Journal of Geology and Mining Research Vol. 3(7), pp.

169-179, July 2011

Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/JGMR
ISSN 2006-9766 ©2011 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Subsoil investigation using integrated methods at

Lagos, Nigeria
Oyedele, K. F.* and Okoh, C.
Department of Geosciences, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
Accepted 17 January, 2011

The application of geophysical and geotechnical methods in subsoil investigation at Magodo phase II
Lagos, Nigeria has revealed the presence of five subsurface geo-electric layers. This consists of
topsoil, sandy clay, sand, clay and sand. The sand ranges in thickness from 14.33 to 37.3 m while the
depth to the sand body varies from 3.35 to over 70 m. The clay layer ranges in depth from 22.4 to 43.89
m while its thickness varies from 27.64 to 55.89 m. The 2-D resistivity profiles revealed the lateral
variation of the subsurface litho-logy with depth. Also the cone penetrometer test (CPT) shows
competent values for penetrative resistance at 14 to over 18 m. The study shows that shallow
foundation is feasible in some part of the study area. The results of the two methods correlate well with
each other.

Key words: Pseudo-section, geo-electric section, resistivity, cone resistance, expansive clay.

INTRODUCTION

In recent time, the statistics of failures of engineering example, the near surface soil is of expansive clay
structures such as roads, buildings, and bridges (Coertz, 1996). Expansive clay behaves differently than
throughout the nation has increased geometrically. sandy soil. Sandy soil does not expand when it gets wet
Several probable reasons speculated to have been instead the water fills the air space between the grains of
responsible for this ugly incidence have been highlighted sand. Because of this, the soil volume does not change
by the engineering community. These include inadequate and there is little movement of structures supported by
supervision, poor construction materials, non compliance the soil when the soil moisture conditions alternate
to specifications etc. Unfortunately, one particular and or between wet and dry. Expansive clay soil expands when
/major point that has always not been given serious it absorbs water. Water becomes bound to the clay
attention in this part of the world is the lack of adequate particles. As the soil goes through wet and dry periods,
information on the nature of subsurface conditions prior the soil expands and contracts. Structures sitting on top
to construction exercise. However, since every of the clay soil rise and fall with the soil. If this happened
engineering structure is seated on geological earth uniformly across the structures, damage to the foundation
materials, it is imperative to conduct pre-construction and finishes from soil movement would be limited.
investigation of the subsurface of the proposed site in Unfortunately, uniform shrinking and swelling does not
order to ascertain the strength and the fitness of the host usually happen. The result is “differential” foundation
earth materials as well as the timed post-construction movement, which causes cracking and distress. In view
monitoring of such structure to ensure its integrity. The of the above, an integrated geophysical and geotechnical
need for pre - foundation studies has therefore become methods were employed to investigate the subsoil
necessary so as to prevent loss of valuable lives and conditions at Magodo area of Lagos as an aid to
properties that always accompany such failures. engineering construction exercise.
In many coastal areas of the world, Lagos as an For geophysical studies, electrical resistivity method is
the most common technique used for such purpose
(Gowd, 2004; Neil and Ahmed, 2006; Susan, 2004;
Olorunfemi and Meshida, 1987; Dahlin, 1996). This is
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] or because the method is reliable, efficient and cost
[email protected]. effective. Information such as thickness of the
170 J. Geol. Min. Res.

Figure 1. Part of the geologic map of Nigeria showing the study area.

geological layers, depth to geological beds, depth to Field technique

water table, depth to buried metals, delineation of
contaminant plumes etc can be determined. On the other The vertical electrical sounding (VES) using
hand, Cone penetrometre test (CPT) has been the most Schlumberger array system and horizontal profiling (HP)
widely used method amongst geotechnical techniques using dipole-dipole array system were conducted along
(Baldi et al., 1995; Lunne et al., 1997; Coerts, 1996; three traverse lines. Terrameter SAS 1000 system was
Eslaamizand and Robertson, 1998). Cost, efficiency, employed in data collection. SAS stands for Signal
speed, simplicity, reliability and the ability to provide Averaging System, a method whereby consecutive
continuous information on the soil properties with depth readings are taken automatically and the results
are the important reasons for the increasing popularity of averaged continuously. SAS results are more reliable
CPT. than those obtained using single-shot systems. A total of
16 VES points and 3 HP lines were covered (Figure 2).
Also two (2) cone penetrometer test (CPT) were
MATERIALS AND METHODS conducted. The VES data obtained were processed using
WingLink software. A WingLink data-base contains the
Geological setting data for all surveys carried out in the area of interest.
Information on the central meridian, the projection used
The study area lies within the Dahomey sedimentary for the station coordinates, and the linear units used for
basin. The basin extends from the eastern part of Ghana distances and depths are stored in the database
through Togo and Benin Republic to the western magin properties. By this technique, minor errors due to manual
of the Niger Delta (Figure 1). The base of the basin interpretation are eliminated.
consists of unfossiliferous sandstones and gravels The cone penetrometer test (CPT) was carried out at 3
weathered from underlying Precambrian basement. On locations on each traverse lines by forcing a hardened
2
top of these are marine shales, sand stones of Albian to steel cone with a base area of 1000 mm at an apex
Santonian ages deposited prior to the Santonian tectonic angle of 60 continuously into the ground and measuring
episode (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981). The Quaternary its resistance to penetration. The 2 ½ ton equipment is a
geology of the study area comprises the Benin Formation manually operated unit furnished with a single cone that
(Miocene to Recent), recent lithoral alluvium and can measure the end resistance, qc only. The cone was
lagoon/coastal plain sand deposits (Durotoye, 1975; advanced at regular intervals of 25 cm and the
Longel et al., 1987). The alluvial deposits consists mainly corresponding pressure required to advance it is
of sands with clay intercalations; litholoral and lagoon transmitted to a gauge which in turn records this pressure
sediments formed between two barrier beaches and value. This procedure was repeated until the required
coastal plain sands (Adeyemi, 1972). depth is either reached or the total resistance to
 Oyedele and Okoh 171

