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Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science

Gerard O’Regan

Mathematics
in Computing
An Accessible Guide to Historical,
Foundational and Application Contexts
Second Edition
Undergraduate Topics in Computer
Science

Series Editor
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Gerard O’Regan

Mathematics
in Computing
An Accessible Guide to Historical,
Foundational and Application Contexts
Second Edition

123
Gerard O’Regan
SQC Consulting
Mallow, Cork, Ireland

ISSN 1863-7310 ISSN 2197-1781 (electronic)

Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
ISBN 978-3-030-34208-1 ISBN 978-3-030-34209-8 (eBook)
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To
My dear aunts Mrs. Rita Lowry and
Mrs. Kitty Butler
and
In memory of my late uncle Moses Fenton.
Preface

Overview

The objective of this book is to give the reader a flavour of mathematics used in the
computing field. We emphasize the applicability of mathematics rather than the
study of mathematics for its own sake, and the goal is that the reader will appreciate
the rich applications of mathematics to the computing field. This includes appli-
cations to the foundations of computing; to error detection and correcting codes
with finite field theory; to the field of cryptography with the results of number
theory; to the modelling of telecommunication networks with graph theory; to the
application of discrete mathematics and proof techniques to the software correct-
ness field (especially safety-critical systems using formal methods and model
checking); to language theory and semantics; and to computability and decidability.

Organization and Features

The first chapter introduces analog and digital computers, and the von Neumann
architecture which is the fundamental architecture underlying a digital computer.
Chapter 2 discusses the foundations of computing, and we describe the binary
number system and the step reckoner calculating machine that were invented by
Leibniz. Babbage designed the difference engine as a machine to evaluate poly-
nomials, and his analytic engine provided the vision of a modern computer. Boole
was an English mathematician who made important contributions to mathematics
and logic, and his symbolic logic is the foundation for digital computing.
Chapter 3 provides an introduction to fundamental building blocks in mathe-
matics including sets, relations and functions. A set is a collection of well-defined
objects and it may be finite or infinite. A relation between two sets A and B
indicates a relationship between members of the two sets and is a subset of the
Cartesian product of the two sets. A function is a special type of relation such that
for each element in A there is at most one element in the co-domain B. Functions
may be partial or total and injective, surjective or bijective.

vii
viii Preface

Chapter 4 presents a short introduction to algorithms, where an algorithm is a

well-defined procedure for solving a problem. It consists of a sequence of steps that
takes a set of values as input and produces a set of values as output. An algorithm is
an exact specification of how to solve the problem, and it explicitly defines the
procedure so that a computer program may implement the solution in some pro-
gramming language.
Chapter 5 presents the fundamentals of number theory and discusses prime
number theory and the greatest common divisor and least common multiple of two
numbers.
Chapter 6 discusses algebra and we discuss simple and simultaneous equations,
including the method of elimination and the method of substitution to solve
simultaneous equations. We show how quadratic equations may be solved by
factorization, completing the square or using the quadratic formula. We present the
laws of logarithms and indices. We discuss various structures in abstract algebra,
including monoids, groups, rings, integral domains, fields and vector spaces.
Chapter 7 discusses sequences and series and permutations and combinations.
Arithmetic and geometric sequences and series are discussed, and we discuss
applications of geometric sequences and series to the calculation of compound
interest and annuities.
Chapter 8 discusses mathematical induction and recursion. Induction is a com-
mon proof technique in mathematics, and there are two parts to a proof by induction
(the base case and the inductive step). We discuss strong and weak induction, and
we discuss how recursion is used to define sets, sequences and functions. This leads
us to structural induction, which is used to prove properties of recursively defined
structures.
Chapter 9 discusses graph theory where a graph G = (V, E) consists of vertices
and edges. It is a practical branch of mathematics that deals with the arrangements
of vertices and edges between them, and it has been applied to practical problems
such as the modelling of computer networks, determining the shortest driving route
between two cities and the travelling salesman problem.
Chapter 10 discusses cryptography, which is an important application of number
theory. The codebreaking work done at Bletchley Park in England during the
Second World War is discussed, and the fundamentals of cryptography, including
private- and public-key cryptosystems, are discussed.
Chapter 11 presents coding theory and is concerned with error detection and
error correction codes. The underlying mathematics includes abstract mathematics
such as group theory, rings, fields and vector spaces.
Chapter 12 discusses language theory and includes a discussion on grammars,
parse trees and derivations from a grammar. The important area of programming
language semantics is discussed, including axiomatic, denotational and operational
semantics.
Preface ix

Chapter 13 discusses computability and decidability. The Church–Turing thesis

states that anything that is computable is computable by a Turing machine. Church
and Turing showed that mathematics is not decidable. In other words, there is no
mechanical procedure (i.e. algorithm) to determine whether an arbitrary mathe-
matical proposition is true or false, and so the only way is to determine the truth or
falsity of a statement is try to solve the problem.
Chapter 14 discusses matrices including 2
2 and general n
m matrices.
Various operations such as the addition and multiplication of matrices are con-
sidered, and the determinant and inverse of a square matrix are discussed. The
application of matrices to solving a set of linear equations using Gaussian elimi-
nation is considered.
Chapter 15 presents a short history of logic, and we discuss Greek contributions
to syllogistic logic, stoic logic, fallacies and paradoxes. Boole’s symbolic logic and
its application to digital computing are discussed, and we consider Frege’s work on
predicate logic.
Chapter 16 provides an introduction to propositional and predicate logic.
Propositional logic may be used to encode simple arguments that are expressed in
natural language and to determine their validity. The nature of mathematical proof
is discussed, and we present proof by truth tables, semantic tableaux and natural
deduction. Predicate logic allows complex facts about the world to be represented,
and new facts may be determined via deductive reasoning. Predicate calculus
includes predicates, variables and quantifiers, and a predicate is a characteristic or
property that the subject of a statement can have.
Chapter 17 presents some advanced topics in logic including fuzzy logic, tem-
poral logic, intuitionistic logic, undefined values, theorem provers and the appli-
cations of logic to AI. Fuzzy logic is an extension of classical logic that acts as a
mathematical model for vagueness. Temporal logic is concerned with the expres-
sion of properties that have time dependencies, and it allows temporal properties
about the past, present and future to be expressed. Intuitionism was a controversial
theory on the foundations of mathematics based on a rejection of the law of the
excluded middle, and an insistence on constructive existence. We discuss three
approaches to deal with undefined values, including the logic of partial functions;
Dijkstra’s approach with his cand and cor operators; and Parnas’s approach which
preserves a classical two-valued logic.
Chapter 18 discusses the nature of proof and theorem proving, and we discuss
automated and interactive theorem provers. We discuss the nature of mathematical
proof and formal mathematical proof. Chapter 19 discusses software engineering
and the mathematics to support software engineering.
Chapter 20 discusses software reliability and dependability, and covers topics
such as software reliability and software reliability models; the Cleanroom
methodology, system availability, safety and security-critical systems; and
dependability engineering.
Chapter 21 discusses formal methods, which consist of a set of mathematical
techniques to rigorously specify and derive a program from its specification. Formal
methods may be employed to rigorously state the requirements of the proposed
x Preface

system; they may be employed to derive a program from its mathematical speci-
fication; and they may provide a rigorous proof that the implemented program
satisfies its specification. They have been mainly applied to the safety-critical field.
Chapter 22 presents the Z specification language, which is one of the most
widely used formal methods. It was developed at Oxford University in the U.K.
Chapter 23 discusses automata theory, including finite-state machines, push-
down automata and Turing machines. Finite-state machines are abstract machines
that are in only one state at a time, and the input symbol causes a transition from the
current state to the next state. Pushdown automata have greater computational
power, and they contain extra memory in the form of a stack from which symbols
may be pushed or popped. The Turing machine is the most powerful model for
computation, and this theoretical machine is equivalent to an actual computer in the
sense that it can compute exactly the same set of functions.
Chapter 24 discusses model checking which is an automated technique such that
given a finite-state model of a system and a formal property, then it systematically
checks whether the property is true or false in a given state in the model. It is an
effective technique to identify potential design errors, and it increases the confi-
dence in the correctness of the system design.
Chapter 25 discusses probability and statistics and includes a discussion on
discrete and continuous random variables, probability distributions, sample spaces,
sampling, the abuse of statistics, variance and standard deviation and hypothesis
testing. The application of probability to the software reliability field is discussed.
Chapter 26 discusses complex numbers and quaternions. Complex numbers are
of the form a + bi where a and b are real numbers, and i2 = −1. Quaternions are a
generalization of complex numbers to quadruples that satisfy the quaternion for-
mula i2 = j2 = k2 = −1.
Chapter 27 provides a very short introduction to calculus and provides a
high-level overview of limits, continuity, differentiation, integration, numerical
analysis, Fourier series, Laplace transforms and differential equations.
Chapter 28 is the concluding chapter in which we summarize the journey that we
have travelled in this book.

Audience

The audience of this book includes computer science students who wish to obtain
an overview of mathematics used in computing, and mathematicians who wish to
get an overview of how mathematics is applied in the computing field. The book
will also be of interest to the motivated general reader.
Preface xi

Acknowledgements

I am deeply indebted to friends and family who supported my efforts in this

endeavour. My thanks to the team at Springer for suggesting this new edition and
for their professional work. A special thanks to my aunts (Mrs. Rita Lowry and
Mrs. Kitty Butler) who are always a pleasure to visit in Co.Tipperary and Co.Cork,
and who have clearly shown that it is possible to be over 90 and yet to have the
energy and sense of fun of teenagers.

