ETHICS030

certain culture.It is right for an indigenous person to wear a

“bahag” even if he would roam around their land. It is their
culture. But for someone who lives in a city, it won’t be
MIDTERMS acceptable if he wears such clothes when going to a mall. He
LESSON 1: CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR has a different culture thus; he should abide the norms and
standards set by his owngroup.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Analyze the position of culture in the ethical
enterprise. ETHICAL THINKING IN CULTURAL RELATIVISM
2. Agree that cultural relativism has an unjustifiable
position in ethical thinking. Doing of good is greatly dependent on one’s culture.
3. Agree that culture is not a solid ground for moral
decisions. CONCRETE MANIFESTATION OF CULTURAL
4. Cultural relativism is real and present in our midst. RELATIVISM
What can be true to one culture may not necessarily be true
to another.
CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR
ON CULTURE AND MORALITY
Principle: “Culture Influences Moral Behavior”
It is a myth to say: “Culture dictates moral decision.”
✓ Individual behavior is connected to the person’s situation Being a rational person who innately knows what is right from
(circumstances) at contributes to his action. We frame wrong, we already know how to act morally thus, we don’t
our actions in accordance to the culture, group or a have to rely all our moral decisions to the culture that we
society that has been an influence to how do we behave belong to.
in our everyday life.
For example: FINAL NOTE ON CULTURAL RELATIVISM:
1. We attribute the idea, “daw taga squatter ka” to Cultural relativism asserts that there is no right and wrong
someone who always talks loudly. culture because the truth someonebelieves in depends on the
2. A Filipino woman may be more reserved and validity and consistency of his /her own culture. Thus, cultural
conservative compared to those from Western relativism leads us to the value of respect. There is no
countries,because it is what a Filipino society superior nor inferior culture hence, we should treat any
expects her to be. culture fairly with our respect in the diversity of beliefs, ideas,
customs, norms,and standards.
✓ Culture frames one’s understanding of good and bad
(Cultural Orientation).
For example: LESSON 2: VIRTUE ETHICS & MORAL DEVELOPMENT
1. A Christian person may have a different perspective THEORY
from a Muslim person.
2. A taga-uma has a different set of standards from a OBJECTIVES:
taga-syudad. 1. Differentiate good person from good action.
2. Understand the dynamics and context of moral
✓ On a global scope, considerations on women, marriage agency
practices, and religious orientations are some significant 3. Know the stages of moral development
issues and experiences that show the concrete impact of
culture on how one behaves morally.
4. Building a conscience – based moral decision
making.
✓ Issues on women, marriage, and religion manifest a MORAL AGENT AND VIRTUE ETHICS
great impact of culture.
What is Moral Agent?
✓ Culture, generally, shapes the moral framework/behavior ✓ Doer/ Performer/Actor of moral value.
of persons and even of groups.
✓ Has the full accountability for his action. One cannot
point at other reasons.
CULTURE RELATIVISM AND ETHICS ✓ Is capable of thinking what is good (or bad).
✓ Possesses the virtues which do not develop
Cultural relativism is a doctrine that asserts validity of culture overnight.
in the process of thinking.
PRINCIPLES ON MORAL AGENCY
Simply, it is a doctrine which asserts that culture dictates
one’s behavior and even the morality of one’s act. ⎯ doing what is morally good (bad) is not sufficient
to make the moral agent good (bad).
It is culture –specific such that truth is measured dependent ⎯ intention or motivation before the act has been
upon cultural logic and consistency. done should be investigated.
⎯ The agent possesses the virtues.
By cultural relativism, we are told that what can be true to one Virtues are formed character of a person who
culture may not be necessarily true toanother. The position is through time has consistently exercised these
of what is right or wrong is seen from what is prescribed of a values.

