IEEE.

org IEEE Xplore IEEE SA IEEE Spectrum More Sites Subscribe Donate Cart Create Account Personal Sign In

Browse  My Settings  Help  Institutional Sign In

All  

ADVANCED SEARCH

Journals & Magazines > IEEE Access > Volume: 12 

Back to Results | Next >

Quantum Computing: Circuits,
Algorithms, and Applications
Publisher: IEEE
Cite This  PDF

Muhammad Ali Shafique ; Arslan Munir ; Imran Latif All Authors

6 3700
Cites in Full ®  ©  
Papers Text Views

More Like This

 Open Access  Comment(s)
Optimizing Parameterized
Under a Creative Commons License
Quantum Circuits With Free-Axis
Single-Qubit Gates
Abstract Abstract:
IEEE Transactions on Quantum
Quantum computing, a transformative field that emerged from Engineering
Document quantum mechanics and computer science, has gained Published: 2023
Sections immense attention for its potential to revolutionize computation.
This paper aims to address the fundamentals of quantum Evaluation of Parameterized
I. Introduction
computing and provide a comprehensive guide for both novices Quantum Circuits With Cross-
II. Quantum and experts in the field of quantum computing. Beginning with Resonance Pulse-Driven
Computing the foundational principles of quantum computing, we introduce Entanglers
IEEE Transactions on Quantum
Fundamentals readers to the fundamental concepts of qubits, superposition,
Engineering
entanglement, interference, and noise. We explore quantum Published: 2022
III. Building
hardware, quantum gates, and basic quantum circuits. This
Blocks of
study offers insight into the current phase of quantum Show More
Quantum
computing, including the noisy intermediate-scale quantum
Circuits
(NISQ) era and its potential for solving real-world problems.
IV. Basic Furthermore, we discuss the development of quantum
Quantum algorithms and their applications, with a focus on famous
Circuits algorithms like Shor’s algorithm and Grover’s algorithm. We
also touch upon quantum computing’s impact on various
V. Quantum industries, such as cryptography, optimization, machine
Algorithms learning, and material science. By the end of this paper,
Show Full readers will have a solid understanding of quantum
Outline  computing’s principles, applications, and the steps involved in
developing quantum circuits. Our goal is to provide a valuable
Authors
resource for those eager to embark on their quantum
Figures computing journey and for researchers looking to stay updated
on this rapidly evolving field.
References

Citations

Keywords

Metrics

A hybrid classical-quantum model.

Published in: IEEE Access ( Volume: 12)

Page(s): 22296 - 22314 DOI:

10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3362955
Date of Publication: 06
February 2024  Publisher: IEEE

Electronic ISSN: 2169-3536

 Funding Agency:

SECTION I.
Introduction
Quantum computing technology uses different approaches
to solve certain computational problems, demonstrating
greater efficiency compared to classical computing systems.
Recent experimental outcomes are remarkable, hinting at
the possibility of quantum computers becoming
commercially available in the near future [1], [2], [3], [4].
A prominent example of quantum computing’s ability lies
in Shor’s algorithm, renowned for its capability to factor
large numbers efficiently [5]. This algorithm in 1994
marked a pivotal step in the advancement of quantum
computing by enabling the determination of prime factors
of large numbers by quantum computers [6], and has also
caused consternation in cryptography field as many public
key cryptography algorithms rely on the difficulty of
factoring large numbers by classical computers. A distinct
difference in computational power of classical versus
quantum computers can be illustrated with the evaluation
of the time required to crack encryption schemes like
Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) that rely on the difficulty of
finding prime factors of large numbers [7]. While
traditional computers would require billions of years for
such a task, quantum computers could potentially solve it in
a short time [8], [9].

Quantum computers share some components with classical

computers, such as registers, gates, and memory elements.
However, their underlying physical structures are
fundamentally distinct and unique. Quantum computations
unfold within quantum registers, where qubits can exist in
the state of superposition and entanglement. These unique
characteristics make quantum computers fundamentally
different from traditional classical computers.