Cork, Ireland Gerard O’Regan

Contents

1 What Is a Computer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Analog Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Digital Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Vacuum Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Integrated Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.4 Microprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 von Neumann Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Hardware and Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Foundations of Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Step Reckoner Calculating Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 The Difference Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 The Analytic Engine—Vision of a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.1 Applications of Analytic Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 Boole’s Symbolic Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.1 Switching Circuits and Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7 Application of Symbolic Logic to Digital Computing . . . . . . . 27
2.8 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Overview of Mathematics in Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.1 Set-Theoretical Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.2 Properties of Set-Theoretical Operations . . . . . . . . . . . 37

xiii
xiv Contents

3.2.3 Russell’s Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.2.4 Computer Representation of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.1 Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive Relations . . . . . . 42
3.3.2 Composition of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.3 Binary Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.4 Applications of Relations to Databases . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5 Application of Functions to Functional Programming . . . . . . . 53
3.5.1 Miranda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6 Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7 Automata Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.8 Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.9 Computability and Decidability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.10 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4 Introduction to Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 Early Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.1 Greatest Common Divisors (GCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2.2 Euclid’s Greatest Common Divisor Algorithm . . . . . . 63
4.2.3 Sieve of Eratosthenes Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2.4 Early Cipher Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3 Sorting Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 Binary Trees and Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5 Modern Cryptographic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.6 Computational Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5 Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2 Elementary Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3 Prime Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3.1 Greatest Common Divisors (GCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3.2 Least Common Multiple (LCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.3.3 Euclid’s Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.3.4 Distribution of Primes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4 Theory of Congruences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5 Binary System and Computer Representation of Numbers . . . . 95
5.6 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Contents xv

5.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6 Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2 Simple and Simultaneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.4 Indices and Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.5 Horner’s Method for Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.6 Abstract Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.6.1 Monoids and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.6.2 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.6.3 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.6.4 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7 Sequences, Series and Permutations and Combinations . . . . . . . . . 117
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2 Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3 Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.4 Arithmetic and Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.5 Simple and Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.6 Time Value of Money and Annuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.7 Permutations and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.8 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8 Mathematical Induction and Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2 Strong Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.3 Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.4 Structural Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.5 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9 Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.2 Undirected Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.2.1 Hamiltonian Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.3 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.3.1 Binary Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.4 Graph Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.5 Graph Colouring and Four-Colour Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
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9.6 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

9.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10 Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.2 Breaking the Enigma Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.3 Cryptographic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
10.4 Symmetric-Key Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.5 Public-Key Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
10.5.1 RSA Public-Key Cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.5.2 Digital Signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.6 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11 Coding Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.2 Mathematical Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
11.3 Simple Channel Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.4 Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.4.1 Error Detection and Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.5 Linear Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
11.5.1 Parity Check Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11.5.2 Binary Hamming Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11.5.3 Binary Parity Check Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.6 Miscellaneous Codes in Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
12 Language Theory and Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
12.2 Alphabets and Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
12.3 Grammars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.3.1 Backus–Naur Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
12.3.2 Parse Trees and Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.4 Programming Language Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.4.1 Axiomatic Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.4.2 Operational Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.4.3 Denotational Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12.5 Lambda Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.6 Lattices and Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
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12.6.1 Partially Ordered Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

12.6.2 Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12.6.3 Complete Partial Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
12.6.4 Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
12.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
12.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
13 Computability and Decidability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
13.2 Logicism and Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
13.3 Decidability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
13.4 Computability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
13.5 Computational Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
13.6 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
13.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
14 Matrix Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
14.2 Two
Two Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14.3 Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
14.4 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
14.5 Eigenvectors and Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
14.6 Gaussian Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
14.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
14.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
15 A Short History of Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.2 Syllogistic Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15.3 Paradoxes and Fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
15.4 Stoic Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
15.5 Boole’s Symbolic Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
15.5.1 Switching Circuits and Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . 242
15.6 Frege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
15.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
15.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
16 Propositional and Predicate Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
16.2 Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
16.2.1 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
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16.2.2 Properties of Propositional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

16.2.3 Proof in Propositional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
16.2.4 Semantic Tableaux in Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . 256
16.2.5 Natural Deduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
16.2.6 Sketch of Formalization of Propositional
Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
16.2.7 Applications of Propositional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
16.2.8 Limitations of Propositional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
16.3 Predicate Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
16.3.1 Sketch of Formalization of Predicate Calculus . . . . . . 265
16.3.2 Interpretation and Valuation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
16.3.3 Properties of Predicate Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
16.3.4 Applications of Predicate Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
16.3.5 Semantic Tableaux in Predicate Calculus . . . . . . . . . . 269
16.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
16.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
17 Advanced Topics in Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
17.2 Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
17.3 Temporal Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
17.4 Intuitionistic Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
17.5 Undefined Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
17.5.1 Logic of Partial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
17.5.2 Parnas Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
17.5.3 Dijkstra and Undefinedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
17.6 Logic and AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
17.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
17.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
18 The Nature of Theorem Proving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
18.2 Early Automation of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
18.3 Interactive Theorem Provers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
18.4 A Selection of Theorem Provers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
18.5 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
18.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Contents xix

19 Software Engineering Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
19.2 What Is Software Engineering? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
19.3 Early Software Engineering Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
19.4 Mathematics in Software Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
19.5 Software Inspections and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
19.6 Process Maturity Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
19.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
19.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
20 Software Reliability and Dependability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
20.2 Software Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
20.2.1 Software Reliability and Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
20.2.2 Cleanroom Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
20.2.3 Software Reliability Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
20.3 Dependability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
20.4 Computer Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
20.5 System Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
20.6 Safety-Critical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
20.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
20.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
21 Overview of Formal Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
21.2 Why Should We Use Formal Methods? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
21.3 Industrial Applications of Formal Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
21.4 Industrial Tools for Formal Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
21.5 Approaches to Formal Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
21.5.1 Model-Oriented Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
21.5.2 Axiomatic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
21.6 Proof and Formal Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
21.7 Mathematics in Software Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
21.8 The Vienna Development Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
21.9 VDM♣, the Irish School of VDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
21.10 The Z Specification Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
21.11 The B-Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
21.12 Predicate Transformers and Weakest Preconditions . . . . . . . . . 347
21.13 The Process Calculi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
21.14 Finite-State Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
21.15 The Parnas Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
21.16 Model Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
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21.17 Usability of Formal Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

21.18 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
21.19 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
22 Z Formal Specification Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
22.2 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
22.3 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
22.4 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
22.5 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
22.6 Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
22.7 Schemas and Schema Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
22.8 Reification and Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
22.9 Proof in Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
22.10 Industrial Applications of Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
22.11 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
22.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
23 Automata Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
23.2 Finite-State Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
23.3 Pushdown Automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
23.4 Turing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
23.5 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
23.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
24 Model Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
24.2 Modelling Concurrent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
24.3 Linear Temporal Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
24.4 Computational Tree Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
24.5 Tools for Model Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
24.6 Industrial Applications of Model Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
24.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
24.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
25 Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
25.2 Probability Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
25.2.1 Laws of Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
25.2.2 Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Contents xxi

25.3 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

25.3.1 Abuse of Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
25.3.2 Statistical Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
25.3.3 Averages in a Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
25.3.4 Variance and Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
25.3.5 Bell-Shaped (Normal) Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
25.3.6 Frequency Tables, Histograms and Pie Charts . . . . . . 406
25.3.7 Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
25.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
25.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
26 Complex Numbers and Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
26.2 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
26.3 Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
26.3.1 Quaternion Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
26.3.2 Quaternions and Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
26.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
26.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
27 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
27.2 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
27.2.1 Rules of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
27.3 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
27.3.1 Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
27.3.2 Fundamental Theorems of Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . 437
27.4 Numerical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
27.5 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
27.6 The Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
27.7 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
27.8 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
27.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
28 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Vannevar Bush with the differential analyser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Fig. 1.2 Replica of transistor. Public domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 1.3 von Neumann architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 1.4 Fetch/execute cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 2.1 Replica of step reckoner at Technische Sammlungen
Museum, Dresden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 2.2 Decimal to binary conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 2.3 Charles Babbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 2.4 Difference engine no. 2. Photo public domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 2.5 Lady Ada Lovelace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 2.6 George Boole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 2.7 Binary AND operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 2.8 Binary OR operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 2.9 NOT operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 2.10 Half adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 2.11 Claude Shannon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 3.1 Bertrand Russell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 3.2 Reflexive relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 3.3 Symmetric relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 3.4 Transitive relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 3.5 Partitions of A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 3.6 Composition of relations S o R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fig. 3.7 Edgar Codd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig. 3.8 PART relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig. 3.9 Domain and range of a partial function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Fig. 3.10 Injective and surjective functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 3.11 Bijective function (one to one and onto) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 4.1 Euclid of Alexandria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 4.2 Primes between 1 and 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig. 4.3 Caesar Cipher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fig. 4.4 Insertion sort example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 4.5 Merge sort example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig. 4.6 Sorted binary tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 5.1 Pierre de Fermat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

xxiii
xxiv List of Figures

Fig. 5.2 Pythagorean triples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Fig. 5.3 Square numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 5.4 Rectangular numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 5.5 Triangular numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 5.6 Marin Mersenne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 5.7 Leonard Euler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fig. 6.1 Graphical solution to simultaneous equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 6.2 Graphical solution to quadratic equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 9.1 Königsberg seven bridges problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 9.2 Königsberg graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 9.3 Undirected graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 9.4 Directed graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 9.5 Adjacency matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 9.6 Incidence matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 9.7 Travelling salesman problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 9.8 Binary tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 9.9 Determining the chromatic colour of G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 9.10 Chromatic colouring of G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Fig. 10.1 The Enigma machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig. 10.2 Bletchley Park. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 10.3 Alan Turing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Fig. 10.4 Replica of Bombe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Fig. 10.5 Symmetric-key cryptosystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Fig. 10.6 Public-key cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 11.1 Basic digital communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 11.2 Encoding and decoding of an (n,k) block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Fig. 11.3 Error-correcting capability sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. 11.4 Generator matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Fig. 11.5 Generation of codewords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Fig. 11.6 Identity matrix (k
k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 11.7 Hamming code B (7, 4, 3) generator matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fig. 12.1 Noam Chomsky. public domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fig. 12.2 Parse tree 5
3 + 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 12.3 Parse tree 5
3 + 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 12.4 Denotational semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fig. 12.5 Pictorial representation of a partial order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Fig. 12.6 Pictorial representation of a complete lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Fig. 13.1 David Hilbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Fig. 13.2 Kurt Gödel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Fig. 13.3 Alonzo Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Fig. 14.1 Example of a 4
4 square matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Fig. 14.2 Multiplication of two matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Fig. 14.3 Identity matrix In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Fig. 14.4 Transpose of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
List of Figures xxv

