CHAPTER 2

Literature review

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The persistent increase in human population and rapid industrialization has caused the

continuing global problems on improper wastes disposal (Atienza, 2008). The major

drawbacks concerning wastes management, especially in the developing countries are

the ineffective waste collection strategies and the lack of disposal sites (Reyes et al.,

2013). It has been suggested, likewise, that practices of basic solid waste management

(SWM) are often neglected at the individual level (Licy et al., 2013). While most

people are aware of the negative impacts of mismanaged wastes on the environment,

their negative attitude coupled with insufficient environmental

knowledge among individuals usually corresponds to poor practices towards

maintaining good environmental conditions (Licy et al., 2013). Enactment of certain

policies relevant to improving environmental sanitation and community-perception on

waste management is a matter of national urgency to minimize imminent outbreaks of

diseases and adverse impacts on the economy due to loss of workdays, treatment cost,

and clean-up activities (Joseph, 2006). Thus, the Ecological Solid Waste Management

or Republic Act 9003 in the Philippines mandates the Local Government Units

(LGUs) to implement programs on proper solid waste management at the municipal

level (Reyes et al., 2013). This study was to assess the knowledge and attitude of

student towards refuse disposal as a contributing factor for air pollution in Achievers

university, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE REVIEW

 Definition of refuse disposal

Refuse is any disposable materials, which includes both recyclable and non-

Recyclable Materials. This term is often interchangeably with Waste, but refuse is a

broad, overarching term that applies to anything that is leftover after it is used, while

waste only refers to leftovers that cannot be recycled.

Classifications of waste

Municipal solid waste is often categorized into two major groups: ORGANIC AND

INORGANIC.

The organic municipal solid waste can further be divided into three

categories:Putrescible, Ferment able, and Non-Ferment able.

PUTRESCIBLE WASTES include products such as foodstuff that decompose fast.

FERMENTABLE WASTES decompose rapidly, but without the unpleasant

accompaniments of putrefaction while wastes tend to resist decomposition

and,therefore, break down very slowly.

The inorganic solid waste includes articles like metals, plastics, and other non-

biodegradable materials.

In terms of toxicity, some solid wastes are classified as hazardous including

pesticides,medical waste, electrical waste, herbicides, fertilizers and paints and are

recommended to be disposed of in special ways and not to be mixed with general

municipal waste.

Solid waste in developing countries characteristically has a high content of organic

matter compared to that in developed countries. For example, studies conducted in the

region estimated that in Juba South Sudan, organic waste constituted about 31% of all
waste by weight. In Ghana and 54% by weight in an Ethiopian town Jimma. The high

organic content has implications for waste management including recycling, but also a

potential source of ill-health if mismanaged.

Ways of disposing refuse or waste

1. Open dumping

Visvanathan, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 58 (5), 629-635,

2008

Open dumping and landfilling are the prevalent solid waste disposal practices in

Thailand. Surveys on the disposal sites revealed the presence of 95 landfills and 330

open dumps. Open dumping refers to discarding of refuse and waste generated into a

open space .

2. Incinerator

Mirdza L Peterson, Fred J Stutzenberger

Incineration is currently a widely used method for the disposal of municipal solid

waste in major American cities. The efficacy of several incinerator types to destroy

bacteria associated with solid waste was evaluated, with emphasis on fecal and food

sources. Samples of solid waste and its residue after incineration, taken from four

incinerators of different design, were homogenized in phosphate buffer at pH 7.5.

Samples of these homogenates were quantitatively examined for (i) total bacterial cell

number, (ii) total coliforms, (iii) fecal coliforms, and (iv) heat-resistant spore-

former's.Survival of coliforms in the residue after incineration was considered an

indication of inadequate incinerator design or operation, or both. Of the four

incinerators tested, only one produced residue devoid of fecal coliforms; three others

produced residue containing fecal coliform populations of 5 to 2,400 per g. An

inverse relationship was noted between the efficacy of incinerators in destroying fecal

coliforms and the heat resistance (80 C) of total bacterial populations surviving in

their respective residues. This could be due to the selection of heat-resistant cells

during incineration.

3. Waste -to- energy

Handbook of Solid Waste Management: Sustainability through Circular Economy,

1-13, 2020

Nowadays, waste-to-energy (WtE) is considered the most effective disposal system

for non recyclable materials. There is general concern with regard to potential

environmental and health risks connected with WTE plants. Data from

epidemiological studies, conducted since the 1980s, had shown that old-generation

plants have a negative environmental impact. Owing to innovations in both

technology and methodology involved in waste processing, new-generation WTE

plants have considerably mitigated such negative impact.

Handbook of Solid Waste Management: Sustainability through Circular Economy, 1-

13, 2020

Disadvantages of refuse disposal

According to Naila Saleem, Malik N. E., and Naushad Z., “Negative Impacts of

Discarded Polythene Bags on Environment”, International Conference, ESDev 2007,

COMSATS Abbottabad, 26-28 August 2007, Volume-I, page 973-980

Open dumps of municipal solid waste are creating serious negative impacts on

environment in Rawalpindi city. Following negative impacts are being observed in

Rawalpindi city due to open dumping of solid waste:

a.  Dust and Filthy Dirt: Strong wind and storm are spreading dust and filth from

the open dumps of solid waste to adjacent areas.

b.  Odor: Nearby areas to the open dump sites is being affected due to odor

emitting from these dumps.

c.  Rats and other Vermin: Open dumps of communal solid waste are providing

attractive habitat to rats and other vermin.

d.  Toxic Gases: Toxic gases are continuously exposed to the atmosphere.

e.  Leachate: Percolating rainwater through the open dump contaminating ground

water resources.

f.  Health and Sanitation: Open dumps of solid waste are a serious threat to

human health and sanitation.