CASIPLE, J.
 VIRTUES
⎯ are formed character of a person who through KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
time has consistently exercised the values
commendable for his/her own growth.
⎯ By hard work and perseverance, one tries to put
his best in whatever he does. He doesn’t settle for
a lowly result because there is more that he can
give.
o One has the virtue of hard work and
perseverance if he tries to put his best in
whatever he does at all times.
o One has the virtue of patience if he
consistently exhibits good character in
any kind of waiting.
o One who is not virtuous as he tends not
to possess the virtues, is a vicious
person. A vicious person does the vices.
EXPLANATIONS FOR EACH LEVEL OF MORAL
VICES DEVELOPMENT THEORY
⎯ Opposite of virtues
⎯ The inconsistency towards values 1. PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
⎯ The repetition of doing bad ✓ The norms of morality are understood through
o Procrastination is to be slow or late about physical pain and pleasure orientation.
doing something that should be done which
is usually because of laziness. it is an STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
inconsistency of the value of diligence thus,
it is a vice. STAGES DESCRIPTION
o Smokers, gamblers, and alcoholics Punishment and One is motivated by fear
continuously engage themselves to bad 1 Obedience of punishment. He will
habits thus, they are vicious. act in order to avoid
punishment.
For example:
REMEMBER…. a kindergarten would do
MATURITY, DECISIVENESS, and UPRIGHTNESS are his assignment to avoid
certain qualities of an individual who has grown through getting baffled.
life. Instrumental One is motivated to act by
2 Relativist/ the benefit that one may
The mark of a moral agent is the attitude or trait cultivated Individualism/naïve obtain later. “You scratch
not incidentally or functionally but rather regularly or hedonism my back, I’ll scratch
habitually in the course of time and in the performance of yours.”
good actions. That’s why virtue become an element of a For example:
moral agent. A child would do his
assignment for him to be
allowed to play his play
station.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
BY LAWRENCE KOHLBERG 2. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
✓ Concerns are the values of family, of the nation, of
What is moral development of theory all about? the group, or in short, the society where one
✓ It emphasizes the gradual progress experienced belongs.
by the individual who in turn can only realize his or
her own status of personal development after STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
passing through a lower level.
✓ It is composed of 3 levels of morality by which each STAGES DESCRIPTION
level also characterizes 2 stages of moral Interpersonal One is motivated by what
development. Kohlberg believes that the individual 3 Concordance others expect in behavior-
moves from on level to another, going through the good boy, good girl
varying stages of social orientations. orientation. He values how he
appears to others.
For example:
Principle
Nancy lets her answer be
Social Contact
Law and Order Morality copied by her friends so that
Good Boy Attitude they would thing she’s kind.
Law and One is motivated to act in order
Self-Interest
Avoiding Punishment
4 Order to uphold lawand order. The
Mentality person will follow the law
because it is the law.

CASIPLE, J.
 For example: orientation hence, done in the absence of
Someone uses the pedestrian conscience.
lane upon crossing the street
because it is the right thing to
do.. HOW DO WE MAKE DECISIONS GROUNDED ON
CONSCIENCE?
3. POST CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
✓ An individual shows an independent attitude in his When confronted by moral issues especially the complex
or her regard to values used to be ones, a guide is of utmost important. To come up witha better
prescribed by his or her society. perspective and approach to certain issues. These are the
following steps:
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
STEPS IN MAKING A GOOD CHOICE USING YOUR
STAGES DESCRIPTION CONSCIENCE
Social Laws that are wrong can be
5 Contact changed. One will act based on 1. Ask the HOLY SPIRIT for help.
social justice and the common 2. Think about God’s Law and the teachings of the
good. Church.
For example: 3. Think of the result of your choices (consequences).
Students from UP Diliman went on 4. Seek advice from someone you respect and is a
a social gathering for a protest on “good image” of Jesus.
the anti-terrorism bill. 5. Ask yourself how will your choice affect your
Universal This is associated with the relationship with God?
6 Principles development of one’s
conscience. Having a set of
standards that drives one to Augustinian Reflection:
possess moral responsibility to  City of God
make societal changes 1. Virtues of Glory, honor, and power of the Romans
regardless of consequences to 2. Romans – City of Man – FAKE
oneself. 3. St. Augustine – Seek City of God – ends
For example: restlessness of the heart.
John organized a kariton drive
which aims to teach the street “ “My love is my Weight.” = I am what I love.
dwelling kids the 3Rs.