Figure 2. Base map of the study area showing the data points.

Figure 3a. Sample of computer iterated field curve.

penetration of the tubes and cone reaches the capacity of DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
the machine. Successive cone resistance readings were
plotted against depth to form a resistance profile which Curves and geo-electric sections
indicates the strata sequence penetrated (Figure 10).
The one dimensional resistivity curves (Figure 3) is made
up of four layers. The qualitative interpretation shows one
RESULTS QQH and two KQH curves. The quantitative interpretation
was achieved using inversion software called WinGLink.
Presentation of results The geo-electric section AA' (Figure 4) gives visual
representation of the litho-logic units identified. The result
The interpreted results were presented in the form of shows that the area has five geo-electric layers namely
curves, geo-electric sections, contoured maps, pseudo- topsoil, sandy clay, sand and clay. The topsoil constitutes
sections, graphs and tables (Figures 3 to 10 and Tables 1 the first geo-electric layer with thickness that ranges from
and 2). 0.53 to 1.07 m and resistivity value that varies between
172 J. Geol. Min. Res.

Figure 3b. Sample of computer iterated field curve.

Figure 4. Geoelectric section along traverse AA’.

86 and 386 Ωm. The second layer is made up of sandy 5.49 m. The third geo-electric layer consists of sand with
clay with resistivity value that varies between 227 and resistivity value that ranges from 95 and 262 Ωm and
602 Ωm and thickness value that ranges from 2.82 to thickness values that varies from 14.33 to 37.3 m. The
 Oyedele and Okoh 173

Figure 5. Isopach map of clay layers.

Figure 6. Contoured map of depth to clay layers.

forth geo-electric layer is made up of clay with resistivity Figure 6 shows that the depth to clay layer varies from
value that varies from 110 and 342 Ωm and thickness less than 70 m in some parts to over 75 m in other parts
values that vary from 27.6 to 55.9 m. The fifth layer of the area. Figure 7 shows the isopach map of sand
consists of sand with infinite thickness because of the layer. Here, it is shown that less than 20% of the area
termination of current at this layer. has sand thickness value that is less than 15 m while the
remaining part has sand thickness value that is less than
30 m. In Figure 8, almost three-quarter part of the area
Contoured maps show the depth to sand layer to be less than 2 m while
the remaining portion show the depth to sand layer to be
Four maps were produced, two each for sand and clay above 6 m.
layers. Figures 5 and 6 show the isopach map for clay
and depth to clay layer respectively. In Figure 5, it is seen Pseudo-sections
that almost 65% of the area has clay thickness value in
the neighborhood of 25 m while the remaining portion has Figures 9 shows representative sample of the two
clay thickness value of about 35%. On the other hand, dimensional resistivity pseudo-sections of the study area
174 J. Geol. Min. Res.

Figure 7. Isopach map of sand layers.

Figure 8. Contoured map of depth to sand layers.

showing the lateral variation of the subsurface litho-logy clay and clayey sand occurring at various depths.
with depth. Traverse 1 is the longest of all the traverses
(Figure 9a). It has a length of about 310 m. VES 3 was
shot at 140 m on the traverse. Here the litho- Graphs
stratigraphical variation along the horizontal axis bears
close resemblance with that on the vertical axis (Figure The data obtained from the CPT measurements was
4). The second traverse has a length of 170 m and VES 2 used to produce the plots of cone reading against the
was shot at 80 m. VES 1 was shot on the third traverse at depth (Figure 10). Table 2 shows the data for CPT 1 and
50 m. Also the lateral subsurface litho-logical variation the calculated bearing capacity using Meyehorf equation.
bears close resemblance with the vertical variation. The
main observable litho-logy consist of sandy clay, sand, qa = 2.7 qc kN/m2
 Oyedele and Okoh 175

Figure 9a. 2-D pseudo-section for traverse 1.