Challenges facing efficient refuse disposal method

According to Carlos-Alberola, Antonio Gallardo Izquierdo, Francisco J Colomer-

Mendoza, Esther Barreda-Albert

Waste collection is one of the most important public services in a town. However,

waste collection has not been effectively implemented in some places due to the lack

of economic and management resources. The waste is placed in inappropriate sites

with the consequent risks of pollution and unhealthy conditions for the inhabitants.

Therefore, establishing a municipal solid waste collection plan can be

complicated.The methodologies and techniques that work in countries with medium

and high income levels cannot be extrapolated to others with low income level

because the boundary conditions are widely different.

 The aim of this paper is to design a municipal solid waste collection system

adapted to this type of situation where not much money can be invested and where

data are limited. In these cases, municipalities need to use their existing resources

effectively. This paper offers a methodology for these cases as well as a case study.

The first step was to gather information about the type and amount of waste generated

and the characteristics of the town. The second step was to propose the location of the

bins and, finally, the waste collection routes. With all these data, the technical and

human resources were set. The methodology used was validated in a real case, the

town of Nikki (Benin) in Africa. The collection of three waste fractions was designed

with the actual resources of the city in order to offer a realistic implementation.

Similar situations can be found around the world, and this case study can be used as

an example to improve the waste management practices in some places with low

resources

Air pollution

According to environmental pollution center.

Air pollution can be defined as the presence of toxic chemicals or compounds

(including those of biological origin) in the air, at levels that pose a health risk. In an

even broader sense, air pollution means the presence of chemicals or compounds in

the air which are usually not present and which lower the quality of the air or cause

detrimental changes to the quality of life (such as the damaging of the ozone layer or

causing global warming).(environmental pollution center).

Stanfield 1986 Pollution is defined as an atmospheric condition in which

substances (air pollutants) are present at concentrations higher than their normal
ambient (clean atmosphere) levels to produce measurable adverse effects on humans,

animals, vegetation, or materials (Seinfeld, 1986).

Air pollution is defined as a phenomenon harmful to the ecological system and the

normal conditions of human existence and development when some substances in the

atmosphere exceed a certain concentration. In the face of increasingly serious

environmental pollution problems, scholars have conducted a significant quantity of

related research, and in those studies, the forecasting of air pollution has been of

paramount importance. As a precaution, the air pollution forecast is the basis for

taking effective pollution control measures, and accurate forecasting of air pollution

has become an important task. Extensive research indicates that the methods of air

pollution forecasting can be broadly divided into three classical categories: statistical

forecasting methods, artificial intelligence methods, and numerical forecasting

methods. More recently, some hybrid models have been proposed, which can improve

the forecast accuracy. To provide a clear perspective on air pollution forecasting, this

study reviews the theory and application of those forecasting models. In addition,

based on a comparison of different forecasting methods, the advantages and

disadvantages of some methods of forecasting are also provided. This study aims to

provide an overview of air pollution forecasting methods for easy access and

reference by researchers, which will be helpful in further studies…..by Lubai from

international journal of environmental research and public health.

Common disease associated with air pollution

Air pollution is one of the deadliest pollution that claims thousands of lives every

year. While no one is spared from its ill effects, seniors are the ones who are highly

susceptible to the diseases caused by air pollution.

No matter how hard we try, we cannot escape the consequences of it completely.

However, what we can certainly do is take some protective measures to minimize the

risk of diseases caused by pollution. We shall discuss that in the last section.

Speaking of the list of diseases caused by air pollution, it includes:

a) Asthma

One of the common diseases caused by air pollution is asthma. It is a condition in

which individuals find it difficult to breathe due to extra mucus produced by inflamed,

narrowed, and swelled airways. Other than difficulty breathing, some of the

prominent symptoms of asthma include cough, wheezing, chest pain, fast heart rate,

throat irritation, shortness of breath at night.

b) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Of several diseases caused by pollution, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

(COPD), with over 10 million cases every year, is a quite common and prominent

disease in India. COPD is characterised by inflammatory lungs that obstruct the

airflow and make it extremely difficult for the person to breathe.

c) Weakening of Lung Function

This is certainly not one of the many diseases caused by air pollution, but definitely a

prominent sign that may invite several potential diseases like pneumonia and lung

cancer. It is a known fact that ageing affects the functioning of all body systems that

include cells, tissues, and most importantly the organs. As compared to young and

middle-aged adults, the lung capacity of seniors is found on the lower side and air

pollution further makes the condition more vulnerable.

d) Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is one of the serious diseases caused due to pollution. Other than

particulate matter, there are numerous carcinogens present in the air which adversely

affect the lungs on inhalation and eventually lead to pulmonary or lung cancer. In

general, the primary cause of lung cancer is tobacco smoking which means seniors

with smoking habit are more vulnerable to this disease.