Fig. 14.5 Determining the (i, j) minor of A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Fig. 15.1 Zeno of Citium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Fig. 15.2 Gottlob Frege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Fig. 16.1 Gerhard Gentzen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Fig. 17.1 Conjunction and disjunction operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 17.2 Implication and equivalence operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 17.3 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 17.4 Finding index in array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Fig. 17.5 Edsger Dijkstra. Courtesy of Brian Randell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Fig. 17.6 John McCarthy. Courtesy of John McCarthy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Fig. 18.1 Idea of automated theorem proving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Fig. 19.1 David Parnas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Fig. 19.2 Waterfall lifecycle model (V-model) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Fig. 19.3 SPIRAL lifecycle model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Fig. 19.4 Standish group report—estimation accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Fig. 19.5 Robert Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Fig. 19.6 Branch assertions in flowcharts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Fig. 19.7 Assignment assertions in flowcharts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Fig. 19.8 C. A. R. Hoare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Fig. 19.9 Watts Humphrey. Courtesy of Watts Humphrey . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fig. 21.1 Deterministic finite-state machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Fig. 22.1 Specification of positive square root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Fig. 22.2 Specification of a library system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Fig. 22.3 Specification of borrow operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Fig. 22.4 Specification of vending machine using bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Fig. 22.5 Schema inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Fig. 22.6 Merging schemas (S1 _ S2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Fig. 22.7 Schema composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Fig. 22.8 Refinement commuting diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Fig. 23.1 Finite-state machine with output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Fig. 23.2 Deterministic FSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Fig. 23.3 Non-deterministic finite-state machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Fig. 23.4 Components of pushdown automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Fig. 23.5 Transition in pushdown automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Fig. 23.6 Transition function for pushdown automata M . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Fig. 23.7 Turing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Fig. 23.8 Transition on Turing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Fig. 24.1 Concept of model checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Fig. 24.2 Model checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Fig. 24.3 Simple transition system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Fig. 24.4 LTL operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Fig. 25.1 Carl Friedrich Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Fig. 25.2 Standard unit normal bell curve (Gaussian distribution) . . . . . . 404
Fig. 25.3 Histogram test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
xxvi List of Figures

Fig. 25.4 Pie chart test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Fig. 26.1 Argand diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Fig. 26.2 Interpretation of complex conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Fig. 26.3 Interpretation of Euler’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Fig. 26.4 William Rowan Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Fig. 26.5 Plaque at Broom’s Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Fig. 26.6 Quaternions and rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Fig. 27.1 Limit of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Fig. 27.2 Derivative as a tangent to curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Fig. 27.3 Interpretation of mean value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Fig. 27.4 Interpretation of intermediate value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Fig. 27.5 Isaac newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Fig. 27.6 Wilhelm Gottfried Leibniz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Fig. 27.7 Local minima and maxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Fig. 27.8 Area under the curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Fig. 27.9 Area under the curve—lower sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Fig. 27.10 Bisection method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
What Is a Computer?
1

Key Topics
Analog computers
Digital computers
Vacuum tubes
Transistors
Integrated circuits
von Neumann architecture
Generation of computers
Hardware
Software

1.1 Introduction

It is difficult to think of western society today without modern technology. We have

witnessed in recent decades a proliferation of high-tech computers, mobile phones,
text messaging, the Internet, the World Wide Web and social media. Software is
pervasive, and it is an integral part of automobiles, airplanes, televisions and mobile
communication. The pace of change is relentless, and communication today is
instantaneous with technologies such as Skype, Twitter and WhatsApp.
Today, people may book flights over the World Wide Web as well as keeping in
contact with friends and family members around the world. In previous generations,
communication involved writing letters that often took months to reach the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

G. O’Regan, Mathematics in Computing, Undergraduate Topics
in Computer Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34209-8_1
2 1 What Is a Computer?

recipient. However, today’s technology has transformed the modern world into a
global village, and the modern citizen may make video calls over the Internet or
post pictures and videos on social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter. The
World Wide Web allows business to compete in a global market.
A computer is a programmable electronic device that can process, store and
retrieve data. It processes data according to a set of instructions or program. All
computers consist of two basic parts, namely, hardware and software. The hard-
ware is the physical part of the machine, and the components of a digital computer
include memory for short-term storage of data or instructions; an arithmetic/logic
unit for carrying out arithmetic and logical operations; a control unit responsible for
the execution of computer instructions in memory; and peripherals that handle the
input and output operations. Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer
what to do.
The original meaning of the word ‘computer’ referred to someone who carried
out calculations rather than an actual machine. The early digital computers built in
the 1940s and 1950s were enormous machines consisting of thousands of vacuum
tubes. They typically filled a large room but their computational power was a
fraction of the personal computers and mobile devices used today.
There are two distinct families of computing devices, namely, digital computers
and the historical analog computer. The earliest computers were analog not digital,
and these two types of computer operate on quite different principles.
The computation in a digital computer is based on binary digits, i.e. ‘0’ and ‘1’.
Electronic circuits are used to represent binary numbers, with the state of an
electrical switch (i.e. ‘on’ or ‘off’) representing a binary digit internally within a
computer.
A digital computer is a sequential device that generally operates on data one step
at a time, and the earliest digital computers were developed in the 1940s. The data
are represented in binary format, and a single transistor (initially bulky vacuum
tubes) is used to represent a binary digit. Several transistors are required to store
larger numbers.
An analog computer operates in a completely different way to a digital com-
puter. The representation of data in an analog computer reflects the properties of the
data that are being modelled. For example, data and numbers may be represented by
physical quantities such as electric voltage, whereas a stream of binary digits is used
to represent them in a digital computer.

1.2 Analog Computers

James Thompson (who was the brother of the physicist Lord Kelvin) did early
foundational work on analog computation in the nineteenth century. He invented a
wheel-and-disc integrator, which was used in mechanical analog devices, and he
worked with Kelvin to construct a device to perform the integration of a product of
two functions. Kelvin later described a general-purpose analog machine (he did not
1.2 Analog Computers 3

build it) for integrating linear differential equations. He built a tide predicting
analog computer that remained in use at the Port of Liverpool up to the 1960s.
The operations in an analog computer are performed in parallel, and they are
useful in simulating dynamic systems. They have been applied to flight simulation,
nuclear power plants and industrial chemical processes.
Vannevar Bush developed the first large-scale general-purpose mechanical
analog computer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Bush’s differential
analyser (Fig. 1.1) was a mechanical analog computer designed to solve sixth-order
differential equations by integration, using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform
the integration. The mechanization allowed integration and differential equations
problems to be solved more rapidly. The machine took up the space of a large table
in a room and weighed about 100 tonnes.
It contained wheels, discs, shafts and gears to perform the calculations. It
required a considerable setup time by technicians to solve an equation. It contained
150 motors and miles of wires connecting relays and vacuum tubes.
Data representation in an analog computer is compact, but it may be subject to
corruption with noise. A single capacitor can represent one continuous variable in
an analog computer. Analog computers were replaced by digital computers shortly
after the Second World War.

Fig. 1.1 Vannevar Bush with the differential analyser

4 1 What Is a Computer?

1.3 Digital Computers

Early digital computers used vacuum tubes to store binary information, and a
vacuum tube may represent the binary value ‘0’ or ‘1’. These tubes were large and
bulky and generated a significant amount of heat. Air conditioning was required to
cool the machine, and there were problems with the reliability of the tubes.
Shockley and others invented the transistor in the late 1940s, and it replaced
vacuum tubes from the late 1950s onwards. Transistors are small and consume very
little power, and the resulting machines were smaller, faster and more reliable.
Integrated circuits were introduced in the early 1960s, and a massive amount of
computational power could now be placed on a very small chip. Integrated circuits
are small and consume very little power, and may be mass-produced to a very
high-quality standard. However, integrated circuits are difficult to modify or repair,
and are nearly always replaced on failure.
The fundamental architecture of a computer has remained basically the same
since von Neumann and others proposed it in the mid-1940s. It includes a central
processing unit which includes the control unit and the arithmetic unit, an input and
output unit, and memory.

1.3.1 Vacuum Tubes

A vacuum tube is a device that relies on the flow of an electric current through a
vacuum. Vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were widely used in electronic devices
such as televisions, radios and computers until the invention of the transistor.
The basic idea of a vacuum tube is that the current passes through the filament,
which then heats it up so that it gives off electrons. The electrons are negatively
charged and are attracted to the small positive plate (or anode) within the tube.
A unidirectional flow is thus established between the filament and the plate. Tho-
mas Edison had observed this while investigating the reason for breakage of lamp
filaments. He noted an uneven blackening (darkest near one terminal of the fila-
ment) of the bulbs in his incandescent lamps and noted that current flows from the
lamp’s filament and a plate within the vacuum.
The first generation of computers used several thousand bulky vacuum tubes,
with several racks of vacuum tubes taking up the space of a large room. The
vacuum tube used in the early computers was a three-terminal device, and it con-
sisted of a cathode, a grid and a plate. It was used to represent one of two binary
states, i.e. the binary value ‘0’ or ‘1’.
The filament of a vacuum tube becomes unstable over time. In addition, if air
leaks into the tube then oxygen will react with the hot filament and damage it. The
size and unreliability of vacuum tubes motivated research into more compact and
reliable technologies. This led to the invention of the transistor in the late 1940s.
The first generation of digital computers all used vacuum tubes, e.g. the
Atanasoff–Berry computer (ABC) developed at the University of Iowa in 1942;
1.3 Digital Computers 5

Colossus developed at Bletchley Park, England in 1944; and ENIAC developed in

the United States in the mid-1940s.

1.3.2 Transistors

The transistor is a fundamental building block in modern electronic systems, and its
invention revolutionized the field of electronics. It was smaller, cheaper and more
reliable than the existing vacuum tubes.
The transistor is a three-terminal, solid-state electronic device. It can control
electric current or voltage between two of the terminals by applying an electric
current or voltage to the third terminal. The three-terminal transistor enables an
electric switch to be made which can be controlled by another electrical switch.
Complicated logic circuits may be built up by cascading these switches (switches
that control switches that control switches, and so on.).
These logic circuits may be built very compactly on a silicon chip with a density
of over a million transistors per square centimetre. The switches may be turned on
and off very rapidly (e.g. every 0.000000001 s). These electronic chips are at the
heart of modern electronic devices.
The transistor (Fig. 1.2) was developed at Bell Labs after the Second World
War. The goal of the research was to find a solid-state alternative to vacuum tubes,
as this technology was too bulky and unreliable. Three Bell Labs inventors
(Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain) were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956
in recognition of their invention of the transistor.
William Shockley was involved in radar research and anti-submarine operations
research during the Second World War, and after the war he led the Bell Labs
research group (that included Bardeen and Brattain) that aimed to find a solid-state
alternative to the glass-based vacuum tubes.
Bardeen and Brattain succeeded in creating a point-contact transistor in 1947
independently of Shockley who was working on a junction-based transistor.
Shockley believed that the points contact transistor would not be commercially
viable, and his junction point transistor was announced in 1951.
Shockley formed Shockley Semiconductor Inc. (part of Beckman Instruments)
in 1955. The second generation of computers used transistors instead of vacuum
tubes. The University of Manchester’s experimental Transistor Computer was one
of the earliest transistor computers. The prototype machine appeared in 1953, and
the full-size version was commissioned in 1955. The invention of the transistor is
discussed in more detail in (O’Regan 2018).