Figure 9b. 2-D pseudo-section for traverse 3.

Where qa is the allowable bearing capacity; qc is the cone (KN/m2) and the calculated allowable bearing capacity in
2
resistance. KN/m . The plot for cone reading in CPT 1 (Figure 10a)
shows values which vary from 0 to 194 kg/cm2. From a
For the purpose of foundation construction, an average depth of 0 – 14.5 m the cone reading ranged from 0 – 89
value for penetrative resistance for competent subsurface kg/cm2. At 14.75 m the penetrative reading was 104
2 2 2
materials is taken as 100 kg/cm . The corresponding kg/cm which is greater than 100 kg/cm , this implies
2
value for allowable bearing capacity (qa) is 26460 KN/m competent material. However at 15.25 – 15.5 m and
while the value for the ultimate bearing capacity qu 16.25 – 16.5 m the cone reading showed values that vary
(KN/m2) is given as 79380 KN/m 2. Table 2 shows the between 70 – 74 kg/cm2 which does not represent
various parameters obtained from the penetrative competent material. Beyond 16.5 m, that is, from 16.75 m
resistance. These are the tip resistance in standard unit to the point of termination, the cone reading ranges from
176 J. Geol. Min. Res.

Depth against Tip Resistance

Tip Resistance (Kg/cm2)

0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

-2

-4

-6
Depth(m)

-8

Tip Resistance
-10

-12

-14

-16

-18

-20

Figure 10a. Plot of cone reading (Kg/cm2) versus depth (m) for CPT 1.

Figure 10b. Plot of cone reading (Kg/cm2) versus depth (m) for CPT 2.

2
104 to 194 kg/cm . For CPT 2 (Figure 10b), the Conclusion
penetrative resistance varies from 0 to 95 kg/cm2 starting
from the surface to a depth of 14 m. From 14.25 to 15.75 The integrated geophysical and geotechnical
m, the cone reading varies from 100 to 178 kg/cm 2. In the investigations carried out at Magodo phase II Lagos has
nut shell, the results of the geotechnical analysis show revealed the presence of five subsurface geo-electric
the presence of competent materials at the depth range layers. This consists of topsoil, sandy clay, sand, clay
of 14 to over 18 m. This correlates well with the results of and sand. The sand ranges in thickness from 14.33 to
geophysical analysis as seen in (Figure 8). 37.3 m while the depth to the sand body varies from 3.35
 Oyedele and Okoh 177

Table 1. Sample of interpreted VES data.

VES Layer Resistivity (Ωm) Thickness (m) Depth (m) Lithology Curve type
1 86.00 0.53 0.53 Topsoil
2 329.14 2.82 3.35 Sandy clay
1 3 94.83 35.5 38.85 sand KQH
4 7.07 31.8 70.65 Clay
5. 234.50 Sand

1 226.73 0.68 0.68 Topsoil

2 601.48 5.49 6.17 Sandy clay
2 3 262.05 14.33 20.5 Sand KQH
‫ײַ‬ 22.36 55.89 76.39 Clay
5 110.22 Sand

1 385.92 1.07 1.07 Topsoil

2 227.10 4.28 5.35 Sandy clay
3 3 105.29 37.3 42.65 Sand QQH
4 5.71 27.64 70.29 Clay
5 342.12 Sand

Table 2. Cone penetrometer test (CPT 1) and the calculated bearing capacity.

Depth qc (Tip Resistance) Tip resistance (in standard unit) qa calculated allowable bearing capacity
(m) kg/cm2 (KN/m2) (KN/m2)
0.0000 0.0000 0 0
0.2500 16.0000 1568 4234
0.5000 24.0000 2352 6350
0.7500 34.0000 3332 8996
1.0000 34.0000 3332 8996
1.2500 44.0000 4312 11642
1.5000 50.0000 4900 13230
1.7500 36.0000 3528 9526
2.0000 56.0000 5488 14818
2.2500 50.0000 4900 13230
2.5000 52.0000 5096 13759
2.7500 36.0000 3528 9526
3.0000 36.0000 3528 9526
3.2500 36.0000 3528 9526
3.5000 34.0000 3332 8996
3.7500 28.0000 2744 7409
4.0000 30.0000 2940 7938
4.2500 29.0000 2842 7673
4.5000 28.0000 2744 7409
4.7500 28.0000 2744 7409
5.0000 28.0000 2744 7409
5.2500 30.0000 2940 7938
5.5000 32.0000 3136 8467
5.7500 31.0000 3038 8203
6.0000 33.0000 3234 8732
6.2500 34.0000 3332 8996
6.5000 36.0000 3528 9526
178 J. Geol. Min. Res.