The disease is characterized by abnormal growth of cells in one or both lungs, causing

a tremendous drop in the lungs capacity of carrying oxygen and ultimately resulting in

a complete malfunctioning of the respiratory system.

e) Leukaemia

Air pollution causes several diseases, of which leukaemia is extremely fatal. A type of

blood cancer, leukaemia is caused due to heavy exposure to the benzene vapors

present in the polluted air. In this disease, the white blood cells (WBCs) start

increasing uncontrollably and crowd out the red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets that

are crucial for the body to stay healthy.

f) Pneumonia

Pneumonia is one of the many diseases caused due to air pollution. In this condition,

the air sacs in one or both lungs get inflamed and may fill with fluid or pus. Despite

being a common disease of the respiratory tract, it can turn out to be dangerous for the

person, if left untreated.

People over 65 are highly susceptible to catching pneumonia as they tend to have a

compromised immune system and this disease is mainly caused due to bacteria and

viruses that are present in great amounts in polluted air.

2.2 THEORETICAL REVIEW FRAMEWORK

The theory

The theoretical basis of this study adopts the Theory of Planned behavior (TPB)

which was developed out of theory of reasoned Action (TRA), a theory first proposed

in 1980 by Martin Fishbein and Ajzen. TRA was in turn grounded in various theories

bearing on attitude and attitude change which bring about the expansion of the theory

to TPB. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is a psychological theory that

links beliefs to behavior. The theory maintains that three core components, namely,

attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an

individual's behavioral intentions.

According to TRA, if an individual evaluates a suggested behavior as positive

(attitude), and if he or she believes significant others want the person to perform the

behavior (subjective norm), the intention (motivation) to perform the behavior will be

greater and the individual will be more likely to perform the behavior. Attitudes and

subjective norms are highly correlated with behavioral intention; behavioral intention

is correlated with actual behavior.

TBP theoretical framework

The theory of planned behavior (TPB), which claims that behavior intention

predicts individual behavior, has been widely employed in analyzing human behavior

of interest, especially for students and green consumers. According to TPB, behavior

intentions can be further determined by three factors; attitude towards the behavior

(ATT), perceived behavioral control (PBC), and subjective norms (SN). ATT refers to

people’s positive or negative feelings towards the behavior in question. PBC indicates

people’s perception of ease or difficulty in performing certain behaviors. SN reflects

the individual’s perception that people who is important to the individual should

perform the behavior.

Note: Attitude towards the behavior refers to people’s positive or negative feelings

towards the behavior in question. Perceived behavioral control indicates people’s

perception of ease or difficulty in performing certain behaviors. Subjective norms

reflect the individual’s perception that people who is important to the individual

should perform the behavior. Personal attributes cover gender, grade and financial

condition. etc.

In general, more positive attitudes and subjective norms, associated with perceived

behavioral control, can enhance an individual’s intention to perform a specific

behavior. Tonglet et al, argued that recycling attitude influence waste recycling

significantly, Dwivedy and Mittal proved that the convenience was the most

significant influencing factors on resident behavior. In addition, research shows that

subjective norms have an indirect effect on behavioral intentions through behavioral

attitudes and perceived behavioral control. In addition, personal attributes such as

gender, level of education or knowledge and financial condition are also influencing

factors of individual’s behavior, thus we extended the theory and selected attitude

towards the behavior, knowledge ,perceived behavioral control, subjective norms and

personal attributes as measures.

Research, however, shows that behavioral intention does not always lead to actual

behavior. Because behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of

behavior where an individual's control over the behavior is incomplete, Ajzen

introduced TPB by adding to TRA the component "perceived behavioral control." In

this way he extended TRA to better predict actual behavior.

Perceived behavioral control refers to the degree to which a person believes that he

or she can perform a given behavior.[1] Perceived behavioral control involves the

perception of the individual's own ability to perform the behavior. In other words,
perceived behavioral control is behavior- or goal-specific. That perception varies by

environmental circumstances and the behavior involved.[1] The theory of planned

behavior suggests that people are much more likely to intend to enact certain

behaviors when they feel that they can enact them successfully. The theory has thus

improved upon TRA.

Along with attitudes and subjective norms (which make up TRA), TPB adds the

concept of perceived behavioral control, which grew out of self-efficacy theory

(SET). The construct of self-efficacy was proposed by Bandura in 1977,[7] in

connection to social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy refers to a person's expectation or

confidence that he or she can master a behavior or accomplish a goal; an individual

has different levels of self-efficacy depending upon the behavior or goal in question.

Bandura distinguished two distinct types of goal-related expectations: self-efficacy

and outcome expectancy.[8] He defined self-efficacy as the conviction that one can

successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcome in question.

Outcome expectancy refers to a person's estimation that a given behavior will lead

to certain outcomes. Bandura advanced the view that self-efficacy is the most

important precondition for behavioral change, since it is key to the initiation of coping

behavior.

Previous investigations have shown that a person's behavior is strongly influenced

by the individual's confidence in his or her ability to perform that behavior. As self-

efficacy contributes to explanations of various relationships among beliefs, attitudes,

intentions, and behavior, TPB has been widely applied in health-related fields such as

helping preadolescents to engage in more physical activity, thereby improving their

mental health, and getting adults to exercise more.

 Key concepts of the theory

a. Normative beliefs and subjective norms

Normative belief: an individual's perception of social normative pressures, or the

beliefs of relevant others bearing on what behaviors should or should not be

performed.