1.3.3 Integrated Circuits

Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments invented the integrated circuit in 1958. His
invention used a wafer of germanium, and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semicon-
ductors did subsequent work on silicon-based integrated circuits. The integrated
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
names Bel and Hadad figure here, however; but this may be a late borrowing from their Aramæan
neighbours. From northern Hedjaz we have a considerable number of inscriptions and graffiti, copies of
which are still to be regarded with caution, and there, too, the names Bel, Hadad and compounds of the
Babylonian Nabu, are found in the list of names of the nomads.
More interesting is the ancient name of Mecca, Macoraba, which originally designated the celebrated
central sanctuary of the region. This name is derived front the verb karaba, which in Babylonian means
“worship, bless, pray”, in evident proof of an ancient borrowing from the idiom of the cuneiform texts.
We shall know some day what the inscriptions of middle and southern Hedjaz contain in the way of
theophorous names. These inscriptions certainly exist, and await a traveller courageous enough to save
them from total destruction at the stupid hands of the pilgrims. The famous black stone of Kaaba seems
to bear an inscription of which it would be well to have a photograph.
We know still less what is reserved for us in the graffiti scattered in the intermediate region between
Hedjaz and Yemen; the graphic chain cannot have been interrupted in this latitude, which from great
antiquity formed the entrance to the highly civilised kingdom of Sheba, and which, owing to its
production of aromatic essences, had commercial relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean.
Yemen was composed of four kingdoms, of which that of Sheba seems to have been the most ancient
and most powerful; the other three are Catabania, Hadramaut, Mahrah or Tafat. Of the latter we have
no indigenous information prior to Islamism, and there is reason to believe that it formed a vassal state
of Hadramaut. The latter is pre-eminently the spice-producing region, and Catabania may be considered
as an ancient colony of Hadramaut, which was founded on the northern route for a commercial
purpose, and later gained its independence.
In its turn Catabania founded, again, on the northern route, another colony, which, on gaining its
freedom, called itself the Minyæan people, after the principal city, Ma’in. The Minyæi left traces of their
activity at Egra on the frontier of Nabatia, and in central Egypt at Oxyrhyncus, where they had a
settlement at the time of the first Ptolemies; but their presence in Egypt in the Persian period is proved
by a votive inscription, thanking their gods for having saved their caravan from the danger by which it
had been threatened during the war between the Egyptians and the Medes, i.e., the Persians. From
Egypt they sent their caravans to Gaza in Phœnicia and into all Syria.
Prior to this the trade in incense and spices seems to have been in the hands of the Sabæans.
Solomon (about the year 1000 b.c.) sought to make a treaty with this people, whose queen had made
him an official visit at Jerusalem. It is to be presumed that the Sabæans also sent caravans directly to
Nineveh and Babylon by way of the oases of Negran, Wady Dawassir, and Gebel-Sammar. Owing to
these almost uninterrupted visits, the peoples of southern Arabia were in a position to learn and
practise customs and rites peculiar to the eastern Semites; for example, the employment of aromatic
fumigation as a means of purification after sexual intercourse. The Sabæan pantheon contained El (the
Assyrio-Babylonian Ilu) under the guise of a divine personage, and not simply as an abstract term for
“god.” The Babylonian Ishtar, daughter of Sin, is transformed into a male divinity, Athtar, son of Sin. The
manifold diversification of the Babylonian goddess appears also in the Sabæan Athtar; the great
religious centres of Sheba each possess their own Athtar. Nabu, the Babylonian god of writing and
prophecy, was also worshipped by the Catabanians under the somewhat disguised form of Anbai. From
the point of view of art, the technique of sculpture and decoration often recalls the Babylonian style.
Finally, we meet in the kingdom of Sheba the Assyrian institution of the limmi, or annual archons, an
institution that existed also at Carthage, but nowhere else on the Asiatic continent, least of all in a
monarchical state.
We know very little of the religion of the Agazi or Semites of Abyssinia; a pre-Christian inscription
asserts, however, that the cult of El and of Astar (Astarte) flourished among them. Their pantheon
included also a god of war called Mahram, the equivalent of the Ninib or Adar of the Semites of the
north.
On the opposite side, at the extreme east of the Arabian peninsula, along the Persian gulf, the most
important agglomeration formed the kingdom of Gerrha. The Gerrhæans maintained commercial
relations with both Egypt and Chaldea. One of their cities bore the name of Bilbana, “Bil (Bel) has built,”
a certain indication that it had adopted the cult of the most popular Babylonian god. Facing this coast is
the Bahrein group of islands, the largest of which contains a number of tombs in which cuneiform
inscriptions in the Babylonian language have been found.
We have now made the round of the whole Semitic region, and everywhere we have been able to
show striking Babylonian influences in spite of the enormous distance in time and space that separates
the converging rays from their point of radiation. But before concluding, we must halt upon a particular
territory, a territory that forms but an imperceptible point in this vast region, but which in spite of its
material diminutiveness brought forth a nation that was destined to assume the glorious rôle of being
the legitimate heir of the great Babylonian ancestor, and of directing the conscience not only of the
Semitic race, but of the most civilised portion of the human race in general.
This nation, which chance seems to have thrown into the world without defence, in the midst of
hostile elements that were furious for its destruction, and whose name, Israel, exactly symbolises the
unremitting struggle against the terribly destructive powers that surround it, this nation, I say, had the
strength to transform the splendid polytheistic heritage that had fallen to it from Babylon into a
monotheistic theory of an astounding originality. The transformation of the antique legacy took place
only after centuries of struggle between the best part of the nation, the party of the prophets, and the
conservatism of the mass of the people, who were everywhere attached to the ancient traditions.
The writings of this monotheistic minority, which finally imposed itself upon the entire nation, enable
us to appreciate the importance of the ancient elements, the dross of which was rejected in the refining
process of the prophets. Genesis has preserved two great and very characteristic Babylonian epics,—the
Creation, and the Deluge,—but how different in spirit, in spite of the close similarity in outline and
external form.
In the Babylonian cosmogony, chaos, incarnate in the female dragon Tiamat, the primordial ocean,
brings forth at the same time the gods and the most horrible, malevolent monsters. Having learned that
the gods wish to build themselves a more commodious residence in her domain, she gathers her forces,
furiously attacks the clan of gods, and puts them to flight. They unite again and choose as their
champion Marduk, the son of Yan, who succeeds in vanquishing the terrible ancestress. Marduk cuts the
body of Tiamat into two pieces, and of them he constructs heaven and earth. Then he proceeds to
make the heavenly bodies, and arranges them in an immutable order; he stocks the earth with plants
and animals, and has man made by the goddess Arura, who fashions him out of the dust of the earth.
This myth, splendid as an epic invention, is too rude to contain the least philosophical principle. The
Hebrew thinker, while retaining the general outline, has eliminated the whole crowd of monstrous or
ugly divinities unworthy to receive the homage of the human race. The picture has lost nothing in
extent; but a single, all-powerful god first creates chaotic matter, and then organises it, step by step, for
the sole benefit of the human race. The cycle of the ten antediluvian patriarchs, which includes millions
of years, is reduced to sixteen hundred years, and thus brought within the range of actual humanity.
Finally, the deluge, in the primitive legend the result of the mad arrogance of the god Bel, is justified by
the extraordinary corruption of the men of that epoch.
Like a true reformer the prophetic narrator has raised upon the Babylonian basis a new system whose
rational and moral side need not fear comparison with any other religious doctrine of humanity. Among
the Greeks, no religious or social reform could be developed and preserved that took for a basis their
castes of irresponsible gods. Egypt perished without having attempted to rise from its coarse animal-
worship. Babylonianism alone, by its hymns and its epics, still lives to-day as an important factor in
universal religion, although under a form idealised by genius. Materially, Babylon is but a memory, but a
delicate part of its atoms passed into the vigorous constitution of its spiritual heir, the sacred book of
Hebrew monotheism, to become the common property of humanity.
MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY IN OUTLINE

