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 SOC
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
6

NIJOLE V. BENOKRAITIS
University of Baltimore

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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 SOC 6 © 2019, 2017 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Nijole V. Benokraitis
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the following faculty members for their valuable feedback in revising this edition:

Megan Allen     Blue Ridge Community and Technical College Kathleen Lowney   Valdosta State University
David Briscoe      University of Arkansas at Little Rock Timothy McLean   Herkimer College
Ashley Chambers   Blue Ridge Community and Technical College Amanda Miller    University of Indianapolis
Rose De Luca     Emmanuel College Ken Muir      Appalachian State University
Sarah Deward     Eastern Michigan University Jessica Oladapo    Rock Valley College
Steven Fulks     Barton College Jodie Simon     Wichita State University
Jennifer Kunz     West Texas A&M University Viviene Wood    University of Western Georgia
Diane Levy      University of North Carolina at Wilmington Rochelle Zaranek    Macomb Community College

Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01    Print Year: 2018

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BENOKRAITIS

SOC 6 BRIEF CONTENTS

1 Thinking Like a Sociologist 2

2 Examining Our Social World 20

3 Culture 38

4 Socialization 60

5 Social Interaction in Everyday Life 82

6 Groups, Organizations, and Institutions 100

7 Deviance, Crime, and Social Control 118

8 Social Stratification: United States and

Global 138

9 Gender and Sexuality 160

10 Race and Ethnicity 182

11 The Economy and Politics 204

12 Families and Aging 230

13 Education and Religion 254

14 Health and Medicine 282

15 Population, Urbanization,
and the Environment 302

16 Social Change: Collective Behavior, Social

Movements, and Technology 326

References 346
Name Index 387
Subject Index 400
7 pips/Shutterstock.com

BRIEF CONTENTS iii

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 CONTENTS

3-4  Some Cultural Variations 50

Michele Burgess/Alamy Stock Photo; Jeremy Woodhouse/AGE Fotostock; BSIP/Newscom;

3-5  High Culture and Popular Culture 52

vgajic/E1/Getty Images; Jim West/Alamy Stock Photo; John Lund/Getty Images

3-6  Cultural Change and Technology 54
3-7  Sociological Perspectives on Culture 56

4 Socialization 60
4-1  Socialization: Its Purpose and Importance 61
4-2  Nature and Nurture 62
4-3  Sociological Explanations of Socialization 65
4-4  Primary Socialization Agents 69
4-5  Socialization Throughout Life 75
4-6  Resocialization and Total Institutions 79

5 Social Interaction in Everyday

1 Thinking Like a Sociologist 2
Life 82
5-1  Social Structure 83
1-1   What Is Sociology? 3
5-2  Status 83
1-2   What Is a Sociological Imagination? 5
5-3  Role 85
1-3  Why Study Sociology? 5
5-4  Explaining Social Interaction 87
1-4  Some Origins of Sociological Theory 7
5-5  Nonverbal Communication 91
1-5  Contemporary Sociological Theories 13
5-6  Online Interaction 95

2 Examining Our Social

World 20
2-1  How Do We Know What We Know? 21
2-2  Why Is Sociological Research Important in Our
Everyday Lives? 21
2-3  The Scientific Method 22
2-4  Basic Steps in the Research Process 26
Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty Images

2-5  Some Major Data Collection Methods 27

2-6  Ethics and Social Research 35

3 Culture 38
3-1  Culture and Society 39
3-2  The Building Blocks of Culture 40
3-3  Some Cultural Similarities 48

iv CONTENTS

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 8-2  Social Class in America 142
8-3  Poverty 145
8-4  Social Mobility 148
8-5  Global Stratification 151
8-6  Sociological Explanations: Why There Are Haves and
Have-Nots 154

9 Gender and Sexuality

PG Arphexad/Alamy Stock Photo

160
9-1  Sex, Gender, and Culture 161
9-2  Contemporary Gender Inequality 166
9-3  Sexuality 169
9-4  Some Current Social Issues About
Sexuality 171

6 Groups, Organizations, and 9-5  Gender and Sexuality Across Cultures

9-6  Sociological Explanations of Gender and
173

Institutions 100 Sexuality 175

6-1  Social Groups 101
6-2  Formal Organizations 106
6-3  Sociological Perspectives on Social Groups and
10 Race and Ethnicity 182
10-1  U.S. Racial and Ethnic Diversity 183
Organizations 112
10-2  The Social Significance of Race
6-4  Social Institutions 116
and Ethnicity 183

7 Deviance, Crime, and Social

Control 118
7-1  What Is Deviance? 119
7-2  Types of Deviance and Crime 121
7-3  Functionalist Perspectives on
Deviance 126
7-4  Conflict Perspectives on Deviance 128
7-5  Feminist Perspectives on Deviance 130
7-6  Symbolic Interaction Perspectives on
Deviance 132
7-7  Controlling Deviance and Crime 134

