron Curtain was not a physical barrier but rather a metaphor for the strict control and isolation
imposed by the Soviet Union over its satellite states. It represented the separation of people,
economies, and political systems in Europe, and the lack of communication and cooperation between
the East and the West.
 The origins of the Cold War
How had the USSR gained control of Eastern Europe by 1948?
By 1948, the Soviet Union had gained control over Eastern Europe through a combination of military
occupation, political manipulation, and strategic alliances. The process was gradual and varied from
country to country but generally followed a pattern of consolidating communist influence and
eliminating opposition. Here’s how the USSR established its control:

1. Military Occupation:
Red Army Presence: At the end of World War II, the Soviet Red Army occupied much of Eastern
Europe, having pushed the Nazis out of these regions. The presence of Soviet troops gave the
USSR significant leverage in determining the political future of these countries.
Liberation Turned Occupation: While the Red Army was initially welcomed as a liberator from
Nazi occupation, it quickly became clear that Soviet forces were there to stay. The military
presence allowed the Soviets to exert pressure on local governments and control key
infrastructure.

2. Installation of Pro-Soviet Governments:

Coalition Governments: In the immediate post-war years, the Soviet Union supported the
formation of coalition governments that included communists as well as other leftist and centrist
parties. However, the communists, with Soviet backing, gradually took control of key ministries
such as the interior and defense, which allowed them to dominate the political landscape.
Elections Manipulation: The Soviets manipulated elections to ensure communist victories. In
countries like Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, elections were held under conditions that
favored the communists, including voter intimidation, media control, and outright fraud.

3. Suppressing Opposition:
Purges and Repression: Once in power, the communists, often under Soviet guidance, purged
government institutions, the military, and the police of non-communist elements. Political
opponents were arrested, exiled, or executed. In some cases, entire political parties were banned
or forced to merge with the communists.
Show Trials and Intimidation: Prominent political opponents and those accused of being
"enemies of the people" were subjected to show trials. These trials were designed to eliminate
resistance and instill fear, ensuring that any potential opposition was crushed.

4. Creation of Soviet-Aligned Institutions:

Cominform (Communist Information Bureau): Established in 1947, the Cominform was an
organization that coordinated the activities of communist parties across Europe, ensuring they
adhered to Moscow's directives. It was a tool for spreading Soviet influence and maintaining
control over Eastern European communist parties.
Economic Integration: The Soviet Union integrated Eastern European economies into its own
economic system, largely through the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon),
established in 1949. This economic integration ensured that Eastern Europe was economically
dependent on the Soviet Union.
 The origins of the Cold War

5. Use of Propaganda and Ideology:

Promotion of Communism: The USSR promoted communism as the ideology of the future,
portraying it as the only system capable of rebuilding war-torn Europe and protecting it from the
perceived threats of capitalism and fascism. Soviet propaganda glorified the Soviet Union and
vilified Western powers.
Cultural Control: The Soviets promoted Soviet-style cultural policies, education, and media in
Eastern Europe. These efforts aimed to align public opinion with communist ideology and reduce
the influence of Western ideas.

6. International Context and the Cold War:

Yalta and Potsdam Agreements: At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the Allies had agreed
on spheres of influence, with Eastern Europe falling under Soviet control. This tacit agreement,
along with the onset of the Cold War, allowed the USSR to consolidate its hold on the region with
limited interference from the West.
Iron Curtain: As the Cold War began, the "Iron Curtain" descended across Europe, with the Soviet
Union ensuring that its control over Eastern Europe was unchallenged by the West. The Western
powers were initially more concerned with the reconstruction of Western Europe and
containment, rather than directly challenging Soviet domination in the East.

Country-Specific Examples:
Poland: The Soviet Union established a pro-communist government in Poland, gradually
sidelining and then eliminating the influence of the non-communist Polish government-in-exile.
Hungary: The communists, with Soviet backing, manipulated elections and conducted purges to
take control by 1947. By 1948, Hungary was firmly in the communist camp.
Czechoslovakia: The communists staged a coup in 1948, overthrowing the coalition government
and establishing a one-party state.
Romania and Bulgaria: Similar patterns of coalition governments, purges, and intimidation led to
the establishment of communist regimes by 1947.
By 1948, the Soviet Union had successfully established communist regimes across Eastern
Europe, effectively creating a bloc of Soviet-aligned states that would remain under Moscow's
control for the duration of the Cold War.
 The origins of the Cold War
How did the United States react to Soviet expansionism?
1. Containment Policy:
Concept of Containment: The primary strategy of the United States was "containment," a policy
aimed at preventing the further spread of communism beyond where it already existed. This
strategy was articulated by diplomat George F. Kennan in his 1946 "Long Telegram" and the
subsequent 1947 article in Foreign Affairs under the pseudonym "X." Kennan argued that the
Soviet Union's expansionist tendencies needed to be contained through a combination of
political, economic, and military measures.
Implementation: Containment became the guiding principle of U.S. foreign policy during the
Cold War. It was not about rolling back communism where it already existed but about
preventing its spread to new areas.

2. The Truman Doctrine (1947):

Doctrine Statement: President Harry S. Truman formally articulated the containment policy in
his Truman Doctrine speech on March 12, 1947. He declared that the United States would support
free peoples who were resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside
pressures, which was understood to mean communist movements backed by the Soviet Union.
Aid to Greece and Turkey: The immediate application of the Truman Doctrine was U.S. financial
and military aid to Greece and Turkey, where communist insurgencies and Soviet pressure
threatened to bring these nations into the Soviet sphere of influence. This aid was critical in
helping both countries resist communist takeover.

