AMITY UNIVERSITY

NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh

Name- Ansh
Course- B.Sc. Forensic science (hons)
Batch- 2023-2026
Enrollment no.- A5905923032

CONTENTS LIST :

I. Acknowledgement
II. Abstract of the report
III. Introduction To digital forensics
IV. Investigation procedure in digital evidences
V. History of digital forensics
VI. Different types of tools used
VII. Techniques used in digital forensics
VIII. Rules of digital forensic
IX. Characteristics of digital evidences
X. Chain of custody
XI. Evidence handling procedure
XII. Ethical hacking, methodology and tools
XIII. Different tools for ethical hacking
XIV. Intro to computer crimes
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 XV. Types of cyber crimes
XVI. Explain the goal of report writing
XVII. Layout of an investigative report
XVIII.Case study- Financial frauds in district jamtara of
Jharkhand
XIX. Discussions and study findings

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the

following individual and organization who were

involved with me in this NTCC report and helped me

in completing the project.

First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor

(mentor) DR. Shipra rohatgi for his guidance , support

and encouragement throughout the entire research

process .

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 ABSTRACT

Digital forensics, you know, it's like the Sherlock Holmes of the
digital world. From sniffing out deleted files to cracking encrypted
codes, digital forensics does it all. Well, that's where forensics steps
in like a hero to save the day. It's like a high-tech treasure hunt for
data that longer wants to be found. Think of them as modern-day
wizards waving their digital wands to reveal truths buried deep
within our devices. So next time you think your data is safe and
sound, remember: there's a whole army of digital sleuths out there
ready to dive into the depths of your files.

INTRODUCTION TO ‘DIGITAL FORENSICS’

Digital forensics is a technique to collect and store digitalized

information through process like identification, preservation,
analysis, documentation, presentation. It includes Software and
hardware, electronic devices such as: Mobile Phones,
Computers, E-Pads, Global Positioning Systems (GPS),
Tracking Systems and other digital gadgets and tools. Criminal
activities such as cyber-attacks like, phishing, ransomware,

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trojans, password attacks, information gathering etc. is blocked
by the use of digital forensics.

INVESTIGATION PROCEDURE IN DIGITAL

EVIDENCES

Identification: This is the first step in identifying the evidences,

first we have to look up for the origin of the evidences and the
authenticity of it.

Preservation: Digital evidence is imperishable in some way as

compared to other evidences. Preservation, shields
electronically stored information (ESI) as it apprehends the
crime scene digitally, it records pertinent information, for
example: Videographic, photographic data, also provides us
how it was collected.

Analysis: Digital evidence is imperishable in some way as

compared to other evidences. Preservation, shields
electronically stored information (ESI) as it apprehends the
crime scene digitally, it records pertinent information, for
example: Videographic, photographic data, also provides us
how it was collected.

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Documentation: Documentation procedure helps us to safe
guard the volatile data that is being analyzed and to
continuously record the crime scene, locations, different
devices that are being examined and making a track record that
can be admissible in courts.

Presentation: Data evidences such as files, hardware &

software, gadgets and other electronic tools that are collected
and preserved are presented in front of the court. This is the
final demonstration of the evidences that will decide the
judgement of the case.

It is Cleared that there are several processes that aids the

investigation of digital evidences, lets dive deeper into the
world of Digital Forensics.

HISTORY OF DIGITAL FORENSICS

United states were the first country to create the 1978 Florida
Computer Crimes Act in 1970. Further Canada passed a legislation
in the branch of cybercrimes and computer forensics, in 1983.When
the emergence of the digital forensics was seen, soon in 1985, the
British government formed the new computer crime department.
The recognition of digital forensics got popular worldwide due to
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the issue of the 1990 Britain Computer Misuse Act. Consultants of
cyber security like, Collier and Spaul gave the term computer
Forensics In their Academic paper. in Britain, it also created the
National Hi-tech Crime Unit in 2001. With due time, 43 countries
came along together to sign The Convention of Cybercrime in the
year, 2004.Branches of Digital Forensics

• Mobile Device Forensics: This field of digital forensics

deals with retrieving of data from electronic devices such as,
mobiles, smartphones, personal laptops, game console etc.
They determine the origin and location of the suspected
attack and analyze the damage caused by the attack.