8 Social Stratification: United

Henryk T. Kaiser/Getty Images

States and Global 138

8-1  Social Stratification Systems
and Bases 139

CONTENTS v

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 10-3  Our Changing Immigration Mosaic 185
10-4  Dominant and Minority Groups 187
10-5  Some Sources of Racial-Ethnic Friction 189
10-6  Major U.S. Racial and Ethnic Groups 191
10-7  Sociological Explanations of Racial-Ethnic
Inequality 198
10-8  Interracial and Interethnic Relationships 202

11 The Economy and

Politics 204
11-1  Global Economic Systems 205
11-2  Corporations and the
Economy 207
11-3  Work in U.S. Society Today 208
11-4  Sociological Explanations of Work and the
Economy 214
11-5  Global Political Systems 217
11-6  Politics, Power, and Authority 219
11-7  Politics and Power in U.S. Society 221
11-8  Sociological Perspectives on Politics
and Power 225

Masterfile
12 Families and Aging 230
12-1  What Is a Family? 231
12-2  How U.S. Families Are
Changing 235
12-3  Family Conflict and Violence 242
Andrew Lichtenstein/Corbis News/Getty Images

12-4  Our Aging Society 245

12-5  Sociological Explanations of Family
and Aging 249

13 Education and Religion 254

13-1  Education and Society 255
13-2  Sociological Perspectives on Education 255
vi CONTENTS

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13-3  Some Current Issues in U.S. Education 263
13-4  Religion and Society 268
13-5  Religious Organization and Major World
Religions 269
13-6  Religion in the United States 271
13-7  Sociological Perspectives on

US Army Photo/Alamy Stock Photo

Religion 275

14 Health and Medicine 282

14-1  Global Health and Illness 283
14-2  Health and Illness in the United States 283
14-3  Health Care: United States and Global 291
14-4  Sociological Perspectives on Health and
Medicine 293
15 Population, Urbanization,
and the Environment 302
15-1  Population Changes 303
15-2  Urbanization 310
15-3  The Environment 316

16 Social Change: Collective

Behavior, Social Movements,
and Technology 326
16-1  Collective Behavior 327
16-2  Social Movements 335
16-3  Technology and Social Change 340
Lisa S./Shutterstock.com

References 346
Name Index 387
Subject Index 400

CONTENTS vii

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 1 Thinking Like a Sociologist

BSIP/Newscom

Jim West/Alamy Stock

Jeremy Woodhouse/
AGE Fotostock

Photo
Michele Burgess/Alamy

vgajic/E1/Getty Images
Stock Photo

John Lund/Getty Images

© Photo Credit Here

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to…

1-1 Explain what sociology is and how it differs from other social
sciences and common sense.

1-2 Explain how and why a sociological imagination helps us After finishing
understand society. this chapter go to
1-3 Identify and illustrate why it’s worthwhile to study sociology. PAGE 19 for
1-4 Describe and explain the origins of sociology, why sociology
developed, and its most influential early theorists.
STUDY TOOLS
1-5 Compare, illustrate, and evaluate the four contemporary
sociological perspectives.

2 SOC

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Texting and emailing are associated with the highest risk of car crashes, and headset
cell phones aren’t much safer than handheld cell phones. Almost 90 percent of U.S.
drivers say that distracted driving is a serious safety threat. However, 70 percent talk
on a cell phone, text, surf the Internet, and even video chat while driving. In 2014
alone, such distractions contributed to 18 percent of all crashes that resulted in death
or severe injury (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 2015; AT&T Newsroom, 2015;
National Center for Statistics and Analysis, 2016).

muttered, “Her name is Stupid,” and flung the doll into

W H AT D O YOU T H I N K ?
a corner.
Sociology is basically common sense. Despite some individual differences, identical twins,
you, and I are like other people in many ways. Around
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
strongly agree strongly disagree

True or False?
E V E R Y B O D Y K N O W S T H AT. . .
Why is there such a disconnection between many
Americans’ attitudes and behavior? This chapter exam- 1. The death penalty reduces crime.
ines these and other questions. Let’s begin by consider- 2. Women’s earnings are now similar to men’s,
ing what sociology is (and isn’t) and how a “sociological especially in high-income occupations.
imagination” can give us more control over our lives. 3. People age 65 and older make up the largest
We’ll then look at how sociologists grapple with com- group of those who are poor.
plex theoretical issues in explaining social life. Before 4. There are more married than unmarried U.S.
reading further, take the True or False? adults.
5. Divorce rates are higher today than in the past.
6. Latinos are the fastest-growing racial-ethic
1-1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? group in the United States.
7. The best way to get an accurate measure of pub-
Stated simply, sociology is the scientific study of human lic opinion is to poll as many people as possible.
behavior in society. Sociologists study behavior patterns 8. Illegal drugs are the biggest health hazard.
that occur between individuals, among small groups
The answers are at the end of 1-1.
(e.g., families), large organizations (e.g., Apple), and
entire societies (e.g., the United States). But, you might
protest, “I’m unique.”