ON CONSCIENCE – BASED ON MORAL DECISION LESSON SUMMARY:

✓ The act of man is always based on one’s value-
Man is endowed with the freedom of choice. orientation.
✓ This value orientation greatly affects the person’s
It entails responsibility. moral decisiveness and behavior.
✓ The point of the study is for each to possess a
prudent and conscience –based approach to moral
However, it is said that “although we have the freedom to issues.
chooses our actions, we do not choose our consequences”
thus, to avoid being misled in n our decisions, just remember
that good decisions are:

1. Good decisions are NEVER selfish, self- centered LESSON 3: FEELINGS AND MORAL DECISION-
nor are confined in the inner circle. MAKING
2. Good decisions are grounded on the Voice of
GOD from within – CONSCIENCE OBJECTIVES:
1. Understood the nature of emotion and its function in
CONSCIENCE morality;
o Is the inner voice that leads one to rightly 2. Analyzed the conflicts on the role of emotion in moral
discern the correct values for a given situation. decision making; and
For example: 3. Explained the main role of reason and emotion in
It is our conscience which tells a student not to moral issues.
steal his seatmate’s money to buy his food in
school. His conscience tells him that his value What are EMOTIONS?
of dignity and righteousness is way greater than
his physiological needs. ⎯ Are constitutive of being human on personal and
o Is the gift helping one to recognize the moral collective levels.
quality of his or her action.
⎯ Are momentary feelings; unsuitable to moral decision
making
3. A conscientious decision determines the rightly
ordered values and, in such case, one is making a ⎯ Are unwilled and subjective; are fleeting feelings
good choice. On the contrary, bad decisions and hence, there can hardly be accountability.
choices show a disvalue of distorted value-
CASIPLE, J.
Emotions are conscious mental reaction subjectively
experienced as strong feeling usually directed toward a 3. The neutral position (relativism) carried out by
specific object and typically accompanied by physiological feelings implies a double standard. No 2 judgments
and behavioral changes in the body. are contradicting each other." Stealing as bad” shares
with the assertion that “stealing is good”. Both actionsare
When we get in love… equally true on the basis of the agent’s (the person who
steals) conviction. E.g., at the peak of Jose’s frustrations,
✓ We know that we are in love thus, we are conscious he indulged in stealing despite knowing that it is bad but
about it; then, he also thinks that doing it would be way better than
✓ We don’t feel the same way as others do towards the letting his family die out of hunger. There is a double
person we love thus, it is subjective; standard on the part of Jose’s stealing.
✓ We don’t know how far can we get because of our
emotions thus, it is a strong feeling; 4. Emotions unaided by reason do away with critical
analysis for objectivity, disconnecting ethics. Letting
✓ There are changes in our appearance and our
emotions rule us over our rationality could blind us from
behaviors.
what really the truth is. Someone who has hatred and
pain in his heart would always see a different “truth”
therefore, the love that we feel, is an emotion.
compared to the “truth” that is seen by others.
Philosophers convinced that emotions play crucial role in
moral decision-making. According to Blaise Pascal, “the
ST. AUGUSTINE SAYS:
heart knows what the mind does not.” With that:
Animal passion is different from human rationality
because non-humans are governed by their instinctive
1. The mind is not the sole arbiter of what is right
tendencies- a lionwould kill if it is hungry, a deer would
and wrong.
run if it feels threatened. Although humans also such
For example: When that police officer in NCR gave
tendencies, they nevertheless can control those by their
5k assistance to the student riding the motorcycle
rationality (capacity to reason). That’s why humans are
whom he was supposed to give a violation ticket, he
seen to be “thinking first before acting” because if
used his emotions more than his rationality.
otherwise, - if he engages himself on anything which
2. Emotions operate with precision and
appeals to his senses- he could be no more than an
consistency of its own.
animal.
For example: A mother who loves his child would
consistently care for him despite the odds in the
circumstances. ✓ Animals – instinctive tendencies
✓ Humans – control instinct with reason.
EMOTIONS AND MORALITY
Feelings may be helpful, but it should be guided
TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ON EMOTIONS: by reasons.
1. Emotions are hindrance and help. Sometimes,
our emotions lead us to the wrong way like when we
loveand care for the wrong person, commit crimes THE 7-STEP MORAL REASONING MODEL
out of anger, or cross the boundaries out of lust. But
then, emotions also are a help in a way that we 1. Relevant facts
become more humane because of it. 2. Ethical Issues – broad systemic, corporate and
(Why they can be obstacles in making right personal issues
decisions?) 3. Primary stakeholders affected by the ethical
(How can they help in making in right decisions?) decision
2. Emotions should be guided by reasons. As 4. Possible alternatives
argued, emotions serve as a help however, 5. Ethics of each alternative. How will each affect
emotions are also defined above as momentary stakeholders? Apply the philosophies here.
feelings, thus is unsuitable for moral decision 6. Practical constraints that limit implementation
making. That’s why one should always find the 7. Which alternative should be taken?
equilibrium between rationality and emotions as the .
former is attributed to its unstable characteristic.
LESSON 4: MORAL COURAGE
EMOTIONS AND MORAL PRINCIPLES
OBJECTIVES:
1. Emotions should be guided by reasons. 1. Know what moral courage is.
2. Describe the dynamics of will and reason in the
2. When moral claims could not be supported by performance of moral courage.
reasonable arguments, then such claims would in no 3. Distinguish between the actions or activities that
way resolve a moral issue. As discussed in the happen within the capacity of the moral agent and
previous lesson, anything that’s moral is reasonable and from those which happen outside of the agent’s act.
if a claimis non-reasonable, it is therefore non-moral. If 4. Expound the question of development of the will in
there is no good reason to back up moral the exercise of moral courage.
statements/actions that are done out of emotions,
emotions could become a hindrance.