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY COMPRISING A

CURSORY VIEW OF THE SOURCES OF
MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY AND OF THE
SWEEP OF EVENTS, AND A TABLE OF
CHRONOLOGY
 The Babylonians and Assyrians were two very important peoples
of remote antiquity, inhabiting the region of the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers in southwestern Asia. The Greeks regarded these peoples as
constituting one nation and called their country Mesopotamia, a
name that could properly be applied to only a part of their territory.
The Babylonians and Assyrians, themselves, on the other hand,
regarded each other as alien peoples, though both belonged to the
same Semitic stock. The Babylonians were the more ancient, and
their territory lay to the south, where, many scholars believe, they
had been preceded by a people of a different race.
Though the seat of this early civilisation is geographically small in
extent, yet the peoples who entered into it were by no means
homogeneous, nor was their history a continuous record of
unbroken political succession. On the contrary, at least two different
races of people were involved,—a Turanian stock in the early
Babylonian history, a Semitic stock in all the later periods,—and at
least three successive kingdoms or empires, not to speak of mere
changes of dynasty. The earliest period known to us—that which left
records at Nippur and Shirpurla, in old Babylonia—had its seat in the
southern portion of the territory bordering on the sea; thence,
seemingly, civilisation spread northward. Assyriologists are not fully
agreed as to the share which the non-Semitic race had in this early
civilisation. It has even been questioned whether these so-called
Sumerians really existed at all.[15] In any event the Semitic
Babylonians acquired full control at a very early period.
The Assyrian kingdom—which came to be a veritable world-empire
—had its seat at Calah and afterwards at Nineveh. It conquered and
absorbed the old Babylonian kingdom, and then reached out for
domination to the east and to the west, finally overrunning even
Egypt.
The Bible accounts preserve records of some of its most famous
kings, including Sennacherib. The Greek legends are chiefly
concerned with a mythical Semiramis, the alleged founder of
Nineveh, and with a seemingly mythical Sardanapalus, who perished
after an inglorious reign, in the destruction of Nineveh, which came
about suddenly and dramatically in the year 606 b.c.—the
Sardanapalus myth being, however, based on an actuality.
After the destruction of Nineveh, Babylon, the capital of Babylonia,
resumed renewed importance as a world metropolis.
Nebuchadrezzar, the most famous king of this period, besieged
Jerusalem and carried the Israelites to his capital (the Babylonian
capital). The classical accounts preserve reminiscences of the
magnificence of Babylon in this period. The course of the New
Babylonian empire, though brilliant, was brief, ending with the
overthrow of Babylon by the Persians under Cyrus in the year 538
b.c. Babylon was not, like Nineveh, totally destroyed; but it never
regained autonomy or anything approaching its former importance.
It was one of the Persian capitals for two centuries, until in 331 b.c.,
with the downfall of the Persian empire, it passed into the hands of
Alexander the Great, who, after his eastern conquests, chose it as
the capital of his newly acquired empire. But Alexander died in his
new capital almost immediately, and his death was the last great
world-historic event that occurred in Mesopotamia. In the course of
a few centuries thereafter, the whole region that for so many years
had been the very heart of the world’s civilisation, became a barren
wilderness, and Babylon itself, like Nineveh before it, was reduced to
a mere earth-covered mound of ruins, the very location of which was
practically forgotten.
Such a fate was tragic enough; yet after all it seems less cruel
than the destiny of such nations as Egypt, and in later time, Greece,
which live on in senescence long after all vestige of their power has
departed. And in any event, Mesopotamia had had its full share of
glory, for no other region of the globe, within historic times, with the
possible exception of Egypt alone, has so long held rank as a centre
of influence and civilisation. If the earlier walls of the Temple of Bel
(Baal) at Nippur really date from 6000 or 7000 years b.c. as the
records seem to prove, there was a continuous, powerful empire in
Mesopotamia for at least five or six thousand years. The civilisations
of Greece, of Rome, or of any modern state, seem mere mushroom
growths in comparison.
In studying the history of Egypt we have caught occasional
glimpses of this oldest Asiatic civilisation of Babylonia and Assyria,
and it is almost impossible to avoid drawing comparisons between
these two countries, so closely related are the two peoples in the
minds of all students. It is true that the ethnological types are quite
different, and that the two peoples, during the greater part of their
existence, did not mingle much with one another. Often they were at
war, and it is traditional that for the most part the Egyptians repelled
rather than invited any advances from their Asiatic neighbours.
Nevertheless, their own interests dictated a commercial policy that
led first and last to an extensive intermingling between all the
contemporary civilisations of western Asiatic antiquity, and there are
abundant evidences that the same influence extended also to the
Nile Valley.
But even had this not been the case,—even had Egypt and
Mesopotamia been shut off absolutely one from the other,—it would
still be impossible for the modern student to disassociate the two, so
many are the links of association between them. The fact that these
two are the oldest civilisations known to us, and the further fact that
there has been a constant question in the minds of investigators as
to which one of these ancient peoples can claim priority of
development, form in themselves an indissoluble bond of union. Yet
in some respects the story of the Babylonians and Assyrians is
unique; because this well-nigh greatest of civilisations was blotted
out absolutely almost before the oldest European civilisation was
under way. Egypt, indeed, declined in power at about the same
period and permanently lost autonomy, but its pyramids and temples
and numberless antiquities remain as obvious testimonials of its
former greatness; whereas the monuments of Mesopotamia—the
ruins of such wonderful cities as Nippur, Babylon, and Nineveh—
were completely buried under the accumulating earth deposits of
centuries, and almost absolutely lost to view. For more than two
thousand years the names of these once famous cities were only
reminiscences. No one knew accurately even their site, and scarcely
an antiquity of any description was known to be preserved that
evidenced the sometime greatness of the Mesopotamian civilisation.
During this long period a few reminiscences preserved in the
writings of Berosus, Diodorus, Herodotus, and a few other classical
writers, and in the text of Hebrew writings, gave all the clews that
were obtainable, and apparently all that could ever be obtained
regarding one of the most remarkable peoples of antiquity.
We have said that the entire destruction of the Mesopotamian
civilisation gave it peculiar interest. It should not be forgotten,
however, that at least one other very important people of antiquity,
namely the Hittites, met with a like fate. Probably there were still
others whose names even are unknown to us. But the story of
Mesopotamia stands quite by itself in the fact that it has been very
largely restored to us through the efforts of modern explorers. We
have seen that the decipherment of the hieroglyphics led to a much
fuller understanding of Egyptian history than had previously been
possible; yet, after all, these new revelations sufficed to fill in the
outlines of an old story, rather than to create an altogether new one.
But in the case of Babylonia and Assyria the modern investigators
had virtually a blank canvas upon which to work in reconstructing
the history. The Bible references and the classical myths gave but
the most shadowy outlines. Yet traditions are all powerful for the
transmission of knowledge in a vague form, and throughout all
generations it had never been doubted that the reminiscences of
Mesopotamian greatness had a firm foundation in fact, though few
historians were visionary enough to dare hope that more tangible
evidence would ever be forthcoming, and not even the most
enthusiastic dreamer could have suspected that such records as the
nineteenth century has restored to us had been preserved.
Even now, looking back from the standpoint of accomplishment, it
seems almost incredible that the monuments of a great civilisation—
treasures of art, and voluminous literary records—should have been
absolutely hidden from human view for a minimum period of more
than two thousand years, and should then have been restored in
almost their original condition. Yet such is the fact regarding the
antiquities of Mesopotamia.

THE ASSYRIAN GOD NABU

OUR SOURCES FOR MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY

 The reports that have come down to us from antiquity dealing
with the history of Babylonia and Assyria are relatively meagre in
extent and decidedly untrustworthy from an historical standpoint.
Without doubt numerous classical writers dealt with the subject, but
of such writings, only a few have been preserved. So far as known,
the principal native historian of the later period of Babylonian history
was Berosus. He was a Chaldean priest living in the time of
Alexander the Great, as his own writings testify. He had access to
the ancient documents of his country, and is believed to have made
excellent use of them. Unfortunately, only meagre remnants of his
history have come down to us, and these more or less distorted
through the medium of transcribers, the chief of these being
Alexander Polyhistor and Eusebius. Had we the entire work of
Berosus, he would, perhaps, perform some such function for
Mesopotamia as Manetho performed for Egypt; but as the case
stands, the remnants of Berosus serve to transmit certain interesting
traditions, particularly with reference to Babylonian cosmogony,
rather than to preserve any considerable historical records.
The classical historian whose account of the Babylonians and
Assyrians has been most largely copied was Ctesias. This writer was
a Greek who served for seventeen years (415-398 b.c.) as court
physician to the Persian king Artaxerxes Mnemon, and who wrote a
history of Persia alleged to be based upon native documents. In this
history Ctesias considered the contemporary civilisation, but he was
interested rather in picturesque traditions than in the sober historical
narratives, and the records he preserved are chiefly of a nature
which the modern critical historian pronounces fabulous. The original
work of Ctesias has perished, but its character is fairly established
through the writings of other authors who used Ctesias as a source.
Foremost among the latter is Diodorus, whose account of the
Assyrians represents the ideas that were current throughout classical
times, and continued in vogue until the nineteenth century.
The most authentic classical accounts of the Babylonians are those
given by Herodotus and by Strabo, both of whom spoke as eye-
witnesses. Unfortunately, these writers did not have access to the
native materials, and their accounts, while throwing interesting
sidelights upon the later civilisation, do very little towards
enlightening us as to the actual history of the greatest of Asiatic
peoples of antiquity.
A few other fragments have been preserved from the classical
writings, notably some bits from Abydenus, preserved through
Eusebius. To these must be added numerous references to the
Babylonians and Assyrians in the biblical writings. Taken altogether,
however, these classical and oriental traditions fail to give us more
than the vaguest picture of Mesopotamian history.
The real sources of that history are the original chronicles of the
Babylonians and Assyrians themselves, which were inscribed on
stone slabs and on tablets of clay. The clay tablets, after being
inscribed, were dried, forming almost imperishable bricks. Tens of
thousands of these were preserved beneath the ruins of
Mesopotamian cities, and were first brought to light in the
nineteenth century. Among these are several lists of kings, and other
chronological documents of a somewhat general character. One
document attempts the synchronism of Babylonian and Assyrian
history. Then there are numerous tablets and cylinders and wall
inscriptions which record the deeds of individual kings, including
such famous monarchs as Sennacherib. Vast quantities of documents
are doubtless still buried in Mesopotamia, and a large proportion of
the inscriptions that have been exhumed are still undeciphered. But
enough of these documents have been discovered and read to
restore the outline of Babylonian and Assyrian history as a whole;
and for certain periods, including the time of greatest Assyrian
power, very full records are at hand. The result of these recent
discoveries has been the practical substitution of secure historical
records for the old classical and oriental traditions regarding the
Babylonians and Assyrians.
The modern workers who have assisted in the restoration of
Mesopotamian history through the recovery and decipherment of the
monumental inscriptions make up in the aggregate a large company.
The chief explorers of the earliest period were Botta and Layard.
Then came Fresnel, Thomas, and Oppert, followed by Rassam,
George Smith, Ernest de Sarzec; the Germans, Koldewey and Moritz,
and the Americans, Peters, Hilprecht, and Haynes.
The work of interpreting the newly found Assyrian records began
with Sir Henry Rawlinson in England, Eberhard Schrader in Germany,
and a small company of other workers, about the middle of the
nineteenth century. The difficulties of deciphering records in an
unknown language, and of an extremely intricate character, at first
seemed almost insuperable; but with the aid of the knowledge of
Ancient Persian, already acquired earlier in the century through the
efforts of Grotefend and his followers, together with the hints gained
by comparison with the Hebrew language and other extant Semitic
tongues, a working knowledge of the Assyrian language was at last
attained. Since then the decipherment of the inscriptions has gone
on unceasingly, and a constantly growing band of workers has added
to our knowledge.
Most of the excavators and explorers have, very naturally, given us
personal accounts of their labours. Botta’s labours, however, were
chiefly made public through the publications of Victor Place; and in
more recent times, Heuzey has published the chief accounts of the
excavations of De Sarzec. Layard, on the other hand, the greatest of
all Assyrian explorers, gave full accounts of his own discoveries, and
interpreted the monuments as well as described them. He restored
to us a picture of Mesopotamian civilisation somewhat as Wilkinson
had done for Egypt. Of the more recent workers who have written
about Babylonia and Assyria the most important are Meyer, Hommel,
Winckler, Muerdter, and Delitzsch in Germany; Tiele in Holland;
Lenormant, Babelon, Menant and Halévy in France; Sayce in
England, and Peters, Hilprecht, Harper and Rogers in America.
Thanks to the records thus made available, the history of this
most ancient civilisation is no longer a mere hazy figment of
tradition, but has become a sharply outlined picture. We are able to
trace, not indeed the origin of the Mesopotamian civilisation—for the
beginnings of national life evade us here as elsewhere—but its very
early development in the cities of old or southern Babylonia.
Antiquarian documents, aided by estimates as to the rate of deposit
of sediment at the mouth of the rivers, enable us to fix, at least
approximately, the dates for this early civilisation. These figures
cannot pretend to exact accuracy, but the Assyriologist assures us
with some confidence that they carry us back to a period something
like six or seven thousand years b.c. At this remote time the
civilisation of southern Babylonia was already established in its main
features. The people of Ur, Nippur, Shirpurla, and Babylon were able
even then to build elaborate palaces and temples, to carve
interesting sculptures, to make ornaments of glass, and to record
their thought in words traced in the most complex script. In a word,
the main characteristics of Mesopotamian civilisation were fully
established several millenniums before the Christian era, and
abundant proofs of this fact have been preserved to us.
It must not be supposed, however, that the records exhumed from
the ruins of these ancient capitals have given us full information
regarding the entire stretch of this long material existence. The fact
is quite otherwise. Only comparatively short periods are covered fully
by the historical records in the wedge writing, and there are reaches
of some thousands of years in the aggregate, regarding which our
knowledge is still most fragmentary. Indeed, the history of the old
Babylonian kingdom in its entirety is known at present only in the
most general way. But it seems almost miraculous that we should
know even the outlines of this ancient story.