the world, we experience grief when a loved one dies,

1-1a Are You Unique? participate in rituals that celebrate marriage or the birth
Yes and no. Each of us is unique in the sense that you of a child, and want to have healthy and happy lives.
and I are like no one else on earth. Even identical twins, Some actions, such as terrorist attacks, are unpredict-
who have the same physical characteristics and genetic able. For the most part, however, people conform to ex-
matter, often differ in personality and interests. One of pected and acceptable behavior. From the time that we
my colleagues likes to tell the story about his 3-year- get up until we go to bed,
old twin girls who received the same doll. One twin we follow a variety of rules
sociology the scientific study of
chattered that the doll’s name was Lori, that she loved and customs about what human behavior in society.
Lori, and would take good care of her. The second twin we eat, how we drive, how

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 3

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 common sense notions about economic
success vary considerably across
Marriage without Love? No Way! countries.

When I ask my students, “Would you marry someone you’re not ▸▸ Much of our common sense is based
in love with?” most laugh, raise an eyebrow, or stare at me in dis- on myths and misconceptions. A
belief. “Of course not!” they exclaim. In fact, the “open” courtship common myth is that living together is
and dating systems common in Western nations, including the a good way to find out whether part-
United States, are foreign to much of the world. In many African, ners will get along after marriage.
Asian, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern countries, marriages Generally, however, couples who live
are arranged: They forge bonds between families rather than together before marriage have higher
individuals, and preserve family continuity along religious and divorce rates than those who don’t (see
socioeconomic lines. Love isn’t a prerequisite for marriage in so- Chapter 12).
cieties that value kin groups rather than individual choices (see Sociology, in contrast to conventional
Chapters 9 and 12). wisdom, examines claims and beliefs criti-
cally, considers many points of view, and
enables us to move beyond established ways
of thinking. The sociological perspective
we act in different social situations, and how we dress for analyzes how social context influences people’s lives. The
work, classes, and leisure activities. “sociological imagination” is at the center of the socio-
So what? you might shrug. Isn’t it “obvious” that we logical perspective.
dress differently for classes than for job interviews? Isn’t
all of this just plain old common sense?

1-1b Isn’t Sociology Just Common True or False?

Sense?
E V E R Y B O D Y K N O W S T H AT. . .
No. Sociology goes well beyond conventional wisdom,
what we call common sense, in several ways:
All of the answers are false.
▸▸ Common sense is subjective. If a woman 1. States without the death penalty have had con-
crashes into my car, I might conclude, according to sistently lower homicide rates than those with
conventional wisdom, statements that we’ve heard death penalties (see Chapter 7).
over the years, that “women are terrible drivers.” 2. Regardless of education or occupation, women’s
In fact, most drivers involved in crashes are men— earnings are lower than men’s (see Chapters 9
especially teenagers and those age 70 and older and 11).
(Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2013). Thus, 3. Children ages 5 and under make up the largest
objective data show that, overall, men are worse group of Americans who are poor (see Chapter 8).
drivers than women.
4. The number of unmarried U.S. adults outnum-
▸▸ Common sense ignores facts. Because common bers those who are married (see Chapter 12).
sense is subjective, it ignores facts that challenge 5. Divorce rates are lower today than they were
cherished beliefs. For example, many Americans between 1975 and 1990 (see Chapter 12).
are most concerned about street crimes, such as 6. Latinos are the largest ethnic group in the
robbery or homicide. FBI and sociological data United States, but Asian Americans are the fast-
show, however, that we’re much more likely to be est growing (see Chapter 10).
assaulted or murdered by someone we know or live 7. What matters in polling is not the number of
with (see Chapters 7 and 12). people polled, but their representativeness in
▸▸ Common sense varies across groups and the population studied (see Chapter 2).
cultures. Many Americans believe that working 8. In the United States and worldwide, tobacco use
harder decreases poverty. In contrast, Europeans is the leading cause of preventable death and
tend to think that poverty is due to forces outside disability (see Chapter 14).
people’s control (see Chapters 3 and 8). Thus,
4 SOC

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 1-2 WHAT IS A SOCIOLOGICAL
IMAGINATION?
According to sociologist C. Wright Mills (1916–1962),
social factors such as religion, ethnicity, and politics