• E-mail Forensics: Operations in email forensics aid the

specialists to retrieve valuable information such as the
senders or the receivers’ identities, what is written in the
email, their sources and time stamps and also their
information regarding the structure of the data.

• Social Media Forensics: Information present on the social

sites, social media Applications Such as, Instagram, twitter,
snapchat, Facebook, LinkedIn, is retrieved by the forensic
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 experts that collect, preserve, analyze the data present
online, they gather the information to link the voids present
in the case, it helps reach the criminal that operates using
fake social sites, accounts, websites etc.

• Disk Forensics: It is used to retrieve and recover important

data from hard disks, flash drives, USB sticks, memory
cards etc. The analysts make sure that the data to be
collected analyzed, preserved, and presented to the courts.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TOOLS USED

1. The sleuth kit: is basically a library of UNIX, Windows that is

used to retrieve the data from hard drives for the forensic analysis.
Further it can recover lost images, files by searching the keywords
or by the name included.

2. OS Forensic: It is an application software that is used to retrieve

the forensic data from the computer that helps the forensic experts,
legal court proceedings and professionals while it extracts the cases,
files, hidden documents, password Bulk extractor is an application
in digital forensics that extract the information in digital evidence
particularly like from disk images.

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3.Bulk Extractor: This extractor runs on certain patterns that without
the help of system file structure recovers data from sophisticated
spaces, hidden areas and overwritten areas.

EnCase: it is a common forensic software application capable of

imaging and assisting in the analysis of data.

5. Autopsy: It is a digital forensic platform, which is used by law

enforcement, certain private investigation agencies. Techniques
used in Digital Forensics

TECHNIQUES

Reverse Steganography: They hide information deep within

digital files like messages or data streams. But what if we flip
the script with reverse steganography, by digging through data
hashes in files,

Stochastic forensics: a fancy term for delving into digital

activities that don't leave obvious traces behind. Think of it as
sleuthing through text files for hints of foul play, maybe even
catching an inside job without the usual paper trail.

cross-drive analysis (or anomaly detection): It's all about

connecting the dots across different drives to piece together a

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coherent story. Imagine looking at similarities between drives
to catch trouble brewing before it hits the fan.

deleted file recovery: It's like pulling off magic tricks by

piecing together fragments of deleted files scattered across
memory. You never know what buried treasures might
resurface from beneath the virtual rubble.

DIGITAL FORENSIC - THE AMAZING WORLD OF

DIGITAL EVIDENCES

This information is safe to use as evidence during the

investigation. These may be considered evidence or evidence
that should be used as part of your evidentiary investigation.

examples of digital devices (a) pen drive (b) floppy

The best evidence rule: According to the best evidence rule,

original copies of documents are considered better evidence. It
is assumed that the client has a copy of the original document.

Original Evidence

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If criminal or civil proceed in the client/victim to allow us to
handover all the original evidences, since we have evidence
handling procedures in place.

RULES OF DIGITAL EVIDENCES

Rules and legal standards governing evidence of all facts are

invoked. This rule helps us decide whether factual evidence
should be considered. The rules of evidence also refer to the
quantity, quality and type of evidence that helps us prove in the
case.

Rules criminal and civil courts etc. varies between.

The law should be as follows:

1. Validity: The evidence must be valid in a court of law.

2. Correct: The evidence must have a positive impact on the
situation.
3. Complete: evidence covering all points.
4. Reliability: There should be no doubt about the correctness of
the expert's decision.
5. Reliability: The evidence must be understandable and
convincing for the jury.

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Types of Evidence

There are many types of evidence, each with their own special
or unique characteristics. Some of the major types of evidence
are:

1. Illustrative evidence

2. Electronic evidence

3. Documented evidence

4. Explainable evidence

5. Substantial evidence

6. Testimonial

Illustrative Evidence
It is usually represented by Obi and is a type of certificate. For
example, photographs, films, sound recordings, x-rays,
graphics, drawings, simulations, sculptures and models.

Electronic Evidence

Electronic evidence is nothing more than digital evidence. It is

no secret that the use of digital evidence in trials is increasing.

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Documented Evidence

Evidence is similar to argumentative evidence. However, in

evidence, the evidence is presented in writing (contract,
purchase, invoice, etc.). It could be the serial number. Such data
(photos, audio recordings, videos, copies of emails, etc.) may
be recorded and stored.