3. The Marshall Plan (1947):

Economic Recovery: Officially known as the European Recovery Program, the Marshall Plan was
a U.S. initiative to provide economic assistance to rebuild Western European economies after the
devastation of World War II. Secretary of State George C. Marshall announced the plan in June
1947.
Countering Soviet Influence: The Marshall Plan was designed to stabilize European economies
and prevent the spread of communism by promoting economic recovery and political stability.
The U.S. offered aid to all European countries, including those in Eastern Europe, but the Soviet
Union and its satellite states rejected the aid, seeing it as a tool of American influence.
Success: The Marshall Plan was highly successful in revitalizing Western European economies,
which helped to create a strong bloc of nations aligned with the United States and resistant to
Soviet influence.

4. Formation of NATO (1949):

Military Alliance: In response to the perceived threat of Soviet expansionism, the United States
led the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949. NATO was a
military alliance of Western nations committed to collective defense against aggression,
particularly from the Soviet Union.
Deterrence: NATO was intended to deter Soviet aggression by guaranteeing that an attack on
one member would be considered an attack on all, obliging all members to respond collectively.
This was a significant shift from the U.S. policy of isolationism before World War II.
 The origins of the Cold War
What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?
The Berlin Blockade (1948-1949) was a significant early crisis of the Cold War, where the Soviet Union
attempted to gain control over the entire city of Berlin by cutting off all land and water access to the
parts of the city controlled by the Western Allies. The U.S. and its allies responded with the Berlin
Airlift, a massive logistical operation to supply the isolated sectors of Berlin. Here’s a detailed
explanation of the events and their consequences:

The Berlin Blockade

Background:
After World War II, Germany was divided into four occupation zones controlled by the United States,
the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France. Berlin, although located deep within the Soviet
zone of Germany, was similarly divided into four sectors.
Tensions between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies (the U.S., the UK, and France) grew as the
Western powers sought to rebuild Germany's economy, particularly through the introduction of a
new currency, the Deutsche Mark, in the Western zones. The Soviets viewed this as a threat, fearing a
strong, economically revived West Germany that could oppose Soviet influence.

The Blockade Begins:

On June 24, 1948, in response to the currency reforms and other disagreements, the Soviet Union
initiated the Berlin Blockade. All road, rail, and canal access to West Berlin were cut off, effectively
isolating the city from the Western zones of Germany. The Soviets aimed to force the Western Allies
to abandon Berlin or renegotiate the terms of Germany’s future in a way that would favor Soviet
control.

The Berlin Airlift

U.S. and Allied Response:
Rather than withdrawing from Berlin or giving in to Soviet demands, the Western Allies, led by the
United States, decided to supply West Berlin by air. The Berlin Airlift, known as "Operation Vittles" in
the U.S. and "Operation Plainfare" in the UK, began on June 26, 1948.
Over the course of the airlift, American, British, and French aircraft flew around-the-clock missions to
deliver food, fuel, medicine, and other essential supplies to the more than 2 million residents of West
Berlin.

Logistics and Scale:

The operation was a massive logistical challenge. At its peak, planes were landing in West Berlin
every few minutes, delivering over 8,000 tons of supplies daily.
The airlift involved over 200,000 flights and lasted for almost a year. Despite harsh winter conditions
and Soviet harassment, the airlift was remarkably successful, maintaining the viability of West Berlin.

End of the Blockade:

The Soviet Union, realizing that the blockade was failing to achieve its objectives and that the airlift
had garnered significant international support for the Western Allies, lifted the blockade on May 12,
1949. The airlift continued until September 30, 1949, to build up reserves in case the Soviets
reimposed the blockade.
 The origins of the Cold War
Consequences of the Berlin Blockade:
Solidification of the East-West Divide: The Berlin Blockade and Airlift solidified the division of
Germany into East and West. The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was established
in May 1949, followed by the creation of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in
October 1949. Berlin itself remained a divided city and a focal point of Cold War tensions.
Formation of NATO: The blockade underscored the need for a unified defense strategy among
Western nations. In April 1949, just before the blockade ended, the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) was established as a military alliance committed to collective defense
against potential Soviet aggression. The Berlin crisis was a key factor in its formation.
Increased U.S.-Soviet Tensions: The blockade deepened the mistrust and animosity between
the United States and the Soviet Union, marking a significant escalation in the Cold War. It
demonstrated the lengths to which both sides were willing to go to defend their interests in
Europe.
Symbol of Western Resolve: The success of the Berlin Airlift became a powerful symbol of
Western resolve and the commitment of the United States and its allies to defending freedom
and democracy in the face of Soviet pressure. It boosted the morale of West Berliners and
reinforced the U.S.'s position as the leader of the free world.
Impact on Soviet Strategy: The failure of the blockade was a significant setback for the Soviet
Union. It demonstrated that the West could resist Soviet pressure without resorting to military
confrontation. The Soviets realized that future efforts to expand their influence in Europe would
have to be more subtle or would require control over Eastern Europe.
Long-term Impact on Berlin: The Berlin Blockade set the stage for Berlin’s ongoing role as a Cold
War flashpoint. The city would later be the site of another major crisis in 1961, when the Berlin
Wall was constructed to stop the exodus of East Germans to the West.