Jessica Miglio/Netflix/Everett Collection

affect our behavior. Mills (1959) called this ability to
see the relationship between individual experiences and
larger social influences the sociological imagination.
The sociological imagination emphasizes the connection
between personal troubles (biography) and structural
(public and historical) issues.
Consider unemployment. If only a small group of
people can’t find a job, it’s a personal trouble that may Netflix’s Orange Is the New Black revolves around a
be due, in part, to an individual’s low educational at- white, upper-middle-class woman who’s in prison for
tainment, lack of specific skills that employers want, drug smuggling. For sociologists, the series illustrates
not searching for work, and so on. If unemployment is the connection between micro-level individual behavior
widespread, it’s a public issue because economic prob- (the inmates’ and prison guards’ experiences) and
lems are also the result of structural factors such as mass macro-level factors (social class, family structures, racial
layoffs, sending jobs overseas, technological changes, discrimination, corruption, and prison overcrowding).
and restrictive hiring policies (see Chapter 11). Thus,
people may be unemployed regardless of skills, a college
degree, and job searches. divorce. On a micro level, sociologists study factors like
A sociological imagination helps us understand extramarital affairs, substance abuse, arguments about
how larger social forces impact our everyday lives. It money, and other everyday interactions that fuel mari-
identifies why our personal troubles are often due to tal tension and unhappiness, leading to divorce. On a
larger public issues and policies over which we have lit- macro level, sociologists look at how the economy, laws,
tle, if any, control. A sociological imagination relies on cultural values, and technology affect divorce rates (see
both micro- and macro-level approaches to understand Chapter 12). Examining micro, macro, and micro–macro
our social world. forces is one of the reasons why sociology is a powerful
tool in understanding (and changing) our behavior and
society at large (Ritzer, 1992).
1-2a Microsociology: How People
Affect Our Everyday Lives
Microsociology examines the patterns of individuals’
1-3 WHY STUDY SOCIOLOGY?
social interaction in specific settings. In most of our rela-
tionships, we interact with others on a micro, or “small,” Sociology offers explanations that can greatly improve
level (e.g., members of a work group discussing who will the quality of your everyday life. These explanations can
perform which tasks). These everyday interactions in- influence choices that range from your personal deci-
volve what people think, say, or do on a daily basis. sions to expanding your ca-
reer opportunities.
sociological imagination
1-2b Macrosociology: How Social seeing the relationship between

Structure Affects Our Everyday Lives 1-3a Making individual experiences and larger
social influences.
Informed
Macrosociology focuses on large-scale patterns and microsociology examines
processes that characterize society as a whole. Macro, or
Decisions the patterns of individuals’ social
interaction in specific settings.
“large,” approaches are especially useful in understand- Sociology can help us
ing some of the constraints—such as economic forces make more informed de- macrosociology examines the
and public policies. cisions. We often hear large-scale patterns and processes
that characterize society as a
Microsociology and macrosociology differ concep- that grief counseling is
whole.
tually, but are interrelated. Consider the reasons for essential after the death
CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 5

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 of a loved one. In fact, 4 in 10 Americans are better
off without it. Grief is normal, and most people work
through their losses on their own, whereas counseling
sometimes prolongs depression and anxiety (Stroebe
et al., 2000).

1-3b Understanding Diversity

The racial and ethnic composition of the United States is
changing. By 2025, only 58 percent of the U.S. popula-
tion is projected to be white, down from 76 percent in
1990 and 86 percent in 1950 (Passel et al., 2011; U.S.
Census Bureau, 2012). As you’ll see in later chapters,
this racial/ethnic shift has already affected interpersonal
relationships as well as education, politics, religion, and

Jason Love/Cartoonstock.com
other spheres of social life.
Recognizing and understanding diversity is one
of sociology’s central themes. Our gender, social class,
marital status, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and age—
among other factors—shape our beliefs, behavior, and
experiences. If, for example, you’re a white middle-class
male who attends a private college, your experiences
are very different from those of a female Vietnamese
immigrant who is struggling to pay expenses at a com-
emotional. In contrast, critical thinking involves knowl-
munity college.
edge and problem solving (Paul and Elder, 2007).
Increasingly, nations around the world are in-
Critical sociological thinking goes even further
tertwined through political and economic ties.
because we begin to understand how our indi-
What happens in other soci­eties often has a di-
vidual lives, choices, and troubles are shaped by
rect or indirect impact on contemporary U.S.
race, gender, social class, and social institutions
life. Decisions in oil-producing countries, for
like the economy, politics, and education (Eck-
example, affect gas prices, spur the develop-
stein et al., 1995; Grauerholz and Bouma-
ment of hybrid cars that are less dependent
Holtrop, 2003). Table 1.1 summarizes
on oil, and stimulate research on alter-
some of the basic elements of critical
native sources of energy. Suzanne Tucker/Shutterstock.com
sociological thinking.