Explainable Evidence (Exculpatory)

This evidence is often used to support the person involved in

the crime, such as a drug dealer, or to exonerate the case as a
whole. This is also called explanatory evidence.

Substantial Evidence

Evidence presented entirely or partially in the form of physical

objects is called supporting evidence. This is also called
physical evidence. This evidence may include dried blood,
fasting and DNA tests, footprints or tires at the scene.

Testimonial

It is a kind of evidence spoken by a spectator under oath, or

written evidence given u under oath by an official declaration,

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that is, affidavit. This is done of the common forms of evidence
in the system

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL EVIDENCE

This section provides some information about the nature and

characteristics of digital evidence. These characteristics can
help and challenge investigators during an investigation.

Locard's Exchange Principle

According to Edmund Lockard's principle, a change occurs

when two objects come into contact. Lockard's principles often
refer to forensic science and are relevant to digital forensic
investigations When an incident occurs, the perpetrator leaves
clues and evidence at the scene and removes the clues and
evidence from the scene. This change is called Lockard's
commutation principle.

Digital Stream of Bits

Open means that digital evidence is a bag of objects that can be

arranged in an array to display information. Sequential data is less
intuitive and tools are needed to display these patterns so they can

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be read. Cases where digital evidence is discovered also help
investigators examine the evidence.. Metadata is used to identify
specific data and facilitate digital authentication.

CHAIN OF CUSTODY

Chain of custody is nothing but the requirement that you may

be able to was presented in a judicial trace the location of
evidence from the moment it was collected to the moment Itto
meet the requirements of chain of custody, evidences are stored
in a secure place by police departments and federal law
enforcement agencies, which have a property department.

Evidence Validation

To meet the challenge of validation, it is encased at a judiciary

proceeding, wary to ensure that the original media matches the
forensic duplication by using NMD5 hashes.

Volatile Evidence
The preliminary information gathering is the initial response
for determining whether an activity that occur is not unlawful,
unauthorized, or unacceptable. The volatile data collected

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because it can help determine the criminal activity that can get
lost if the system is powered of the order of volatility evidences
are main or physical memory, virtual memory, peripheral
(RAM), memory,

EVIDENCE HANDLING PROCEDURE

The following procedures can be adhered to while handling

evidence during an investigation:

1. Record the information about the computer system being

examined, which is currently placed within a computer while
examining the contents of the hard drive.

Evidence System Description

Certain data regarding the status and identification of the

originating computer system should be recorded, before any
electronic evidence is gathered.

Digital Photos

You may want to take several photographs of the evidence

system after recording the system details or even prior to this.
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Evidence Tags

To satisfy federal and state guidelines at minimum, all best

evidence collected should be labelled in a particular manner.
The federal guidelines, which are supplemented by our
practice, requires recording of the following information for
each item that collect:

Evidence Labels

Many people opt to use permanent marker, but instead of using

permanent marker you can actually scratch your initials on the
original media in a discrete location.This way you can ensure
that the best evidence cannot be modified or tampered by
anyone.

Evidence Storage

It is very much important and necessary to protect evidence

from any alteration by the environment.

Evidence Log

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The evidence custodian logs the receipt of the evidence in the
evidence log when they receive the evidence log. A complete
inventory of all the evidences within the safe should be kept in
an evidence log.

Working Copies

This relieves burden of making working copies for analysis and

distribution of those copies to evidence custodians.

Evidence Backups

It is prudent create backups of all the electronic evidence to

minimize malevolent effects of equipment failure or natural
disasters. The cases not yet backed up are determined by the
custodians during the custodian audit, and then necessary
backups are performed..

Evidence Disposition

The time at which the evidence is initially logged into the

evidence log is recorded in the disposition date. It is necessary

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to record the evidence tag and the evidence log in the date of
final disposition.

Evidence Custodians Audit

The main purpose the monthly audit is to ensure the readiness

of the incident response hardware through the evidence
custodians. Some of the people may recommend keeping two
copies of the Monthly Evidence Custodian Audit form.

Evidence Safe

There is only one copy of our Monthly Evidence Custodian

Audit form that should be kept properly. Some of the people
may recommend keeping two copies of the Monthly Evidence
Custodian Audit form.