THE ANCIENT KINGDOMS OF BABYLONIA

The earliest known inhabitants of Babylonia were a people of

whose origin nothing is known except that they were not Semites.
After a time they are called sometimes Sumerians, sometimes
Accadians. Sumer was the southern portion of Babylonia, Accad the
northern. The Accadian language is now considered a dialect of the
Sumerian, the older form.
 Civilisation in the land goes back at least to 6000 b.c. Between
5000 and 4000 b.c. this people was invaded by a warlike Semitic
race, the Babylonians of history, who came, perhaps, from Arabia.
What portion of the aborigines the invaders did not expel or destroy
they assimilated, gradually assuming the older civilisation.
The chronology of the earlier period is largely speculative. Recent
chronology begins with the kingdom of Babylon about the time of
Khammurabi. For the earlier kingdoms, we, for the most part, follow
the dates of Professor Rogers.
Without referring to the legendary history of Babylonia, related by
Berosus, which is mentioned elsewhere, our earliest knowledge of
the land is of a country of independent kingdoms, the cities with the
temples forming their centres. The ruler is often the patesi or high
priest.

THE KINGDOM OF KENGI

Before 4500 b.c. En-shag-kush-anna is king of Kengi, in

southern Babylonia, but whether he was Sumerian or
Semite, we do not know. He is patesi of En-lil, the later
Bel. Of his kingdom, Shirpurla-Girsu (or Sungir) is the
capital and Nippur the religious centre. Later, Sungir is
called Sumer and gave its name to the whole of
southern Babylonia. The chief rival of Kengi is the
Semitic kingdom of Kish in the north, which En-shag-
kush-anna defeated but only temporarily checked. We
know of no other king of Kengi.
Monuments.—Several vase inscriptions found at Nippur.

THE KINGDOM OF KISH

Recovers itself quickly after its reverse by En-shag-

kush-anna. A certain U-dug is patesi of Kish at the time
of this revival.
4400 Mesilim, king of Kish, subjugates Shirpurla, at the
time of Lugal-shug-gur. This supremacy is maintained
for a short period, 4200 until E-anna-tum, king of
Shirpurla, shakes off the yoke. Kish is left very feeble
after this, but gradually recovers its power.
3850 Alusharshid, the last great king of Kish before the
conquest of Sargon I.
Monuments.—Many vase inscriptions.

THE KINGDOM OF GISHBAN

4400 Ush is patesi, contemporary of Mesilim of Kish. He

wages war with Shirpurla on the question of boundaries.
Gishban is subjugated 4200 by E-anna-tum of Shirpurla.
At the latter’s death, Ur-lumma, patesi, invades
Shirpurla and probably suffers a slight defeat.
4120 Great defeat of Ur-lumma by Entemena of Shirpurla.
4000 Lugal-zaggisi, patesi, son of Ukush, leads a
victorious army against the south. The whole of
Babylonia to the southern gulf is subjugated. He
becomes king of Erech and is styled “king of the whole
world.” He revives the ancient cults of Lower
Mesopotamia.
Monuments.—Vase inscriptions.

THE KINGDOM OF SHIRPURLA

Shirpurla, sometimes called Lagash—the modern

Telloh—is situated north of Mugheir on the east side of
the Shatt-el-Khai. The oldest king that we know is
4500 Urukagina.—A great warrior and administrator. He
builds and restores temples and also a canal for the
capital Sungir (Girsu). 4400 One of his successors is En-
 ge-gal, and another, Lugal-shug-gur, is reduced by
Mesilim of Kish to a patesi.
4300 In the enfeebled kingdom, dominated by the rulers of
Kish, a new family headed by Ur-Nina comes to the
throne. He is famous as a temple builder, but also
begins to prepare his kingdom to throw off the yoke of
Kish. He calls himself king though his son is still patesi.
Monuments.—Vase inscriptions.
4250 Akurgal succeeds Ur-Nina. He is the father of E-anna-
tum and En-anna-tum I.
4200 E-anna-tum, the hero who delivers his country from
the thraldom of Kish, and resumes the royal title. After
this he puts Gishban under his yoke, and wages
successful wars against Erech, Ur, Larsa, Az, and Ukh.
He builds a wall around one of the suburbs of Shirpurla,
digs canals for boundary lines, etc. Is a great and wise
administrator as well as a mighty warrior.
Monuments.—The famous “Vulture Stele” now in the Louvre
—many inscriptions.
En-anna-tum I succeeds his brother E-anna-tum. An
unsuccessful invasion of Shirpurla by the patesi of
Gishban.
4120 En-teme-na, son of En-anna-tum I, defeats and
destroys army of the patesi of Gishban.
Monuments.—The Cone of En-teme-na. The “silver vase”—
an exquisite piece of art placed on the altar of the god
Nina at Singur.
4100 En-anna-tum II, the last patesi of the dynasty of Ur-
Nina, since his son, Lummadu, bears no title. Conquest
of Shirpurla by Lugal-zaggisi of Gishban.
4100-3800 There are patesis in Shirpurla, ruled over by
Lugal-zaggisi and his successors.
3800-3100 The darkest age of Babylonian history. Lugal-
ushumgal was patesi and vassal of Sargon I. In all
probability the kings of Agade ruled over Shirpurla until
dispossessed by the second dynasty of Ur. Of all the
patesis, the vassal rulers, of this period Ur-Bau 3500
(?) and Gudea 3300 (?) are the most prominent. Ur-
Bau’s rule seems to have been peaceful; Gudea is a
warrior; he wrests the territory of Anshan from Elam.
Builds the temple of Nina at Singur.
Monuments.—Many inscriptions.
The civilisation of Shirpurla was a high one, and it contained
no Semitic elements.

THE KINGDOM OF UR (THE BIBLICAL “UR OF THE

CHALDEES”)
Ist DYNASTY

The first king of this dynasty appears after the

conquest of Erech by Lugal-zaggisi of Gishban. He
would appear to have overthrown Lugal-zaggisi.
3900 Lugal-kigubni-dudu.
Lugal-kisali, his son.
Their rule includes Ur, Erech, and Nippur, and possibly they
conquered Shirpurla. The fate of this dynasty with the
names of its other rulers is unknown, but it probably
falls before the power of Agade.
Monuments.—Inscriptions of the two above-mentioned
kings.

THE KINGDOM OF GUTI AND LULUBI

There are inscriptions relating to two kings, Lasirab of Guti
and Anu-banini of Lulubi. They seem to have been
contemporaneous with Sargon I (3800 b.c.).

THE KINGDOM OF AGADE

3800 The earliest known dynasty is Semitic, and the first

ruler is Sargon I (Shargani-shar-ali), son of Itti-Bel.
By conquest he founds an empire from Elam to the
Mediterranean, and from the extreme south of
Babylonia to Apirak and Guti.
Monuments.—Engraved seals of wonderful execution,
inscriptions, and contract tablets.
3750 Naram-Sin, son of Sargon, succeeds him. First to
assume title “King of the Four Quarters of the World”—a
great conqueror and builder. Campaigns against Apirak
and Magan (Arabia).
Builds temples at Nippur and Agade. Temple E-barra of
Shamash at Sippar. This temple is the one in which
Nabonidus found the “tablet with the writing of the
name of Naram-Sin,” by which we are able to fix the
date of his reign.
Under Sargon I and Naram-Sin there is a high state of
organisation and civilisation in the kingdom. There were
judges, musicians, physicians, good roads, etc.
Thureau-Dangin says: “The epoch of Sargon and
Naram-Sin certainly marks a culminating point in the
history of the old Orient.”
Monuments.—Inscriptions.
3700 Bingani-shar-ali, son of Naram-Sin.
Further history of the kingdom of Agade is still unknown.
Apparently the later kings gradually lose their power
 before that of the second dynasty of Ur.
The first period of Babylonian history is now closed. The
Semites are in full possession of the land. We have the
main seat of power at Agade with the rulers of Shirpurla
reduced to patesis.

THE SECOND DYNASTY OF UR

These kings add the title “King of Sumer and Accad”

to that of Ur, combining the hostile elements of the
North and South under one rule; “restoring,” says
Radau, “in old Babylonia the peace which had been
disturbed for many centuries, even from the time of the
original Semitic invasion.”
3200 Ur-gur holds sway over both Semites and Sumerians
(Agade and Shirpurla). His capital is at Ur. Famous as a
temple builder. Builds temple Teimila to Nannar (moon
god) at Ur, temple E-anna to Ishtar at Erech, temple E-
barra to Shamash at Larsa.
Monuments.—Pyramidal tower at Nippur. Inscriptions.
3150 Dun-gi I succeeds. Continues his father’s work.
Builds temples of Nin-mar, Nina, Ningirsu, Dam-gal-nunna,
and Ea, in Sungir, Nippur, and Kutha.
These two were ancestors of a long line of kings, concerning
whom history is still silent. Apparently ground in
southern Babylonia was soon lost, for we find

THE KINGDOM OF ERECH

3100-3000 Two kings of pure Semitic names are known at

this period. Singashid, probably the founder of the
dynasty, and Sin-gamil. The probable history of this
kingdom is that of a strong Semitic colony in southern
 Babylonia making itself independent and establishing a
king and capital at Erech. With Sin-gamil, the thread of
its history is lost.
Monuments.—Inscriptions relating to building of palace,
temples, and restoration of temples at Erech.

THE KINGDOM OF ISIN

A Semitic kingdom, similar to that of Erech, is

established at Isin in the north. These kings extend their
power to Nippur, Ur, Eridu, and finally to Erech,
extinguishing the dynasty ruling there.
The kings add “king of Sumer and Accad” to that of
Isin, showing also that the second dynasty of Ur has
ceased to exist.
3000 Libit-Ishtar.
Monuments and cylinder inscriptions.
Other kings are, Ishbigarra, Bur-Sin I, Ur-Ninib, Idin-
Dagan.
2850 Ishme Dagan, the last to bear the title of Sumer and
Accad. His son En-anna-tum is a vassal of the third
dynasty of Ur.
Monuments.—Tablet inscriptions.