1-3c Shaping Social and Public Policies

and Practices
Sociology is valuable in applied, clinical, and policy set- Table 1.1 What Is Critical Sociological Thinking?
tings because many jobs require understanding soci-
ety and research to create social change. According to Critical sociological thinking requires a combination of
a director of a research institute, sociology increased skills. Some of the basic elements include the ability to:
her professional contributions: “I can look at problems ●● rely on reason rather than emotion
of concern to the National Institutes of Health and say
‘here’s a different way to solve this problem’” (Nyseth
●● ask questions, avoid snap judgments, and examine popular
and unpopular beliefs
et al., 2011: 48).
●● recognize one’s own and others’ assumptions, prejudices,
1-3d Thinking Critically and points of view

We develop a sociological imagination not only when we

●● remain open to alternative explanations and theories
understand and can apply the concepts, but also when ●● examine competing evidence (see Chapter 2)
we can think, speak, and write critically. Much of our
●● understand how public policies affect private troubles
thinking and decision making is often impulsive and
6 SOC

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 Some well-known people who were sociology majors: Rev. Martin Luther King, Ronald Reagan, Michelle
Obama, Robin Williams, and Joe Theismann. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division[Leffler, Warren K/ LC-DIG-ds-00836]; U.S. National Archives
and Records Administration (NARA); Official White House Photo; Everett Collection/Shutterstock.com; Nate Fine/Getty Images Sport/Getty Images; iStock.com/belterz

1-3e Expanding Your Career 1-4 SOME ORIGINS OF

Opportunities
A degree in sociology is a springboard for many jobs
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
and professions. A national survey of under-graduate During college, most of my classmates and I postponed
sociology majors found that 44 percent were in ad- taking theory courses (regardless of our major) as long as
ministrative or management positions, 22 percent possible. “This stuff is boring, boring, boring,” we’d grump,
were employed in social service and counseling, 18 “and has nothing to do with the real world.” In fact, theo-
percent were in sales and marketing, and 12 percent rizing is part of our everyday lives. Every time you try to
were teachers (Senter et al., 2014; see also Senter and explain why your family and friends behave as they do, for
Spalter-Roth, 2016). example, you’re theorizing.
What specific skills do sociology majors learn that As people struggle to understand human behavior,
are useful in their jobs? Some of the most important are they develop theories. A theory is a set of statements
being better able to work with people (71 percent), to that explains why a phenomenon occurs. Theories pro-
organize information (69 percent), to write reports that duce knowledge, guide our research, help us analyze our
nonsociologists understand (61 percent), and to inter- findings, and, ideally, offer solutions for social problems.
pret research findings (56 percent) (Van Vooren and Sociologist James White (2005: 170–171) describes
Spalter-Roth, 2010). theories as “tools” that don’t profess to know “the truth”
In other cases, students major in sociology because but “may need replacing” over time as our understand-
it provides a broad liberal arts foundation for professions ing of society becomes more sophisticated. In effect,
such as law, education, and social work. The Medical theories evolve over time because of cultural and tech-
College Admission Test (MCAT) now includes material nological changes. You’ll see shortly, for example, that
from sociology because “Being a good physician is about sociological theories changed considerably after the rise
more than scientific knowledge. It’s about understanding of feminist scholarship during the late 1960s.
people—how they think, interact, and make decisions” Sociological theories didn’t emerge overnight. Nine-
(Olsen, 2016: 72). teenth-century thinkers grappled with some of the same
Even if you don’t major in sociology, developing questions that sociologists try to answer today: Why do
your sociological imagination can enrich your job skills. people behave as they do? What holds society together?
Sociology courses help you learn to think abstractly What pulls it apart? Of the many early sociological theo-
and critically, formulate problems, ask incisive ques- rists, some of the most influential were Auguste Comte,
tions, search for data in the most reliable and up-to-date Harriet Martineau, Émile
sources, organize material, and improve your oral pre- Durkheim, Karl Marx, Max
sentations (ASA Research Department, 2013; Spalter- theory a set of statements that
Weber, Jane Addams, and explains why a phenomenon occurs.
Roth et al., 2013). W. E. B. Du Bois.
CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 7