Another distinct difference of quantum computing versus

classical computing is computational units such as bits. Bits
in classical computing are restricted to zero or one whereas
quantum computing employ units (qubits) that are capable
of existing in states of zero, one, or any intermediate value
[10], [11], [12]. This unique attribute grants quantum
computers the remarkable ability to simultaneously follow
multiple computational paths within a single calculation,
which is not possible by classical computers without
repeated iterations.

A. Quantum Computing Introduction and

History
Quantum computing, in contrast to classical computing, is
a relatively recent development. Its origins can be traced
back to the late 1970s when it initially appeared in science
fiction, subsequently attracting significant attention from
the media. It was in 1981 that Richard Feynman is credited
with pioneering the concept of a quantum computer. He
proposed the idea that quantum computers could efficiently
simulate quantum systems that could avoid the exponential
resource requirements for classical computers. Classical
computers encounter substantial difficulties when
attempting to simulate quantum systems. Feynman, along
with visionaries like Yuri Manin and Paul Benioff,
recognized the vast potential of quantum computers in the
realm of complicated computing problems. In 1985, David
Deutsch formalized the concept of a quantum computer,
marking a significant milestone in the field of quantum
computing. Furthermore, he distinguished between
quantum simulators and programmable quantum devices.

In subsequent years, significant achievements were made in

the field of quantum computing, revealing its potential to
surpass classical counterparts in terms of computational
efficiency. It became increasingly clear that quantum
computers could offer solutions for specific computing
problems efficiently. Notably, Simon and Shor made
remarkable contributions by developing algorithms that
demonstrated speed enhancements for particular problem
sets, including the field of prime factorization and
cryptography. Seth Lloyd further enriched the supremacy of
quantum computers by introducing an algorithm for
simulating a wide range of quantum systems on quantum
computers.

In summary, quantum computing is getting better with

time and has the potential to solve certain computing
problems more efficiently than classical computers. This is
shown by various quantum algorithms, which highlight how
powerful quantum computing can be.

B. Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum

(NISQ)
From the beginning, there has been a doubt whether a
quantum computer could surpass the capabilities of a
classical computer. Many of these doubts originate from
concerns about the complexity of quantum computer design
and and difficulty of controlling quantum computation
devices [13], [14], [15]. These concerns are primarily
related to the concept of decoherence, where quantum
systems interact with their environment and lose their
quantum properties (superposition, entanglement, and,
interference) over time affecting the outcome of quantum
circuits. A controlled quantum environment has led to
debates about achieving reliable quantum computers [16].
It also suggests that quantum computers can outperform
classical if certain conditions are met [17].

While early noisy quantum computers have been used to

implement algorithms such as Shor’s, Grover’s, and
Deutsch–Jozsa’s, the prevailing high error rates and noise
prevent the scaling of these algorithms [18], [19], [20],
[21]. In order to achieve fault-tolerant quantum
computation, substantial improvements are required in
quantum computers to control and protect the qubits
sufficiently for reliable algorithms. These improvements
can be made with hardware modifications or the use of
error-correcting codes. Shor introduced Quantum Error
Correction (QEC) in 1995, showing that information from
one logical qubit can be encoded onto multiple physical
qubits, protecting it from errors [22]. Shor’s work
demonstrated the possibility of executing quantum
computations reliably with noisy quantum hardware [23].

Further research has revealed that noise and quantum

scaling relate to each other. If errors and noise are below a
certain threshold, it’s theoretically possible to scale up
quantum computers to larger sizes [24], [25]. Many types
of error-correcting techniques have been developed [26],
[27], [28], but studies indicate that millions of physical
qubits are needed to achieve useful quantum computers
[29]. Despite this, various algorithms have claimed
quantum supremacy, showcasing computations on
quantum devices likely surpass classical computers’
capabilities in a reasonable time frame. The research works
of IBM, Xanadu, and Google’s Quantum AI team are
prominent accomplishments in the field of quantum
computing [30], [31], [32], [33]. While these
achievements are significant, they have limitations in
scaling up quantum computations due to noise and errors.