Subjective norm: an individual's perception about the particular behavior, which is

influenced by the judgment of significant others (e.g., parents, spouse, friends,

teachers).[14]

b. Control beliefs and perceived behavioral control

Control beliefs: an individual's beliefs about the presence of factors that may

facilitate or hinder performance of the behavior.[15]

Perceived behavioral control: an individual's perceived ease or difficulty of

performing the particular behavior.[1] The concept of perceived behavioral control is

conceptually related to self-efficacy. It is assumed that perceived behavioral control is

determined by the total set of accessible control beliefs.

c. Behavioral intention and behavior

Behavioral intention: an individual's readiness to perform a given behavior. It is

assumed to be an immediate antecedent of behavior.[16] It is based on attitude toward

the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, with each predictor

weighted for its importance in relation to the behavior and population of interest.

Behavior: an individual's observable response in a given situation with respect to a

given target. Ajzen advanced the view that a behavior is a function of compatible

intentions and perceptions of behavioral control. Perceived behavioral control is

expected to moderate the effect of intention on behavior, such that a favorable

intention produces the behavior only when perceived behavioral control is strong.
 TPB model

The TBP Model explained that the Human behavior is guided by three kinds of

considerations: behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs. In their

respective aggregates, behavioral beliefs produce a favorable or unfavorable attitude

toward the behavior, normative beliefs result in a subjective norm, and control beliefs

pertain to perceived behavioral control.

In combination, the attitude toward the behavior, the subjective norm, and the

perceived behavioral control lead to the formation of a behavioral intention. In

particular, perceived behavioral control is presumed not only to affect actual behavior

directly, but also to affect it indirectly through behavioral intention. As a general rule,

when:

(a) the individual has a favorable attitude toward a behavior,

(b) the attitude is aligned with the relevant norms, and

(c) the individual perceives that she/he has a high level of behavioral control, a

strong intention to perform the behavior in question is expected. Finally, given a

sufficient degree of actual control over the behavior, the individual is expected to

carry out his or her intentions when the opportunity arises.

Fig. 1. The Theory of Planned Behaviour, adapted from Ajzen (1991).

Application of TPB to the study

The theory of planned behavior has been applied to a number research areas

including health-related behaviors, waste management behaviors and environmental

psychology. Also TBP is applied into this study to describe the attitude and

knowledge of Achievers University students on refuse disposal and as a

contributory factor towards air pollution.

The use of TPB theory in this study is an important way to realize the rationale

behind students attitudes and knowledge toward refuse disposal. Thus, investigating

refuse disposal as the influencing factor of air pollution and the attitude of the

students at AUO university will help to have an in-depth understanding of the

student’s environmental behavior so as to develop proper policies toward sustainable

waste management.

According to TPB, positive attitudes and subjective norms, associated with

perceived behavioral control, can enhance an individual’s intention to perform a

specific behavior, Which correlates with the study that the attitudes and knowledge of

students can influence their behavior toward refuse disposal.

 Within the campus, the research conducted showed that refuse generated among

student are been thrown at undesignated sites which might be due to low awareness,

insufficient knowledge, and low responsibility for personal waste.. All the students

are required to dump their refuse into the waste bins available at various site in the

campus. Improper refuse disposal and non classification of waste before disposal can

cause air pollution.

Waste classification also help to set guidelines for proper refuse disposal and

prevention of environmental pollution. In a conducted research with the use of TPB

theory a finding was made that “The regulations on waste classification and reduction

may restrict my waste generation”, then less waste would be generated. With regard

to personal attributes, Both the gender and major (social sciences and natural

sciences) had insignificant impacts on waste generation behavior of students. Grade

and expense had a significant and positive impact. In sum, the waste generation

behavior of university students was most relevant to the attitude of students towards

waste, and was also significantly influenced by grade level and financial condition.

Since the attitude towards the behavior has a significant impact on refuse disposal, to

cultivate the student’s environmental awareness is vital for waste management.

Findings

Studies have shown that apart from the total waste, the influencing factors, attitudes

and knowledge, gender also had a significant and positive effect on residual waste,

indicating that female students produced more residual waste than male students. This

may be attributed to the preference of online shopping, which will generate a large

amount of packaging materials as residual waste. Students from natural sciences

produced more residual waste than those from social sciences. However, Botetzagias
et al. found that perceived behavioral control is the most important predictor of the

intention to waste management and demographic characteristics were found to be

statistically non-significant.

Studies on the refuse disposal as a contributing factor of air pollution is not only

one of the social concerns, but also the hot spot of many research disciplines such as

ecology, environment, management, and sociology, etc. We found out that subjective

norms and behavioral attitudes towards waste have a direct impact on behavioral

intention in refuse disposal

Conclusions

Realizing refuse disposal as a contributing factor for air pollution is a big challenge

and also a sustainable development goal for cities and regions in the world. Revealing

the influencing factors of air pollution is the basis for understanding people’s behavior

and attitude toward waste issue, so that proper policies and regulations could be

developed. Differing from the existing literature that were mostly carried out at

country, region, city, and household scales, we explored the influencing factors of

refuse disposal in Achievers university Through extending the theoretical framework

of planned behavior in the context of waste management, the effect of attitude

towards the behavior, knowledge, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms,

together with personal attributes such as gender and living expenses.

In this study, the theoretical framework of planned behavior (TPB) explained

students’ attitude towards waste generation and their perception of the difficulty of

waste reduction through proper waste disposal would significantly affect the

generation of waste. The top two ranked difficulties toward proper refuse disposal in

Achievers University Owo includes;

a) The relationship between generating the wastes and dumping the wastes at the

designated areas, e.g in hostel, classrooms, an

b) Non strict rules and regulations concerning waste disposal in the campus.