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 1-4a Auguste Comte Martineau, a feminist and strong opponent of
slavery, denounced many aspects of capitalism as
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined alienating and degrading, and criticized dangerous
the term sociology and is often de- workplaces that often led to injury and death. Mar-
scribed as the “father of sociology.” tineau promoted improving women’s positions in the
Comte maintained that the study workforce through education, nondiscriminatory
of society must be
employment, and training programs. She advocated
empirical. That is,
women’s admission into medical schools and empha-
information should
sized issues such as infant care, the rights of the aged,
be based on ob-
suicide prevention, and other social problems
servations, experi-
Theories = ments, or other data
(Hoecker-Drysdale, 1992).
After a long tour of the United States, Martineau
Tools collection rather
than on ideology,
described American women as being socialized to be
subservient and dependent rather than equal marriage
religion, intuition,
partners. She also criticized American and European re-
or conventional
ligious institutions for expecting women to be pious and
Creata s Image s/Jupi ter Image s wisdom.
passive rather than educating them in philosophy and
He saw
politics. Most scholars, including sociologists, ridi-
sociology as the scientific study of two aspects
culed and dismissed such ideas as too radical.
of society: social statics and social dynamics. So-
cial statics investigates how principles of social
order explain a particular society, as well as the 1-4c Émile Durkheim
interconnections between institutions. Social
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), a French
dynamics explores how individuals and
sociologist and writer, agreed with
societies change over time. Comte’s
Comte that societies are character-
emphasis on social order and change
ized by unity and cohesion because
within and across societies is still
their members are bound together
useful today because many sociolo-
by common interests and attitudes.
gists examine the relationships Hulton Archive/Getty Images
The Father of Sociology— Whereas Comte acknowledged
between education and politics
the importance of using scientific
(social statics), as well as how such Auguste Comte methods to study society, Dur-
interconnections change over time
kheim actually did so by poring over
(social dynamics).
official statistics to test a theory about suicide (Adams
and Sydie, 2001).
1-4b Harriet Martineau
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), an English author, pub- SOCIAL FACTS
lished several dozen books on a wide range of topics in so- To be scientific, Durkheim maintained, sociology must
cial science, politics, literature, and history. Her translation study social facts—aspects of social life,
and condensation of Auguste Comte’s difficult material external to the individual, that can be
for popular consumption was largely responsible for the measured. Sociologists can determine
dissemination of Comte’s work. “We might say, then, that material facts by examining demo-
sociology had parents of both sexes” (Adams and Sydie, graphic characteristics such as age, place
2001: 32). She emphasized of residence, and population size.
empirical information that is the importance of system- They can gauge nonmaterial
Spencer Arnold/Hulton

based on observations, experiments, atic data collection through facts, like communication
Archive/Getty Images

or other data collection rather than observation and interviews, processes, by observing
on ideology, religion, intuition, or
conventional wisdom.
and an objective analysis everyday behavior and
of data to explain events how people relate to each
social facts aspects of social and behavior. She also pub- other (see Chapters 3
life, external to the individual, that
can be measured.
lished the first sociology re- to 6). For contemporary Harriet Martineau
search methods textbook. sociologists, social facts
8 SOC

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also include collecting and analyzing data on
social currents such as collective behavior and
Figure 1.1 U.S. Suicide Rates, by Sex and Age
social movements (see Chapter 16). Suicide deaths per 100,000 population
38.8
DIVISION OF LABOR Male

One of Durkheim’s central questions was how 29.7

26.6
people can be autonomous and individualistic 24.3
while being integrated in society. Social soli-
darity, or social cohesiveness and harmony, 18.2

according to Durkheim, is maintained by a

division of labor—an interdependence of 9.8
7.2 4.0
different tasks and occupations, characteristic 4.6
5.9
Female
of industrialized soci­eties, that produces social
unity and facilitates change.
15–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75 and over
As the division of labor becomes more
Age
specialized, people become increasingly de-
pendent on others for specific goods and ser- Source: Based on Curtin et al., 2016, Figures 2 and 3.
vices. Today, for example, many couples who
marry often contract “experts” (e.g., photographers, a complex interplay of depression, substance abuse, ac-
florists, deejays, caterers, bartenders, travel agents, and cess to guns, hopelessness because of terminal illnesses,
even “wedding planners”). and not being “connected” to family, friends, community
groups, and support systems that women tend to develop
SOCIAL INTEGRATION throughout their lives (American Association of Suicidol-
Durkheim was one of the first sociologists to test a the- ogy, 2009; see also Chapters 9 and 12).
ory using data. In his classic study, Suicide, Durkheim
(1897/1951) relied on extensive data collection to test 1-4d Karl Marx
his theory that suicide is associated with social integra- Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German social philosopher,
tion. He concluded that people who experience mean- is often described as the most influential social scientist
ingful social relationships in families, social groups, who ever lived. Marx, like Comte and Durkheim, tried to
and communities are less likely to commit suicide than explain the societal changes that were taking place dur-
those who feel alone, helpless, or hopeless. Thus, many ing the Industrial Revolution.
seemingly isolated individual acts, including suicide, The Industrial Revolution began in England around
are often the result of structural arrangements, such as 1780 and spread throughout Western Europe and the
weak social ties. United States during the nineteenth century. A number
We typically hear about high of technological inventions—like the spinning wheel,
teenage suicide rates, but the steam engine, and large weaving looms—enabled
they’re much higher at later the development of large-scale manufacturing and min-
ages. As in Durkheim’s day, ing industries over a relatively short period. The exten-
men have higher suicide rates sive mechanization shifted agricultural and home-based
than women across all age work to factories in cities. As masses of people migrated
groups (Figure 1.1), and white from small farms to factories to find jobs, urbanization
males age 85 and older are the and capitalism grew rapidly.
Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo

most likely to take their own lives

(National Center for Health Statis- CAPITALISM
tics, 2015). Unlike his predecessors social solidarity social
Durkheim’s connec- and contemporaries, Marx cohesiveness and harmony.
tion of social integration (1867/1967, 1964) main- division of labor an
to the suicide rate is still tained that economic issues interdependence of different tasks
relevant today. The high produce divisiveness rather and occupations, characteristic of
industrialized societies, that produces
Émile Durkheim suicide rates of older than social solidarity. For
social unity and facilitates change.
white men are due to Marx, the most important
CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 9