THE THIRD DYNASTY OF UR

The early kings call themselves simply Kings of Ur.

2800 Gungunu puts an end to the dynasty of Isin. He is
succeeded by Ur-gur II and Dungi II, order
uncertain.
They build many temples, and Ur-gur II fortifies the wall of
his capital, hence he must have been harassed by
enemies. We have records that the patesis of Shirpurla
still existed at this time.
Monuments.—Votive and seal inscriptions.
2700 Dungi III.—The kings from now on add “King of the
Four Quarters of the World” to their title, and for this
reason some scholars reckon this king as the first of a
fourth dynasty. He is followed by Bur-Sin II, Gamil-
Sin, and Ine-Sin; the latter ruling about 2580. We
have no knowledge of other kings, but about 2450-2400
the “Kingship of the Four Quarters of the World” is
overthrown in the north by the Ist Dynasty of Babylon
and in the south by Nur-Adad of Larsa.
Monuments.—Building records and contract tablets.

THE KINGDOM OF LARSA

2400 Successful rebellion of southern Babylonia against the

kings of Ur. The kingdom of Larsa founded by Nur-
Adad.
2370 Sin-iddin succeeds his father and extends his
kingdom over Sumer and Accad.
2350 Kudur-nankhundi, king of Elam, invades southern
Babylonia. Under Kudur-nankhundi’s successor, Kudur-
lagamar 2340 (Kudur-dugmal, probably the Hebrew
Chedoriaomer) the Elamites establish a kingdom in
Larsa with Rim-Sin (Eri-aku) at its head. He adopts
Sin-iddin’s titles. 2312 The latter appeals to
Khammurabi, king of Babylon, who overpowers Rim-Sin.

THE KINGDOM OF BABYLON

 Ist DYNASTY, 2450-2150 b.c.

In the days of Sumer and Accad there is no mention

of Babylon, which must, however, have developed into
some importance during the supremacy of Isin (3000-
2850). Dates are now more reliable.
2450 Sumu-abi overthrows the Ur Dynasty in Babylon, but
the rebellion does not extend beyond that city.
2440 Sumu-la-ilu.—He builds six strong fortresses in
Babylon.
2405 Zabu.—He builds temple E-dubar in Sippar. The
country is evidently in revolution, for mention is made of
a pretender, Immeru.
2290 Apil-Sin.
2370 Sin-muballit.
Only monuments of these reigns, contract tablets.
2342 Khammurabi.—Probably the Amraphel of the Bible,
a contemporary of Abraham. The maker of a united
Babylon, for in 2312 called upon by Sin-iddin, he expels
Rim-Sin and the Elamites from Larsa, and adding
southern Babylonia to his dominions, resumes the titles
of the kings of Ur, Isin, and Larsa. He begins to develop
his new kingdom, digging canals for water supply. Builds
a great storehouse for wheat in Babylonia. Enlarges
temples of E-zida and E-sagila in Borsippa.
Monuments.—Letters and inscriptions.
2287-2150 The remaining kings of the dynasty lived in
complete peace. The few remains of their age witness a
high civilisation and great prosperity.
Monuments.—Contract tablets.
 IInd DYNASTY, 2150-1783 b.c.

2150-1783 Called the dynasty of Uru-Azag (probably

referring to a district of the city of Babylon). Eleven
kings of Sumerian origin reign for 368 years. There is
but little known of them.
No monuments of this dynasty.

IIIrd DYNASTY, 1783-1207 b.c.

1783 The Kossæans or Kassites (Kasshu) from the

mountains of Elam establish a dynasty with Gandish or
Gaddash the first king. They had entered the country
as roving bands, had overrun it, and finally attained the
power. Culture and civilisation are assimilated by the
newcomers.
1700 Agum-kakrime, the first king of the dynasty of whom
we have any details. His kingdom is greater than that of
Khammurabi. The land of Padan is subject to him. Some
statues of gods that had been previously carried away
are restored to Babylon.
1450 Karaindash.—In this reign we have the first evidence
of intercourse between the kingdoms of Assyria and
Babylonia—a treaty with Asshur-bel-nish-eshu, king of
Assyria, concerning boundary line. Builds a temple to
Nana, goddess of E-Anna.
1430 Kadashman-Bel.—He corresponds with Amenhotep
III, of Egypt.
Monuments.—Letters found at Tel-el-Amarna.
1420 Burnaburiash I.—Contemporary with Puzur-Asshur of
Assyria, with whom he seems to have had difficulties
regarding questions of boundary. Builds a temple to the
Sun-god at Larsa.
1410 Kurigalzu I.—The city of Dur-Kurigalzu is named after
him. He probably rebuilds it.
Monuments.—Correspondence with Pharaoh of Egypt. (Tel-
el-Amarna.)
1400 Burnaburiash II.—His successor. Long and
prosperous reign.
Monuments.—Correspondence with Amenhotep IV, of Egypt.
(Tel-el-Amarna.)
1370 Kharakhardash, marries a daughter of Asshur-uballit,
king of Assyria. His son, Kadashman-Kharbe I,
conducts a campaign against the Sutu, whom he
conquers, and among whom he settles some of his
subjects.
1360 Rebellion of the Kassites, who, jealous of the growing
Assyrian influence, kill the king and place on the throne
Nazibugash, who is defeated and killed by Asshur-
uballit, the king of Assyria.
1350 Kurigalzu II.—Placed on the throne by the Assyrian
king, invades Elam, and conquers the city of Susa (or
Shushan). Battle with Bel-nirari, king of Assyria, with
doubtful result.
1340-1286 Continuous struggle between Babylonia and
Assyria under the following kings: Nazi-Maruttash
(1340), Kadashman-Turgu, Kadashman-Buriash
(1330), Kudur-Bel (1304-1299), Shagarakti-Buriash
(1298-1286).
1285-1270 The king of Assyria, Tukulti-Ninib I, invades
Babylon, enters the town, removes the treasures of the
temple, and carries away the god Marduk to Assyria.
This invasion took place probably under the reign of
Bibeiashu, whose successors, Bel-shum-iddin,
Kadashman-Kharbe II (1277-1275), and Adad-
 shum-iddin (1274-1269), were very likely only vassals
of Tukulti-Ninib, who was the real king of Babylon for
seven years.
1270 The Babylonians rise in revolt, drive the Assyrians from
Babylon, 1269 and make Adad-shum-usur king, under
whom the power of Babylon begins to revive. Assyria
attacked, the king, Bel-kudur-usur, slain, and a portion
of Assyrian territory annexed.
1238-1224 Meli-Shipak.—Successful against the Assyrian
king, Ninib-apal-esharra, 1223-1211 so that under
Marduk-apal-iddin, the Babylonian dominion extends
over nearly the whole of the valley.
1210 Under the last two kings of this dynasty, Zamamu-
shum-iddin and 1209 Bel-shum-iddin, Babylonia
threatened by the Assyrian Asshur-dan.
1207 End of the dynasty as result of a Semitic revolution.

IVth DYNASTY, 1207-1075 b.c.

The origin of this (Isin) dynasty still doubtful. There

are eleven kings, of whom four or five are unknown to
us.
1135 Nebuchadrezzar I, sixth king, exhibits the old-time
spirit. Invades Assyria, but is repulsed. Is successful in
campaigns against the people of Elam and Lulubi, even
penetrates into Syria.
Monuments.—Monolithic inscription concerning grant of land
to Ritti Marduk of Bit-Karziyabku.
1110 In the reign of Marduk-nadin-akhe, Tiglathpileser I
of Assyria invades Babylon and takes the capital.
1083 At death of Marduk-shapik-zer-mati, a usurper,
Adad-apal-iddin takes the throne.
1078 End of dynasty with death of Nabu-shum.

Vth, VIth, VIIth, VIIIth DYNASTIES, 1075-728 b.c.

A series of short-lived dynasties all struggling with the

rising power of Assyria.
1075 Dynasty of Sea Lands, at the estuaries of the Tigris
and the Euphrates upon the Persian Gulf, which later
exercises great influence upon the history of Babylonia.
This dynasty numbers only three kings, who reign
together twenty-one years five months, or, according to
the Babylonian chronicle, twenty-three years; viz.
Sibar-Shipak, slain and buried in palace of Sargon. In
his reign the Elamites pillage Sippar and do much
damage; Ea-mukin-zer, of whom nothing is known,
and Kasshu-nadin-akhe. These kings engaged on
rebuilding the temple of the Sun at Sippar.
1053-1033 The dynasty of Sea Lands in Babylonia followed
by the dynasty of Bit-Bazi, numbering also only three
kings: Eulbar-shakin-shum, Ninib-kudur-usur, and
Silanim-shukamuna, followed by a dynasty of Elam
with only one king, whose name is unknown.
1027 The VIIIth Dynasty. Babylonian stock having exhausted
its vigour, now intermixed with Kassite and other foreign
blood.
747 Nabu-nasir (Nabonassar) of the VIIIth Dynasty
comes to the throne. A time of literary activity.
732 Nabu-nadinzer, his successor, slain by Nabu-shum-
ukin.
731 Ukinzer replaces Nabu-shum-ukin. Tiglathpileser III
invades Babylon and determines to end the rule of
native princes in the land.
728 Tiglathpileser, king of Babylon. End of the Old
Babylonian Empire.

THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

FIRST PERIOD, 1830-1120 b.c.