The term NISQ stands for “Noisy Intermediate-Scale

Quantum.” It refers to a phase in quantum computing
where quantum computers are not yet completely error-
corrected but are large enough to perform computations
beyond classical computers’ capabilities. NISQ devices are
characterized by the presence of errors due to noise, but
they are sufficiently reliable for solving certain problems
more efficiently than classical computers [34]. This phase
represents a transitional period in the advancement of
quantum computing technology and quantum supremacy.

Our main contributions in this paper are as follows:

We discuss the fundamentals of quantum computing

including qubits, superposition, entanglement,
interference and noise.

We elaborate building blocks of quantum circuits such

as various quantum gates followed by their usage in
different quantum circuits.

We study different quantum algorithms including

Shor’s algorithm and Grover’s algorithm that manifest
the enormous potential of quantum computing.

We explore the design of hybrid classical-quantum

machine learning models.

We discuss various quantum simulators and quantum

applications in different fields, such as cryptography,
optimization, chemistry, finance, and energy.

We discuss the deployment requirements and current

challenges for quantum computers.

The remainder of this paper is organized in the following

manner. Section II provides the fundamental concepts of
qubits, superposition, entanglement, interference, and
noise. Section III explores the building blocks of quantum
circuits such as quantum gates and measurement. In
Section IV, various types of quantum circuits are explained
with numerical examples. Section V discusses quantum
algorithms which include famous Shor’s algorithm and
Grover’s algorithm. Section VI elaborates the utilization of
quantum computing in machine learning and discusses the
design of hybrid classical-quantum machine learning
models. Popular quantum simulators and their features are
explored in Section VII. Quantum hardware and its
deployment requirements are discussed in Section VIII.
Section IX discusses quantum computing applications in
various fields, such as cryptography, optimization, machine
learning, finance, and energy sector. Lastly, Section X
concludes the article and highlights future research
directions.

SECTION II.
Quantum Computing
Fundamentals
In lieu of bits in classical computing, quantum computing
utilizes qubits, which can exist in multiple states at the
same time—a phenomenon known as superposition.
Quantum entanglement signifies a unique connection
between qubits and quantum interference can alter the
outcome of the qubits. Quantum computers also face a
challenge called quantum noise, which can lead to loss of
quantum properties, such as superposition, entanglement,
and interference, and can affect the outcome of a quantum
system. This section aims to provide a simple yet
comprehensive understanding of quantum computing
fundamentals.

A. Qubits
In classical computing, a bit is analogous to a binary light
switch, capable of assuming only two discrete states: 0 or 1,
without any intermediary values. In contrast, for quantum
computing, a quantum bit (qubit) operates more like a
dimmer switch. It possesses not just the 0 and 1 states but
also the ability to exist in an intermediate state, which is a
linear combination of the 0 and 1 states, weighted by
specific coefficients. These coefficients are used to calculate
the probability of measuring either the 0 or 1 state when
measured.

1) Bra-Ket Notation
Qubit is a quantum computing particle that has a wave-like
nature with wavefunction ψ(x) that satisfies the Schrö
dinger equation. Theoretically, this wavefunction exists in
an infinite dimensional Hilbert dual space [35]. Therefore,
the state vector representing this wavefunction in Hilbert
space requires an infinite dimensional vector notation.
This infinite dimensional vector state of the qubit in
Hilbert dual space is shown using Dirac’s bra-ket notation,
which was created by Paul Dirac in 1939 [36]. However, it
can also be a finite-dimensional vector having two states,
on/off or spin-up/spin-down, which can be shown in two-
dimensional Hilbert space. In this notation, two-
dimensional state vectors |1⟩ (read ket one) and |0⟩ (read
ket zero) are used for qubit.