ETHICAL HACKING, METHODOLOGY AND TOOLS

There are lots of security breaches out there. The art of finding
these breaches is called hacking. Computer hackers have been
around for many years, hacking becoming more common as the
internet spreads everywhere. Not a lot of hackers are famous
like Kevin Mitnick, In the digital world, there are many types
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of threats. It's tough to describe them all perfectly because
hackers are just like everyone - unique individuals. Each one
has different reasons, ways of doing things, and skills. Hackers
aren't always social or teenagers either, They are usually smart
cookies who like learning new things and taking risks.

Make your plan:

It is important to have someone to support you and sign off on

your plan. Please sign up for this support as soon as possible to
ensure your time or effort is not wasted. For example, you can
try computer encryption engineering attacks to test the
relationship before delving into more detailed information. The
best way to try is unlimited attack, where anything is possible.

Selecting Tools

As with any project, it can be difficult to complete the job

without the right tools to play. There are many security testing
tools that are prone to bugs and vulnerabilities (misidentified
vulnerabilities), and other tools may miss these vulnerabilities.
If you are performing tests such as social engineering or

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physical security testing, you may be vulnerable. Since some
tools focus on specific tests, a single tool can test everything.

Executing the Plan

You need to be careful and patient when conducting a criminal

investigation. Hackers are always monitoring what's happening
on your systems and networks, and they can use this
information to attack you. Since the results of the investigation
may be important and may not be shared publicly, it is
important that you keep everything as quiet and confidential as
possible. Try to get as much information as possible about your
organization and systems; That's what bad hackers do.

Evaluating Results

Try entering your results if you haven't already decided to see

what's accurate. A skill that develops with experience is
evaluating results and making connections between specific
weaknesses found. In the end, you're trying to understand your
system like everyone else.

DIFFERENT TOOLS FOR ETHICAL HACKING

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1. Nmap

2.. Nessus

4. Nikto

5. kismet

6. John The Ripper

Error-prone device, consider the following characteristics:

1. Interesting and sufficient information.

2. There must be detailed information on the existence of

defects, including how to correct them.

3. Provide updates and support as needed.

4. Managers taking up the reports.

Nmap: It is one of the most useful tools used in port scanning,

which is the second part of the crime. Nmap was originally
developed as a programming tool for Unix/Linux-based
software; but it is now also available on Windows.

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Nessus: Nessus is the most famous vulnerability scanner.
Nessus was designed with robust cybersecurity in mind.
Donate in a non-commercial environment.

Nikto: May be a free and open-source tool. Checks over 1,000

servers for old articles

one Problems specific to versions

and 270+.

John the Ripper: A fast and easy password cracking program

now available for a variety of Unix, Windows, DOS and
OpenVMS (operating systems). (Open-source software) offers
many features.

Kismet: is an access system packet sniffer and network detector

for 802.11 wireless LANs, but can be extended with plug-ins to
manage other types of networks. It works without any wired
card and supports standards that helps in monitoring and can
check 802.11n, 80211g , etc in traffic. It also provides PCAP
model

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER CRIMES

Computer-based crimes are on the rise in India. While the trend

of using computers to commit crimes continues, tools are being
developed to prevent such crimes. In today's world, the internet
has become an important part of our daily lives. Every day
hackers or thieves steal our computer to steal our personal
information or other confidential information.

TYPES OF CYBERCRIME

Cybercrimes can be divided into three categories:

• Crimes Against Persons

• Crimes Against Property

• Crimes against the government

Crimes Against Persons

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Internet crimes against individuals include Internet
pornography, publishing child pornography, email harassment,
and illegal contract fraud.This includes sexual, racial, religious,
or other forms of harassment. Anyone who commits this type
of crime is committing a cybercrime.

Cybercrimes against property

These crimes include computer crimes, which refer to the

destruction of other people's equipment and the transmission of
malicious viruses, worms or programs.

Cybercrimes against the government

The spread of the virus online shows that this medium is being
used by individuals and groups to threaten governments around
the world and voters at home. Crime manifests itself as a crime
when a private individual "hacks" a website controlled by the
government or military.

Cybercrimes can be divided into:

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1. Cybercrime involving harassment or violence:
Cybercrime involving harassment or violence is a crime
that creates a physical risk for some person or persons.