Assyria was colonised from Babylonia. The date is

uncertain, but Nineveh was in existence in 3000 b.c. The
early rulers appear to have been subject priest-princes
of the kings of Babylonia.
1830-1810 The first known rulers (Ishakke) are Ishme-
Dagan and his son, Shamshi-Adad I, who builds a
great temple in the city of Asshur, dedicated to the gods
Anu and Adad.
1800-1700 Little known of their successors Igur-kapkapu,
Shamshi-Adad II, while the dates of Khallu and
Irishum are unknown.
Monuments.—A few inscriptions.
1700 Bel-Kapkapu.—The first to take the title of king, and
therefore considered the real founder of the monarchy,
probably the Bel-bani, of whom Esarhaddon claimed to
be a direct descendant.
1700-1450 A dark age of Assyrian history. We know nothing
of it, except that after the battle of Megiddo (ca. 1525)
the ruler of Assyria sends presents to Tehutimes III.
1450 Assyria is now recognised by Babylonia as an
independent kingdom. Its ruler, Asshur-bel-nish-
eshu, makes a treaty with Karaindash, king of
Kardunyash (Babylonia) concerning boundaries.
1420 Puzur-Asshur, treats with the Babylonians concerning
the boundary.
1400 Asshur-nadin-akhe II, his successor, contemporary
of Amenhotep IV, king of Egypt. Builds or restores a
palace in Asshur.
Monuments.—Friendly correspondence with Amenhotep IV
in the Tel-el-Amarna letters.
1370 Succeeded by Asshur-uballit, whose daughter,
Muballitat Sheru’a, is married to Karakhardash, king of
Babylon. The murder of his son, Kadashman-Kharbe I,
brought about Assyrian intervention, and a grandson of
Asshur-uballit, Kurigalzu, is placed on the throne.
Babylonia now partially subject to Assyria. Campaigns of
Asshur-uballit against the Shubari.
1360 His son Bel-nirari said to have conquered the
inhabitants of the neighbouring Elamite foothills. These
Assyrian conquests lead to a conflict between Kurigalzu
II and Bel-nirari, in which the latter is victorious. A
rearrangement of the boundary lines between the two
countries is the result.
1350 His son, Pudu-ilu, a great warrior, considerably
extends his kingdom.
Monuments.—A few brief inscriptions.
1345 His son and successor, Adad-nirari I, continues
conquests in neighbouring territory. Rebuilds captured
cities. Struggle with Babylonian king. He adds
considerably to strength of kingdom.
Monuments.—A bronze sword, on which he calls himself king
of Kishshati; an inscription, the oldest yet found with an
eponym date.
1330 His son, Shalmaneser I, establishes colonies between
the Euphrates and Tigris as a bulwark against the
nomadic populations of the farther north. Subjects the
Musri in northern Syria. Assyrians cross the Euphrates
 for the first time. The rapidly growing kingdom firmly
established as far as the Balikh and perhaps the
Euphrates. New capital built at Calah.
Monuments.—Two broken tablets.
1290 Under his son and successor, Tukulti-Ninib I, there is
renewed trouble between Assyria and Babylonia.
Invasion of Babylonia; capital taken. Conquered city
governed from Calah, Assyrian officers stationed both in
the north and south of the country. Tukulti-Ninib adopts
the title of “King of Sumer and Accad” in addition to his
former titles, “King of Kishshati” and “King of Asshur.”
This rule over Babylonia maintained for seven years
only. The king is killed in civil war. The most brilliant
reign in Assyrian history up to this time. The steady and
rapid progress of the Assyrians now checked.
1280 Rapid decline of Assyrian power under
Asshurnazirpal I, Tukulti-Ninib’s son. An attack of
Babylonia is repulsed with difficulty.
1250 Under his successors, Asshur-narara and Nabu-
daian, the Assyrian power continues to wane, while the
Babylonian increases.
1240-1235 Under Bel-kudur-usur and Ninib-apal-
esharra Assyria is invaded by the Babylonians under
Meli-shipak and Marduk-apal-iddin. All the southern and
part of the northern and western conquered territory
lost.
1210 Under Asshur-dan I rehabilitation of Assyrian power.
He crosses the Lower Zab, invades Babylonian territory,
and restores a small section of it to Assyria.
1150 Further Assyrian gains under Mutakkil-Nusku and
Asshur-rish-ishi, who 1140 restores temple of Ishtar
at Calah.
 SECOND PERIOD, 1120-885 b.c.

1120 Tiglathpileser I (Tukulti-apal-esharra, my help is

the god Ninib).—He builds up anew the Assyrian
Empire, and thus records his work of conquest: “In all
forty-two countries and their kings from the Lower Zab
(and) the border of the distant mountains to beyond the
Euphrates to the land of the Hittites and the Upper Sea
of the Setting Sun, from the beginning of my
sovereignty until my fifth year my hand has conquered.”
His great success in war equalled by a marvellous story
of peaceful achievements. The capital of Assyria
brought back from Calah to Asshur; the temples of
Ishtar, Adad, and Bel rebuilt, palaces restored and
rebuilt.
Monuments.—The eight-sided prism found at Calah: several
fragmentary annals of the early years of his reign.
1090 Under his successors, Asshur-bel-kala and
Shamshi-Adad III, both sons of Tiglathpileser, further
peaceful development, with gradually a falling off in the
power and dignity of the kingdom. The former king
maintains terms of peace with the king of Babylonia,
Marduk-shapik-zer-mati, who thereby seems to be
considered an independent monarch. As to Shamshi-
Adad I, he is known to us only as the rebuilder of the
temple of Ishtar in Nineveh.
1050-950 A dark age. The fortunes of Assyria are at low
ebb. In this period reigned Asshurnazirpal II, Erba-
Adad, Asshur-nadin-akhe, and Asshur-erbi. The
last loses territory to the Aramæans, but he seems to
have invaded Phœnicia.
950 Tiglathpileser II, who calls himself “King of Kishshati
and King of Asshur.”
930 Asshur-dan II, his son.
911 Adad-nirari II.—Revival of struggle with Babylonia.
Defeats Shamash-mudammik of Babylon in battle of
Mount Yalman, also his successor Nabu-shum-ishkun.
Assyrian cities given to Babylonia. Treaty of peace
between the two nations.
890 Tukulti-Ninib II.—The period of weakness is passing.
Babylon ceases to be troublesome, and the Assyrians
begin to seek tribute in the north and west. The king
ravages Armenia and the land of Kummukh.

THIRD PERIOD, 885-722 b.c.

885 Asshurnazirpal III, begins campaigns of conquest at

once. In ten years all of Tiglathpileser I’s empire in the
north, east, and west, conquered or intimidated into
subjection with atrocious cruelties and barbarous
devastations, is under heavy tribute.
876 A great invasion of the west. At his approach all the
cities from Carchemish to Tyre hasten to send presents
and arrange for tribute. The campaign ends in the
gathering of timber for the temple of Ishtar at Nineveh.
867 A short and bloody campaign against Kummukh, Qurkhi
and the country around Mount Masius. Asshurnazirpal
rebuilds Calah, and constructs a canal to supply the city
with water from the Lower Zab.
Monuments.—The royal palace unearthed at Nimrud;
monolith containing accounts of his reign discovered by
Layard at Nimrud; several lesser inscriptions.
860 Shalmaneser II, his son, continues his father’s
conquests with similar cruelty. Campaign against Nairi
and first of many campaigns in the north and east
lasting until 830 with no real success.
857 The Aramæans of Bit-Adini in the Mesopotamian valley
finally conquered and their land placed under Assyrian
government.
854 Shalmaneser proceeds successfully against a coalition of
North Syrian princes, Israel and Phœnicia. Battle of
Qarqar. Yearly tribute imposed on states of northern
Syria.
852 Marduk-nadin-shun of Babylon calls Shalmaneser to help
him against his rebellious brother Marduk-bel-usati.
Shalmaneser attacks and vanquishes the rebels and
Marduk-nadin-shum rules under an Assyrian
protectorate. The king of Assyria is once more the real
ruler of Babylon.
849-834 Campaigns against the west. The results are not
definite, and little is done except to pave the way for
the future. Attack upon Ben-Hadad II of Damascus and
his allies. Jehu sends aid against Damascus and the
Assyrians get their first hold upon Israel.
827 Rebellion of Shalmaneser’s son Asshur-danin-apli which
splits the kingdom into two discordant parts.
825 Death of Shalmaneser.
Monuments.—The black basalt obelisk containing story of his
wars; monolith with portrait in bas-relief; gate
inscriptions from Balauat.
823 Shamshi-Adad IV, after two years of civil war with his
brother, is acknowledged legitimate king.
822-814 Campaigns in north, east, and west to receive
allegiance.
813 Invasion of Chaldea.
812 Invasion of Babylon where Marduk-balatsu-iqbi refuses
to pay tribute—a decisive victory.
Monuments.—Inscriptions.
811 Adad-nirari III succeeds his father—a ruler who
increases Assyrian prestige immensely. Successful
campaigns in the west. Eight brilliant campaigns against
the Medes.
796-795 Babylon invaded—now practically an Assyrian
province. The king tries to efface all national
differences. Temples built in Assyria similar to those of
Babylon, and Babylonian forms introduced into the
ritual.
Monuments.—A statue of Nabu from the temple of Calah;
inscriptions.
782 Shalmaneser III, a period of decline sets in. Of his
ten campaigns, six are against the growing power of
Urartu, which is trying to wrest the land of Nairi from
the Assyrians.
772 Asshur-dan III.—The decay continues. Campaigns
against Damascus, and Khatarikka in Syria. Two
invasions of Babylon (771-767).
763-758 A series of rebellions in various parts of the
kingdom.
754 Asshur-nirari II.—A reign of decadence. Campaigns
against Arpad and Nairi, but no attempt to collect
tribute.
746 Rebellion in Calah. Asshur-nirari disappears and with
him the royal family that has ruled Assyria for centuries.

FOURTH PERIOD, 745-606 b.c.

745 Pulu.—A man of obscure origin obtains the throne,

probably as the outcome of the Calah rebellion. He
takes the name of Tiglathpileser (III), and begins at
 once the formation of a great world-empire and
proceeds first against Babylonia. Reconquers the
country as far south as Nippur and reorganises the
government. Makes a fixed policy of planting colonies
and transporting captives. He next subdues the
troublesome land east of Assyria, and sends his general,
Asshur-danin-ani, into Media. Second expedition into
Media (737), but withal the country remains practically
independent. He takes up a difficult problem in the
north where Argistis of Urartu had regained much
territory, and his successor, Sarduris II, has formed an
alliance with many northern princes. The armies of
Sarduris and Tiglathpileser meet and the former is
forced to retire.
742 Tiglathpileser, free from Sarduris, attacks Arpad, which
falls, 740. Many neighbouring states send presents. The
king of Unqi resists, but is soon taken and his country
annexed to Assyria.
739 Part of Nairi taken. Tiglathpileser sets out to break the
coalition of Syrian princes against him, aiming at Uzziah
of Judah, the ringleader. Menahem of Israel weakens
and pays the Assyrian heavy tribute, whereupon he
abandons attacks on Judah, but subdues, and returns
home with tribute from, all the other members of the
league.
735 Campaign against Urartu—does not conquer but breaks
the spirit of the country.
734-732 Campaigns in Syria. Damascus taken. Ahaz of
Judah gives homage. Other lands incorporated with
Assyria. Gaza captured.
731-729 He invades Babylonia to settle the internal strife
raging there. Determines to do away with native
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