Also the research suggestions for the university include a developing personalized and

humanized waste management policies, such as paying attention to female student

hostels for managing the residual waste, while male hostels for household food waste

management, integrating waste data to optimize the site choice of dumping sites,

Enhancing student’s environmental awareness through diverse educational activities,

such as public and fundamental courses related to waste and resource management,

some elective courses combining theories with practices, special lectures, and

knowledge.

Criticism of TPB theory

More recently, some scholars criticize the theory because it ignores the individual's

needs prior to engaging in a certain action, needs that would affect behavior

regardless of expressed attitudes. Some experimental studies challenge the assumption

that intentions and behavior are consequences of attitudes, social norms, and

perceived behavioral control

Another limitation is that TPB does not integrate into the theory the role the

individual's emotions play in the development of intentions and during decision-

making play. In addition, most of the research on TPB is correlational.

Credits to the author

TPB covers people's volitional behavior that cannot be explained by TRA. An

individual's behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behavior

where an individual's control over the behavior is incomplete. By adding "perceived

behavioral control," TPB can explain the relationship between behavioral intention

and actual behavior.

Several studies found that, compared to TRA, TPB better predicts health-related

behavioral intentions. TPB has improved the predictability of intention in various

health-related areas. Also TPB (and TRA) have helped to explain the individual's

social behavior by including social norms as an important contributing explanatory

factor. In addition TPB provides the theoretical basis for attitude and knowledge of

students towards refuse disposal.

2.3 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

2.3.1. Attitude of student towards refuse disposal

This study assessed students' perception and attitude towards solid waste

management in Achievers university Owo. A descriptive survey methodology was

used to collect the data. This was done by direct observation and use of structured and

semi-structured questionnaire on students' views and ideas of waste generation,

collection, sorting and disposal. Eight (8) faculties consisting of Engineering,

Medicine, Agriculture, Science, Management Science, Law Art, Veterinary Medicine

and hostels (Male and Female) in the University Campus were surveyed and a

descriptive statistic was used for the data analysis. Students' attitude on waste disposal

showed that, 45.8% of the respondent dispose solid waste in waste bin, 18.7% dispose

in dump site, 11.0% dispose in nearby gutter, 9.0% dispose in all of the options, 8.4%

dispose by the road side, 4.5% dispose in open space, while 2.6% dispose behind the
department/faculty. Students' perception on waste segregation showed hat 3.9% of the

respondent separated solid waste into two components before disposing off, 0.7%

separated into three components, 1.3% separated into four components, 0% separated

into five and six components while 94.2% responded that they do not separate their

solid waste before disposing off. In addition, 10.3% responded to positive solid waste

sorting while 89.7% responded negative. In conclusion, there is low level of

awareness and knowledge about solid waste management by the students which

certainly contributes to the challenges faced in waste management of the Achievers

university owo campus.

Waste disposal in an environmentally sustainable manner is an important part of

waste management aside source separation, storage, collection and transportation

(Burntley, 2007). 45.8% of the respondent dispose solid waste in waste bin, 18.7%

dispose in dump site, 11.0% dispose in nearby gutter, 9.0% dispose solid waste in all

of the options, 8.4% dispose by the road side, 4.5% dispose in open space, while

2.6% dispose behind the department/faculty. This result is in agreement with

findings of Momoh and Oladebey (2010), on study of solid waste disposal. In their

study, they established that disposal of solid waste includes dumping of waste in

gutters, drains, by roadside, unauthorized dumping sites and stream channels

during raining season and burning of wastes on unapproved dumping site during

the dry season. Result also identified that waste collection bin is the major method of

waste collection in the university of Abuja Main Campus as such most students

(45.8%) dispose their wastes in available waste bins while the least (2.6%) dispose off

their waste at the back of departments or faculties. This indicates that University

of Abuja students' perception towards waste disposal is good. In municipality, waste

collection is majorly via waste bins (Felix et al., 2012). However, Strovoytova and
Namango (2018) reported that despite numbers of waste bin in campus, significant

amount of solid waste is still dumped in open space; gutter and roadside. This

according to them is as a result of poor attitude towards waste management by

residents (students,workers and visitors)on campus,The negative attitude can be

attributed to social cultural barrier to effective waste management reported

strovoytova and Namango (2018).Al—khabit et al. (2009) attributed indiscriminate

disposal of solid waste to the following cause: lack of social pressure to-prevent

littering; absence of realistic-penalties or consistent-enforcement; and lack of

knowledge of the-environmental-effects of littering while McAllister, 2015, attributed

the cause to the number of available waste-collection-bins on campus. Lack of

knowledge on waste management affects the attitude of students towards waste

disposal and has led to lack of usage of waste bins by some students on campus

(Ambrinet al., 2018

2.3.1.1 The knowledge of student toward refuse disposal

The waste management sector is facing numerous challenges globally. Huge

amounts of municipal and industrial wastes are produced daily worldwide as a

consequence of human activities. It is estimated that about 3.4-4 billion tons of

municipal and industrial solid wastes and up to 300 million tons of hazardous waste

are produced annually worldwide (Nabegu, 2010). As the volume and complexity of

solid waste increase, the environmental risk posed by the waste products including

human health risks, ecosystem degradation, contamination of soils and water, as well

as, greenhouse gas emissions, global warming, and climate change become more

serious (United Nations Environmental Programme, 2011). These risks are more
obvious in the developing countries of the world where there are greater consumers of

industrial materials, a higher percentage of outdated and obsolete technological

products than in the developed countries. This is due in part to the waste products

being shipped to developing countries, such as used refrigerators, hazardous industrial

wastes, second-hand clothes, cars, and shoes among others (Ayodeji, 2010). Solid

waste refers to any garbage, refuse, sludge, and other discarded materials including

solid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous materials, resulting from industrial,

commercial, running and agricultural operations, and from community activities (New