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 social change was the development of capitalism, an of our humanness.” Instead of collaboration,
economic system in which the ownership of the means of a capitalistic society encourages competi-
production—such as land, factories, large sums of money, tion, backstabbing, and “looking out for
and machines—is private. As a result, Marx saw industrial number one.”
society as composed of three social classes: According to Marx, capitalists are also
▸▸ capitalists—the ruling elite who own the means of alienated. They regard goods and ser-
producing wealth (such as factories) vices as important simply because
they’re sources of profit. Capitalists
▸▸ petit bourgeoisie—small business owners and don’t care who buys or sells their
workers who still have their own means of production products, how the workers feel
but might end up in the proletariat because they’re about the products they make,
driven out by competition or their businesses fail or whether buyers value the
▸▸ proletariat—the masses of workers who depend on products. The major fo-

Roger Viollet Collection/Getty Images

wages to survive, have few resources, and make up cus, for capitalists,
the working class is on increasing
profits as much
CLASS CONFLICT as possible
Marx believed that society is divided into the haves rather than
(capitalists) and the have-nots (proletariat). For Marx, feeling “con- Comstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images

capitalism is a class system in which conflict between nected” to the

products or services Karl Marx
the classes is common and society is anything but cohe-
sive. Instead, class antagonisms revolve around struggles they sell. Every
be­tween the capitalists, who increase their profits by year, for example, companies must recall cars, pharma-
exploiting workers, and workers, who resist but give in ceutical items, toys, and food that cause injuries, illness,
because they depend on capitalists for jobs. or death.
Marx argued that there’s a close relationship be-
tween inequality, social conflict, and social class.
History, he maintained, is a series of class struggles
between capitalists and workers. As wealth becomes
more concentrated in the hands of a few capital-
ists, Marx predicted, the ranks of an increasingly dis-
satisfied proletariat would swell, leading to bloody
revolution and eventually a classless society. The Occupy
Wall Street movement showed that thousands of
Americans are very unhappy about the growing inequal-
ity between the haves and the have-nots, but there hasn’t

Daryl Lang/Shutterstock.com
been a “bloody revolution” in the United States, unlike
some countries in the Middle East.

ALIENATION
In industrial capitalist systems, Marx (1844/1964) con-
tended, alienation—feeling separated from one’s Occupy Wall Street (OWS) was a protest movement
group or society—is common across all social classes. against corporate greed, corruption, and influence
Workers feel alienated because they don’t own or con- on government. It began in mid-September, 2011,
in New York City’s Wall Street financial district.
trol either the means of
The OWS slogan, “We are the 99%,” referred to
capitalism an economic system production or the prod-
U.S. income and wealth inequality between the
based on the private ownership uct. Because meaningful
of property and the means of wealthiest 1 percent and the rest of the population.
labor is what makes us OWS received global attention and spawned similar
production.
human, Marx maintained, movements worldwide but was short-lived (see
alienation feeling separated our workplace has alien- Chapter 16).
from one’s group or society.
ated us “from the essence
10 SOC

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1-4e Max Weber SUBJECTIVE
UNDERSTANDING
Max Weber (pronounced VAY-ber; 1864–1920) was a
German sociologist, economist, legal scholar, historian, Weber posited that an
and politician. Unlike Marx’s emphasis on economics as a understanding of society
major factor in explaining society, Weber focused on so- requires a “subjective”
understanding of behav-

Hulton Archive/Getty Images

cial organization, a subjective understanding of behavior,
and a value-free sociology. ior. Such understanding,
or verstehen (pronounced
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION fer-SHTAY-en), involves
For Weber, economic factors were important, but ideas, knowing how people perceive
religious values, ideologies, and charismatic leaders the world in which they live.
were just as crucial in shaping and changing societies. Weber described two types
He maintained that a complete understanding of soci- of verstehen. In direct ob-
ety requires an analysis of the social organization and servational under-
interrelationships among economic, political, and cul- standing, the social Max Weber
tural institutions. In his Protestant Ethic and the Spirit scientist observes a
of Capitalism, for example, Weber (1920/1958) argued person’s facial ex-
that the self-denial fostered by Calvinism supported the pressions, gestures, and listens to his/her words. In
rise of capitalism and shaped many of our current values explanatory understanding, the social scientist tries to
about working hard (see Chapters 3 and 6). grasp the intention and context of the behavior.

Is It Possible to Be a Value-Free Sociologist?