These can be further classified as:

(a) Cyber Terrorism

(b) Depression

(c) Child pornography

2. Non-criminal cybercrime: Non-criminal cybercrime

refers to crimes that do not pose a direct physical danger to
some person orpersons, but create an indirect risk. These can
be further classified as:

(a) Internet theft

(b) Network intrusion

(c) Internet fraud

(d) Internet Crime

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In this section we will talk about hacking, ,, credit card fraud,
Internet pornography, online gambling, software hacking,
email spoofing, fraud, phishing, cyber terrorism,

Credit card fraud:

Credit card fraud usually occurs when someone reveals

confidential information, such as a credit card number, CVV
number, transaction number, expiry date, etc. to an unknown
person who may be a hacker. This usually happens if the card
is stolen or lost, or if the mail is sent to a hacker from the actual
recipient. This type of fraud is a type of identity fraud in which
hackers obtain necessary credit card information for their own
purposes..

Internet Porn

Online nudity refers to the posting of nudity content on the

internet. People create and post pornographic images and
information about sex on the internet. This refers to Section 67
of the IT Act, India's strictest law.

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Online casino

Online gambling, also known as online gambling or online

gambling, is done on the Internet. An online term for internet
gambling. Many websites are available online

Software piracy

Software piracy means distributing licensed or paid or certified

software on the Internet According to the Business Software
Alliance, software currently used around the world is pirated or
illegal.

Email Fraud

Spoofing is when a hacker sends an email from your email

address. Hackers try to send spam or emails to get people to
accept and write some content.

Phishing

It is a type of fraud in which hackers attempt to obtain

personal information, including login credentials or banking
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information, by impersonating a real person in an email,
message, or other means of communication.

Cyber Terrorism

It involves the use of email as a communication tool. Examples

of cyberterrorism include hacking medical records, altering or
deleting facts, and causing medical malpractice.

THE ROLE OF COMPUTER CRIMES

Computers play an important role in crime. evidence, vehicle,

illegal import or the fruits of violence.

1. They are communication tools.

2. They may become targets for the crimes of attackers.

3. They may not have anything to do with the crime

EXPLAIN THE GOAL OF REPORT WRITING

Writing requires a documented process to ensure your

organization meets repeatable standards. If you want your
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research information to be accurate, timely, and easy to
understand by your audience, your goals should meet the “gold
standard” set by your organization. Your computer forensics
report should accomplish the following goals:

1. Describe the details of the incident.

2. It is understood by decision makers.

3. Ability to withstand various regulatory controls.

Some examples 4. Have clarity and have no misunderstandings

5. Ease of expression (use the paragraph number of the report

and the Bates number of the accompanying document).

6.Have all the information you need to explain your conclusion.

7. Provide conclusions, opinions, or suggestions as needed.

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8. Reports should be prepared immediately.

LAYOUT OF AN INVESTIGATIVE REPORT

Executive summary:

Executive Summary Section consists of following:

1. Consider who authorizes a forensic examination.

2. Briefly list the main evidence.

3. Explain why forensic testing of computer equipment is

necessary.

4. Add the working reviewer's signature block.

5. Full, legal and legal names, names, contact dates or

correspondence of all persons connected with or involved in the
case.

2.Objective:

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Objectives are used to describe all the activities that the
assessment aims to accomplish. In some cases, when reviewing
media content, scanning may not allow for a comprehensive
search.

Computer evidence:

Computerized Analysis of Evidence describes each type of

evidence collected and its interpretation. Provides detailed
information about the distribution of proof tag numbers, proof
descriptions, and serial number information.

Related findings:

This part of relevant discovery is granted when there is

difficulty in obtaining good scientific evidence from the scene
(e.g. fingerprints, locks of hair, shoe print, etc.) and the suspect
in the case is widely believed to be a suspect. a strong evidence
base.

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Supporting information:

This provides in-depth research and analysis of relevant

findings. It shows how we arrived at or arrived at the
conclusions stated in the findings section.

a) Tables listing with full details

b) Pathnames of important files

c) The number of files reviewed

d) string search results

e) emails or URLs viewed

Investigative Leads: These are unfinished tasks that can be

completed if the auditor or investigator is given more time or
additional resources. Creating more reliable evidence to help
your case is almost every goal of forensic analysis; therefore, it
is necessary to collect additional investigative documents that,
although they may pass through forensic reports, can follow up
and lead to solutions.