York State Department of Environmental Conservation, 2015). Solid wastes

constitute the following materials when discarded: Paper bags, polythene bags,

bottles, agricultural solid waste (tomato peels, cabbage, sugar cane, yam peels, etc.),

waste tyres, scrap metal, latex paint, furniture and toys, garbage, appliances and

vehicles, oil and anti-freeze, empty aerosol cans, and compressed gas cylinders,

construction and demolition debris, and asbestos. Therefore, solid waste could be

defined as non-liquid and non-gaseous garbage, refuse or sludge products of human

activities, regarded as useless (Leton and Omotosho, 2004).

Over the past decade, most Nigerian cities have been grappling with the

challenges of managing its solid waste because of the phenomenal growth of both

population and waste generation. This is due to an annual increase in population and

socioeconomic indicators as is documented in the Nigerian Population Census (NPC,

2008). It has been reported that the population in some States and Local Government

areas is growing by as much as 20-30% per annum (World Bank, 2000; Ezeah, 2010).

Solid waste management in cities and institutions of learning (i.e., colleges of

education) is still in its infancy. Institutional and policy frameworks where they exist

are not in line with global best practices. City specific data on waste necessary for
planning are also not readily available (Akoni, 2007). Regrettably, waste collection

and treatment do not seem to be adequate or even available Nigeria.

Furthermore, Environmental Education is not stated clearly in the vision of the

Federal Ministry of Education. It is rather seen as a cross cutting theme within the

nation’s curriculum for each institutions. Moreover, there is a paucity of studies on

assessment of the knowledge level and attitudinal dispositions of individuals,

particularly prospective teachers in tertiary institutions toward solid waste

management in Nigeria.

However, the question is whether the content of the National Minimum Standards

offered to the students of colleges of education who are prospective teachers,

adequately equips them with the knowledge and the right attitudes to carry out

effectively the teaching and learning of environmental concepts, such as solid waste

management. The colleges of education in Nigeria are also entrusted with the task of

molding students to be responsible members of the society. It is crucial that teachers

are the front liners establishing and sustaining the culture of environmental

consciousness in society (Akinbote, 2007), especially with regard to solid waste

management. This agrees with the view of Ibrahim and Babayemi (2010) who

emphasized thateducation should make young people aware of environmental

problems.

For this to be done in any significant way, there is the need to collect baseline

data on students’ understanding while in their teacher training programs. Particularly,

their awareness about environmental problems and attitudes toward the solid waste

management activities that are part of their learning process. Hence, the particular

knowledge and attitudes gained from the environmental education would help in
changing their behavior toward the environment. This is critical since teachers are

implementers of government plans and policies.

Solid waste management is the collection, treatment and disposal of solid materials

that are discarded because they have served their purpose or are no longer useful.

Improper disposal of solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these

conditions, in turn, can lead to pollution of the environment and the outbreak of

vector-borne diseases, that is, diseases spread by rodents and insects. The task of solid

waste management presents complex technical challenges. It also poses a wide array

of administrative, economic, and social problems that must be managed and solved

(Jerry, 2015). Globally, the waste management sector is facing numerous challenges

(Allen and Bassey, 2012). Allen and Bassey noted challenges from a lack of a

declaration of national environmental emergency to a needed review and

popularization of existing laws, regulation and policies. They also highlighted the

need to encourage public participation at both the level of formulation and

implementation and waste management planning for the entire nation covering all

kinds of waste. In addition, Environmental Education needed to be integrated into the

school curriculum right from primary school level, especially concerning recycling,

reuse and waste disposal.

Finally, ecological funds strictly monitored and used to remediate or restore

damaged environment strict sanitation and waste management, reforestation, and oil

spills clean up. The importance of teachers’ knowledge base in teaching cannot be

underestimated. When emphasizing the importance of teachers in the effective

implementation of Environmental Education, it is suggested that teachers have to be

committed to teaching Environmental Education (Robottom et al., 2000). Apart from

commitment, they also need a good knowledge base in Environmental Education.

Knowledge is all about gaining

a variety of experiences and acquiring a basic understanding of the environment and

its associated problems. Knowledge is familiarity with someone or something, which

can include facts, information, descriptions or skills acquired through experience, or

education (Schratz, 2016).

These findings are inconclusive and justified the need for this study. Hence, this

study was carried out to assess colleges of student’s knowledge and attitudes toward

refuse disposal as a contributing factor for air pollution in Achievers university,

Owo,Ondo state. . The specific objectives of the study were to investigate the level of

students’ knowledge of solid waste management or refuse disposal, determine

students’ attitudes toward refuse disposal and find out the relationship between

knowledge and attitudes of students toward refuse disposal.