Table 2. Contd.

6.7500 32.0000 3136 8467

7.0000 30.0000 2940 7938
7.2500 44.0000 4312 11642
7.5000 46.0000 4508 12172
7.7500 48.0000 4704 12701
8.0000 53.0000 5194 14024
8.2500 54.0000 5292 14288
8.5000 62.0000 6076 16405
8.7500 54.0000 5292 14288
9.0000 58.0000 5684 15347
9.2500 62.0000 6076 16405
9.5000 64.0000 6272 16934
9.7500 69.0000 6762 18257
10.0000 70.0000 6860 18522
10.2500 64.0000 6272 16934
10.5000 66.0000 6468 17464
10.7500 64.0000 6272 16934
11.0000 67.0000 6566 17728
11.2500 66.0000 6468 17464
11.5000 68.0000 6664 17993
11.7500 65.0000 6370 17199
12.0000 68.0000 6664 17993
12.2500 62.0000 6076 16405
12.5000 66.0000 6468 17464
12.7500 62.0000 6076 16405
13.0000 68.0000 6664 17993
13.2500 65.0000 6370 17199
13.5000 70.0000 6860 18522
13.7500 82.0000 8036 21697
14.0000 86.0000 8428 22756
14.2500 76.0000 7448 20110
14.5000 80.0000 7840 21168
14.7500 104.0000 10192 27518
15.0000 114.0000 11172 30164
15.2500 70.0000 6860 18522
15.5000 72.0000 7056 19051
15.7500 116.0000 11368 30694
16.0000 118.0000 11564 31223
16.2500 74.0000 7252 19580
16.5000 74.0000 7252 19580
16.7500 104.0000 10192 27518
17.0000 120.0000 11760 31752
17.2500 106.0000 10388 28048
17.5000 108.0000 10584 28577
17.7500 194.0000 19012 51332
18.0000
18.2500
18.5000
18.7500
 Oyedele and Okoh 179

to over 70 m. The clay layer ranges in depth from 22.4 to Durotoye AB (1975). Quaternary Sediments in Nigeria. In: Kogbe C.A
(ed. Geology of Nigeria. Elizabeth press, Lagos. pp. 431 - 451.
43.89 m while its thickness varies from 27.64 to 55.89 m. Eslaamizand S, Robertson PK (1998). Cone penetration resistance of
The 2-D resisstivity profiles revealed the lateral variation sand from Seismic tests, in Robertson PK, Mayne PW, Eds,
of the subsurface litho-logy with depth. Also the CPT .Geotechnical site characterization: Balkema, pp. 1027 – 1032.
shows competent values for penetrative resistance at 14 Gowd SS (2004). Electrical resistivity surveys to delineate ground water
to over 18 m. The study shows that shallow foundation is potential aquifers in Peddavanka water shed, Ananater pur Distict,
Andhra prodesh India.
feasible in some part of the study area. Longe EO, Malomo S, Oloruniwo MA (1987). Hydro-geology of Lagos
Metropolis. J. Afr., 6(2): 163-174.
Lunne T, Robertson PK, Powell JJM (1997). Cone penetration Testingin
REFERENCES Geotechnical Practice. Blackie Academic and Professiona, London,
P. 312.
Adeyemi PA (1972). Sedimentology of Lagos lagoon. Unpublished Neil A, Ahme I (2006). A generalized protocol for selecting appropriate
special BSc thesis, Obafemi, Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, geophysical techniques. Dept. of Geol. and Geophs. University of
Nigeria. Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, Missouri P. 19.
Baldi G, Belloti R, Ghionna VN, Lo Presti DCF (1995). Modulus of Olorunfemi MO, Meshida EA (1987). Engineering geophysics and its
th
sands from CPT and DMT: Proceedings of the 12 International application in Engineering site investigation (Case study from Ile-Ife
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Pp. 165- area), Nig. Eng., 24: 57-66.
170. Omatsola ME, Adegoke OS (1981). Tectonic evolution and cretaceous
Coerts A (1996). Analysis of static cone penetration test data for stratigraphy of the Dahomey Basin. Nig. J. Min. Geol., 18(1): 130-
subsurface modeling. Amethodology- Phd thesis, Netherlands 137.
Geophysical Studies. Pp. 210 - 263. Susan EP (2004). The role of Geophysics in 3-D mapping. Geology
Dahlin T (1996). 2-D resistivity surveying for environmental and Survey Canada. ON, KIAOE8, Canada, pp. 61-65.
engineering applications. First Break.