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Some examples of search engines are:

(a) The Linux distribution on the laptop includes Palm Pilot

files. Review archived data

personal assistant could be Palm Pilot.

(b)Provides an accurate picture of all attacks that have

occurred in the past.

(c) Send a letter to AOL seeking identification of online user

[email protected].

7. Additional Information:

We often add a few additional sections to our computer proofs.

We found the following sections useful in some situations, but
not in all cases. It depends on the needs and wants of the end
users.

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(a) Attacker Methodology: its important addition to help
understand the attack or attack being made. it is useful if you
are investigating a computer access problem. In the transaction
log, you can observe whether the attack was carried out and the
rest of the attack.

(b) User Application: This section describes the relevant

applications installed in the environment under consideration.
We explain where these applications are located and what they
are used for.

(c) Internet activity or web browsing history:

This section is defined as a separate section of the user's media

history or Internet surfing and is included in the control period.
Information that is often important for research, browser
history can also be used to express opinions, conduct online
research/opinions, download malicious tools, download
resources.

(d) Recommendations:

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In this section, we make some recommendations to help our
customers or customers be better prepared and better educated
for computer security issues. Specifically, we discuss host-
based, network-based, and programmatic countermeasures that
customers can use to eliminate or reduce the risk of the security
incidents we investigate.

CASE STUDY – FINANCIAL FRUADS IN JAMTARA

DISTRICT OF JHARKHAND

The review has been attempted to explore the assurance of

advanced monetary fraud(cyber extortion) in Jamtara locale of
Jharkhand (the centre of digital fraudsters) the fundamental
apparatuses and procedures which are utilized by the off enders
and to find out the financial state of their public activity and
track down the new difficult in cybercrime examination and to
figure out the safer method of computerized monetary stream,
by utilizing overview research technique and work on auxiliary
also essential information which was connected with this
review, cybercrime particularly monetary misrepresentation
turns into the new difficult undertaking for policing. Digital
finance does not fit into any one standard definition; All
products, services, technology, and/or infrastructure that allow

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individuals and businesses to access payments, savings, and
credit facilities online without visiting a bank branch or dealing
directly with the financial service provider are considered to be
part of digital finance, according to some consensus. By
providing individuals and small, medium and large businesses
with easy access to a range of financial products and services
(including credit facilities),digital finance promises to boost the
GDP of digitalized economies.

ONLINE TRANSACTION

The majority of banking transactions are now conducted online

through mobile apps and social media. We can move money
from one bank account to another through one of three
methods, including RTGS, NEFT, or IMPS.

NEFT: It is an electronic asset move framework that works on

a DNS (Conceded Net Settlement) premise which settles
exchanges in bunches. You can use the NEFT service with
checks or demand drafts at a bank branch, or you can use your
bank account's net banking facility to make the transfer. There
is no base breaking point on the sum that can be moved.
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RTGC: In RTGS the exchanges are settled exclusively and not
in clusters. The exchange is handled following it is executed all
through the RTGS business hours. RTGS window open during
operation. There will be a variety of minimum limits.

IMPS: The IMPS service's main advantage is that it is available

around-the-clock and on holidays all year, which makes it
especially useful in emergency situations. Devils is utilized for
move utilizing the cell phone number through applications or
versatile banking. In addition, you can use IMPS in your net
banking services to make transfers that require account number
information.

Frauds with credit or debit cards: Theft of information like

credit card numbers, PINs, passwords, and so on is the source
of the threats. to obtain innocent users' credit card information.

DISCUSSION AND THE STUDY’S FINDING

Because digital financial frauds fall under an undefined

jurisdiction, it is more difficult to investigate the cases.

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Although technically trained personnel are required to combat
digital financial fraud, the situation in Jharkhand was dire.
Since digital frauds are known to be transnational, their
jurisdiction is also vast and unclear. The police likewise send a
solicitation to monetary foundations and e-wallet organizations
to give significant data with respect to computerized monetary
misrepresentation however there is additionally a resistance
between monetary establishment and police which lead to
flawed examination and a low conviction rate in advanced
monetary misrepresentation. At last, because of the above
things the examination isn't done as expected and in a decent
way which prompts the low conviction rate.

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