2.3.1.2 Methods of refuse disposal

Garbage accumulation has never been much of a concern in the past, but due to

globalization and industrialization, there is a need for a more efficient waste disposal

method. Following are some of the methods that are used today.

i. Landfill

In this process, the waste that cannot be reused or recycled are separated out and

spread as a thin layer in low-lying areas across a city. A layer of soil is added after

each layer of garbage. However, once this process is complete, the area is declared

unfit for construction of buildings for the next 20 years. Instead, it can only be used as

a playground or a park.
ii. Incineration

Incineration is the process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to

incombustible matter such as ash and waste gas. The exhaust gases from this process

may be toxic, hence it is treated before being released into the environment. This

process reduces the volume of waste by 90 per cent and is considered as one of the

most hygienic methods of waste disposal. In some cases, the heat generated is used to

produce electricity. However, some consider this process, not quite environmentally

friendly due to the generation of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon

monoxide.

iii. Collection and logistics

The waste management sector involves many different specialized actors. Their

tasks include the collection of waste at source (industry, commerce and households)

in suitable transport containers, its intermediate storage and handover to waste

disposal operations. The treatment of waste is often based on a cascade of specialized

plants. In all cases, smooth logistics are a precondition for the efficient management

of waste. In the case of hazardous waste, in accordance with the Ordinance on

Movements of Waste, the handover must be documented.

iv. Waste Compaction

 The waste materials such as cans and plastic bottles are compacted into blocks and

sent for recycling. This process prevents the oxidation of metals and reduces airspace

need, thus making transportation and positioning easy.

v. Biogas Generation

Biodegradable waste, such as food items, animal waste or organic industrial waste

from food packaging industries are sent to bio-degradation plants. In bio-degradation

plants, they are converted to biogas by degradation with the help of bacteria, fungi, or

other microbes. Here, the organic matter serves as food for the micro-organisms. The

degradation can happen aerobically (with oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen).

Biogas is generated as a result of this process, which is used as fuel, and the residue is

used as manure.

vi. Composting

All organic materials decompose with time. Food scraps, yard waste, etc., make up

for one of the major organic wastes we throw every day. The process of composting

starts with these organic wastes being buried under layers of soil and then, are left to

decay under the action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.

This results in the formation of nutrient-rich manure. Also, this process ensures that

the nutrients are replenished in the soil. Besides enriching the soil, composting also

increases the water retention capacity. In agriculture, it is the best alternative to

chemical fertilizers.

vii. Vermi composting

 Vermi composting is the process of using worms for the degradation of organic

matter into nutrient-rich manure. Worms consume and digest the organic matter. The

by-products of digestion which are excreted out by the worms make the soil nutrient-

rich, thus enhancing the growth of bacteria and fungi. It is also far more effective than

traditional composting.

2.3.2 Perceived effects of air pollution on the health of the student.

The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter

(PM). Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:

i. Outdoor pollution is the ambient air pollution.

ii. Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.

People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease

symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into

short- and long-term effects affecting health.

Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include

old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease,

especially asthma.

As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from

Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term

effects have not been completely clarified (Kloog I, Ridgway B, Koutrakis P, Coull

BA, Schwartz JD. Long- and short-term exposure to PM2.5 and mortality using novel

exposure models, Epidemiology. (2013). New models are proposed for assessing

short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully. Thus, in the present

section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also

general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on

environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.

Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as

irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and

breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis,

and lung and heart problems. Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause

headaches, nausea, and dizziness.

These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the

pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems

and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths.

The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead

to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety

of cancers in the long term (Nakano T, Otsuki T. [Environmental air pollutants and

the risk of cancer]. (Japanese).

 As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of

air pollutants. These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at

the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved

and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area,

season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to

long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors.

Particulate Matter (PMs), dust, benzene, and O3 cause serious damage to the

respiratory system. Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing

respiratory disease such as asthma ( Guarnieri M, Balmes JR. Outdoor air pollution

and asthma. Lancet. (2014)

Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state.

When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked

after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may be induced

following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality (99). Long-term effects

from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for

COPD risk (Jiang X-Q, Mei X-D, Feng D. Air pollution and chronic airway diseases:

what should people know and do? J Thorac Dis. (2016)

Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants

(100). Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac

functionality. Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to

traffic emissions (101), while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke,

myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to

occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide (Leary PJ, Kaufman JD,

Barr RG, Bluemke DA, Curl CL, Hough CL, et al.. Traffic- related air pollution and
the right ventricle. the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Am J Respir Crit Care

Med. (2014).

Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term

exposure to air pollutants.

Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth

weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution (83). The etiologic agent of the

neuro degenerative diseases (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) is not yet known, although

it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor. Specifically,

pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet. The

mechanisms in the development of neuro degenerative disease include oxidative

stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons

(Genc S, Zadeoglulari Z, Fuss SH, Genc K. The adverse effects of air pollution on the

nervous system. J Toxicol. (2012)

Air pollutants absorbed by the human skin may contribute to skin aging, psoriasis,

acne, urticaria, eczema, and atopic dermatitis (111), usually caused by exposure to

oxides and photochemical smoke (111). Exposure to PM and cigarette smoking act as

skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles. Lastly, pollutants have

been associated with skin cancer (Drakaki E, Dessinioti C, Antoniou C. Air pollution

and the skin. Front Environ Sci Eng China. (2014)

2.3.2.1 Relationship of student’s Knowledge and Attitudes toward Refuse

Disposal.