Max Weber was concerned about popular professors
who took political positions that pleased many of their
students. He felt that these professors were behaving
Can sociologists
improperly because science, including sociology, must be value free—
be “value free.” Faculty must set their personal values
aside to make a contribution to society. According to a
especially when
sociologist who agrees with Weber, sociology’s weak- they have strong
ness is its tendency toward moralism and ideology:
Many people become sociologists out of an impulse to
feelings about many
reform society, fight injustice, and help people. Those societal issues?
sentiments are noble, but unless they are tempered by
skepticism, discipline, and scientific detachment, they
Should they be ?
can be destructive. Especially when you are morally
outraged and burning with a desire for action, you
need to be cautious (Massey, 2007: B12). shouldn’t apologize for being subjective in their
teaching and research. By staying silent, social scien-
Some argue that being value free is a myth be-
tists “cede the conversation to those with the loudest
cause it’s impossible for a scholar’s attitudes and
voices or deepest pockets . . . people with mega-
opinions to be totally divorced from her or his schol-
phones who spread sensational misinformation” that
arship (Gouldner, 1962). Many sociologists, after all,
deprives the public of the best available data (Wang,
do research on topics that they consider significant
2015: A48).
and about which they have strong views.
Can sociologists really be value free—especially
Others maintain that one’s values should be pas-
when they have strong feelings about many societal
sionately partisan, should frame research issues, and
issues? Should they be?
should improve society (Feagin, 2001). Sociologists

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 11

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 If a person bursts into tears (direct observational and scholarly journals, as well as many
understanding), the observer knows what the person books on the everyday life of urban
may be feeling (anger, sorrow, and so on). An explana- neighborhoods, especially the ef-
tory understanding goes a step further by spelling out fects of social disorganization
the reason for the behavior (rejection by a loved one, and immigration. Much of her
frustration if you lose your smartphone, humiliation if a work contributed to symbolic
boss yells at you in public). interaction, an emerging school
of thought that you’ll read about

Wallace Kirkland//Time Life Pictures/Getty Images

VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY shortly. One of Addams’ greatest
One of Weber’s most lasting and intellectual legacies was her em-
controversial views was the notion phasis on applying knowledge to
that sociologists must be as objec- everyday problems. Her pioneer-
tive, or “value free,” as possible ing work in criminology included
in analyzing society. A researcher ecological maps of Chicago
who is value free is one who sep- that were later credited to men
arates her or his personal values, (Moyer, 2003).
opinions, ideology, and beliefs
from scientific research.
Jane Addams with a child
1-4g W. E. B. Du Bois
During Weber’s time, the gov- W. E. B. Du Bois (pronounced
ernment and other organizations at Hull House Do-BOICE; 1868–1963) was a
demanded that university faculty prominent black sociologist, writer,
teach the “right” ideas. Weber encouraged everyone to editor, social reformer, and orator. The author of almost
be involved as citizens, but he maintained that educa- two dozen books on Africans and black Americans, Du
tors and scholars should be as dispassionate as possible Bois spent most of his life responding to the critics and
politically and ideologically. The task of the teacher, detractors of black life. He was the first African American
Weber argued, was to provide students with knowledge to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard University, but once re-
and scientific experience, not to “imprint” the teacher’s marked, “I was in Harvard but not of it.”
personal political views and value judgments (Gerth and Du Bois helped found the National Association for
Mills, 1946). “Is It Possible to Be a Value-Free Sociolo- the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and ed-
gist?” examines this issue further. ited its journal, Crisis. The problem of the twentieth cen-
tury, he wrote, is the problem of the color line. Du Bois
believed that the race problem was one of ignorance,
1-4f Jane Addams and advocated a “cure” for prejudice and discrimination.
Jane Addams (1860–1935) was a social worker who co- Such cures included promoting black political power and
founded Hull House, one of the first settlement houses civil rights and providing blacks with a higher education
in Chicago that served the neighborhood poor. An active rather than funneling them into techical schools.
reformer throughout her life, Jane Addams was a leader These and other writings were unpop­ular at a time
in the women’s suffrage movement and, in 1931, was the when Booker T. Washington, a well-known black educa-
first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace tor, encouraged black people to be patient instead of de-
Prize for her advocacy of negotiating, rather than waging manding equal rights. As a result, Du Bois was dismissed
war, to settle disputes. as a radical by his contemporaries but was rediscovered
Sociologist Mary Jo Deegan (1986) describes Jane by a new generation of black scholars during the 1970s
Addams as “the greatest woman sociologist of her day.” and 1980s. Among his many contributions, Du Bois ex-
However, she was ignored by her colleagues at the Univer- amined the oppressive effects of race and social class,
sity of Chicago (the first sociology department established advocated women’s rights, and played a key role in re-
in the United States in 1892) because discrimination shaping black–white relations in America (Du Bois, 1986;
against women sociologists Lewis, 1993).
value free separating one’s was “rampant” (p. 8). All of these and other early thinkers agreed that
personal values, opinions, Despite such discrimi- people are transformed by each other’s actions, social
ideology, and beliefs from
nation, Addams published patterns, and historical changes. They and other scholars
scientific research.
articles in many popular shaped contemporary sociological theories.
12 SOC

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