1
|0⟩ = 1|0⟩ + 0|1⟩ → [ ] (1)
0
0
|1⟩ = 0|0⟩ + 1|1⟩ → [ ] (2)
1

View Source

In the equation (1), ket zero shows that the qubit is at an

off or spin-down state. Here, the first element represents
the probability amplitude of off or spin down, and the
second element shows the probability amplitude of on or
spin up. Probability amplitude can be a complex value and
it is used to compute the probabilities of vector states.
Additionally, in Dirac’s notation, the bra is a complex
conjugate transpose of a ket. For example, ⟨ϕ| (read bra of
ϕ ) is a complex conjugate transpose vector of ket ψ . The
inner product of these two vectors ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ is a scalar value
[37]. The symbol “|⟩ ” denotes a column vector, and is
known as a “ket”. The “bra” (⟨| ) form is a row vector and it
is shown below:

⟨0| = 1⟨0| + 0⟨1| → [ 1 0] (3)

⟨1| = 0⟨0| + 1⟨1| → [ 0 1] (4)

View Source

The ket notation is widely used in quantum computing as

bra-ket representation of the qubit. The following two
– –
states (|0⟩ + |1⟩)/√2 and (|0⟩ − |1⟩)/√2 are also
commonly used in quantum calculations and these are
sometimes written as |+⟩ and |−⟩ , respectively.

A single qubit is also called a two-level quantum system

because it is a linear combination of two state basis, 0 and
1. Below is the common form of a single qubit in bra-ket
notation.

1 0
|v⟩ = v0|0⟩ + v1|1⟩ = v0 [ ] + v1 [ ] = [ ] (5)
v0
0 1 v1

View Source

Here vo and v1 are complex coefficients to measure

probability amplitudes. The probability and the phase of
each computational state basis for a qubit can be computed
as follows:

For state basis |0⟩ with complex coefficient vo = x + i ∗ y

probability amplitude = |vo|

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
|vo| = √(x + i ⋅ y) ∗ (x − i ⋅ y)
−−−−−−
= √x2 + y 2
2
probability = |vo|
y
phase(rad) = tan−1
x
phase(degree) = phase(rad) ∗ (180/π)

View Source

The probability amplitude is used to calculate the

probability of each state basis of the qubit which helps in
the measurement of the qubit state. Similarly, phase is
used for quantifying interference. The concepts of
measurement and interference are explained in the
following sections of the paper. If the complex coefficients
are normalized, then they represent the probability of the
qubit for 0 and 1 state

2 2
|vo| + |v1| = 1 (11)

View Source

This is known as the normalization constraint since all

two-level systems must obey this quality to function as a
qubit.

For two or multiple qubits, the tensor product (or

Kronecker product) is used to compute the resultant states
of the quantum system. The tensor product is denoted by
the symbol ⊗ . Let us consider two qubits |a⟩ and |b⟩ as

|a⟩ = [ ] |b⟩ = [ ]
a0 b0
and (12)
a1 b1

View Source

The tensor product of the two qubits is

|x⟩ = |a⟩ ⊗ |b⟩ = |ab⟩

⎡ a0 ∗ [ b0 ] ⎤
⎢ b1 ⎥ ⎡ a0b0 ⎤ ⎡ x0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ a0b1 ⎥ = ⎢ x1 ⎥
⎢
|x⟩ = ⎢ ⎥
⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ a1b0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥
⎢ b0 ⎥ ⎣a b ⎦ ⎣x ⎦
⎣ a1 ∗ [ b ] ⎦ 1 1 3
1
|x⟩ = a0b0|00⟩ + a0b1|01⟩ + a1b0|10⟩ + a1b1|11⟩
|x⟩ = x0 |00⟩ + x1 |01⟩ + x2 |10⟩ + x3 |11⟩

View Source

and the normalization constraint rule for the two

qubits will be the same as follows:

2 2 2 2
|a0b0| + |a0b1| + |a1b0| + |a1b1| = 1 (17)

View Source

Similarly for 3-qubits, if |c⟩ = [ ] then the tensor

c0
c1
product of the three qubits is

|y⟩ = |ab⟩ ⊗ |c⟩ = |abc⟩ (18)

⎡ a0b0 ∗ [ c0 ] ⎤
⎢ c1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ a0boc0 ⎤ ⎡ y0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ c0 ⎥ ⎢ a0boc1 ⎥ ⎢ y1 ⎥
⎢ a0b1 ∗ [ ] ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ c1 ⎥ ⎢ a0b1c0 ⎥ ⎢ y2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ a0b1c1 ⎥ ⎢ y3 ⎥
⎢
|y⟩ = ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (19)
⎢ c0 ⎥ ⎥
⎢a b c ⎥ =
⎢ 1 o 0⎥ ⎢y ⎥
⎢ 4⎥
⎢ a1b0 ∗ [ ] ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ c1 ⎥ ⎢ a1boc1 ⎥ ⎢ y5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ a1b1c0 ⎥ ⎢ y6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎣a b c ⎦
⎢ ⎥ ⎣y ⎦
⎢ a b ∗ [ c0 ] ⎥
⎢ 1 1 ⎥
1 1 1 7
⎢ c1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

View Source

The same method will be used to combine n qubits, and

normalization constraint rules for n -qubits will be given
as in equation (20).

∑ |v i | 2 = 1 (20)

View Source

If we have n qubits, we will need to keep track of 2n

complex probability amplitudes. As we can see, these
vectors grow exponentially with the number of qubits. This
is the reason quantum computers with large numbers of
qubits are so difficult to simulate in classical computers. A
modern laptop can easily simulate a general quantum state
of around 20 qubits, but simulating 100 qubits is too
difficult even for the largest supercomputers.

2) Bloch Sphere Notation

The Bloch sphere is a mathematical representation of a
given quantum state of a qubit, with which researchers can
pinpoint and manipulate various such states within the
sphere to their advantage. Three qubits |1⟩, |−⟩ and, |γ⟩
are shown in Bloch sphere representation in Figure 1.


FIGURE 1.
Bloch sphere representation of three different qubits.

Show All

B. Quantum Superposition
In classical computing, a bit possesses a binary nature,
exclusively adopting either a state of 1 or 0.
Correspondingly, in a 2-bit classical system, only one state
can exist at a given time among four distinct states that is
00, 01, 10, and 11. This conceptual framework can be
extended to n-bit classical systems with 2n states but only
one state exists at a given time representing the state of the
classical system.

Conversely, in quantum computing, a single quantum bit

(qubit) can exist in the state of 0, 1, or any linear
combination of these states as shown in Figure 2. This
phenomenon is called superposition which enables qubits
to exist in a combination of the states. Upon measurement,
the superposition collapses, and the final outcome is
determined depending on the probability distribution of the
qubit states. Quantum superposition is the ability of a qubit
to be in multiple states simultaneously until it is measured.


FIGURE 2.
Representation of qubit with the state of 0 in (a), 1 in (b), and
superposed states in (c).

Show All

C. Quantum Entanglement
In classical computers, the state of a bit can vary
independently, that is, the state of a bit is not influenced by
the state of another bit. However, in quantum computing,
the probability of a qubit state can be affected by the change
of another qubit state probability. This phenomenon is
called entanglement [38]. In quantum circuits,
entanglement is created through quantum gates by
performing specific operations on the qubits that result in
inseparable states of qubits as shown in equations (21),
(22), (23), and (24). Regardless of the physical distance
between the entangled qubits, a change in one qubit state
probability can change the probability distribution of all
qubits in the entangled quantum system [39].

Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon that occurs when

two or more particles become correlated in such a way that
the state of one qubit is dependent on the state of the other
qubit, regardless of the distance between them. If the state