Solid waste refers to any garbage, refuse, sludge, and other discarded materials

including solid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous materials, resulting from industrial,

commercial, running and agricultural operations, and from community activities (New
York State Department of Environmental Conservation, 2015).Refuse disposal

system, technique for the collection ,treatment and disposal of the solid wastes of a

community. The development and operation of these system is often called solid-

waste management (ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA). Understanding and

explain the behaviour of waste management can use the approach of psychology

theories about the relationship of knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. Cognitive or

knowledge is very important domain for the formation of a person's actions, knowing

from experience and research results turned out behaviors based on knowledge will be

better than not based on knowledge. Studies investigating the relationship between

knowledge, attitudes and behaviors known as the study of KAP (knowledge, attitudes

and practices). This study explains what people know about something, what he feels,

and how he behaves. The investigation method is used widely around the world in the

field of public health, water supply and sanitation, education and many other

programs.

The knowledge possessed by students refer to their understanding of the topics of

interest for example for this study is on waste management. Attitudes refer to their

feelings towards waste management, as well as ideas preconceived which may lead to

it. The practice refers to the way they show the knowledge and attitudes through their

actions in implementing waste management. Waste that has not been transported

generally accommodated at temporary disposal sites (TPS) which is located on the

edge of the road, a corner fork in the road or a particular road. The condition can

cause negative impacts to the environment, because it raises the unpleasant odour,

reducing the beauty of the university.

This study denote that adequate knowledge can lead to positive attitude resulting in

good practices. So the significant link between knowledge and attitude is that the
knowledge of refuse disposal can influence the belief ant feelings toward refuse

disposal. The results of this study stated that knowledge of waste management and

contribute positively associated with attitudes towards waste management. These

results are consistent with theoretical assumptions theory of planned behavior and in

line with the findings obtained by Ramayah et all which explores the behavior of

recycled environmentally conscious by using the theory of planned behavior.

Communication and education efforts to increase knowledge on issues relating to

environmental concerns has been effective in encouraging behavior that is considered

a good disposition for the natural environment. The results of this study concluded

that the knowledge on waste management contribute positively and associate with

intentions of waste management. Or cognitive domain knowledge is very important

for the formation of a person's actions, knowing from experience and research results

turned out behavior based on knowledge will be better than not based on knowledge.

The results of this study stated that the attitude towards sustainable waste

management and contribute positively associated with intentions of sustainable waste

management. This finding is consistent with the theoretical assumptions in the theory

of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) that the attitude is a determinant factor of

intentions.

Analysis have suggested that there is no significant differences between male and

female in knowledge score but female students had significantly higher attitude

and practice than the male. Female students could be said to have positive waste

management attitude and practices than their male counterpart. This is plausible

when one considers the fact that in most households and schools in developing

countries girls do most of the cleaning and sweeping activities. There are

significant differences observed in students’ knowledge and practices according to

class of study. However, there is no significant difference in their attitude. With

respect to age, students differ significantly in knowledge and practices only.

In order to establish the demographic correlates of the waste management

variables of students, some demographic characteristics of the students presumed to

possibly have a measure of influence on the awareness, knowledge and practices of

waste management, using Pearson correlation. Also there is a negative

relationship between sex and student’s knowledge about waste management while a

positive relationship exist between their age, class and knowledge. There is a

positive relationship between age and knowledge, attitude and practice but

negative relationship exist between class of study and attitude about waste

management. The level of knowledge of student influences their positive practice

of waste management.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results found in this study to answer the research question, it can be

concluded that: there is no significant relationship between knowledge and attitudes

towards waste disposal and there is a correlation between attitudes towards waste

disposal and knowledge of school students.

SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW

CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE REVIEW: In this study, we’ve been able to

define the meaning of refuse and also discussed the various classifications of wastes

and also discussed various ways in which refuse can be disposed off in our

community at large including schools and hospitals, we also enfazise on the

disadvantages of improper disposal of refuses and also the challenges facing efficient

refuse disposal methods.

Furthermore, we discussed air pollution and also talked about various diseases that

are associated with air pollution and how they affects our health.

THEORETICAL LITERATURE REVIEW : During the course of this study, the

theory adopted and used for the study is the theory of planned behavior which was

developed out of theory of reasoned Action (TRA), a theory first proposed in 1980 by

Martin Fishbein and Ajzen. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is a

psychological theory that links beliefs to behavior. The theory also states the core

components, namely, attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control,

together shape an individual's behavioral intention's.

The theory of planned behavior (TPB), also claims that behavior intention predicts

individual behavior and behavior intentions can be further determined by three

factors; attitude towards the behavior (ATT), perceived behavioral control (PBC), and

subjective norms (SN)

Furthermore ATT refers to people’s positive or negative feelings towards the

behavior in question. PBC indicates people’s perception of ease or difficulty in

performing certain behaviors. SN reflects the individual’s perception that people who

is important to the individual should perform the behavior.

In conclusion the theory of planned behavior helps to determine the rationale

behind students attitude and knowledge towards refuse disposal. Positive attitude and

subject norms about a particular subject will determine how an individual react

towards the subject .

 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW: In this study, refuse disposal has been

critically analyzed from different areas which include the various methods used, the

knowledge and attitudes of student towards refuse disposal. The research hypothesis

stating the non significant relationship between the knowledge of students and their

attitudes toward refuse disposal has also been critically examined.

This study explains that the problems of solid waste management or refuse disposal

methods and peoples attitude and perceptions in the society can be linked to the levels

of formal educations. Also improved teaching and learning of issues concerning

sanitation in all level of education could help improve the general sanitation in the

school and communities by extension.

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