CASIPLE, J.
 WHAT IS MORAL COURAGE?
ACCORDING TO ST. THOMAS AQUINAS…
✓ It is the power to act upon a moral situation on the
basic of the agent’s moral decision. WILL + INTELLECT = HUMAN ACT
✓ It is when we do what is right when confronted with a
problem. Hence, moral courage is the interplay between reason
✓ It is when we take a moral stand despite the RISK, and will.
REJECTION, OPPOSITION, THREATS, and
INCONVENIENCE. OTHERWISE, IT IS ACT OF MAN
o It is moral courage when one continues his
education despite the poverty and all the odds INNATE
PLATO
in his life. CAPACITY
o It is moral courage when one stands as a court GREEK
PHILOSOPHERS
witness of a crime despite the threats in his life. OUTSIDE
o It is moral courage when one does not tolerate ARISTOTLE
FORCES
his friend’s cheating on someone’s answer
during a test.

WHAT IS NOT A MORAL COURAGE? The ancient Greek philosophers, Plato & Aristotle, have
pointed out that the human person can develop out of what
✓ There is an inconsistency towards moral conviction. he has innately or does not originally have, respectively.
✓ There is a FAILURE to respond to situations significantly PLATO
needing his response.
✓ The intention for a moral action is only TO IMPRESS. ⎯ He asserted that the nature of the person is
already given and out of this, the person can
o It is not a moral courage when one distributes actualize his potentials. Withthis sense, a person
free facemasks to street children only to be can develop moral virtues through optimizing them.
publicly posted on social medias. ⎯ The morality of someone depends in his very nature
o It is not a moral courage when one refuses to as a person.
help the needy despite having the capacity to ⎯ There will always be people who would do good/evil
help. regardless of their exposure to moral teachings.
o It is not a moral courage when one gives up just They just havethe innate tendencies toward things.
because it is difficult.
ARISTOTLE
⎯ He believes that a person is in need of virtues to be
WILL AS IMPORTANT AS REASON good.
⎯ Moral virtues develop through time out of consistent
Intellect or reason is the principle the of human action. practice of such and thus, Aristotle asserted that a
person should acquire the skills to develop the
We act with an idea in mind of what we are going to do virtues he needs for personal growth.
⎯ For example: a child may at first be incapable of
1. Reason or intellect is basically the principle of understanding the moral virtues taught to them but
human action. We act with an idea in mind of what eventually may imbibe such virtues through constant
we are goingto do. We do something because of that reflection or actual following to their role model.
“reason” which moves us to act therefore, an agent ⎯ A lot of the ex-convicts have changed their life
needs to know what he/she is going to achieve. A disposition upon reflecting on the virtues which they
student strives to graduate for his reason of helping should have.
his parent later on.
2. Will is the intrinsic principle moving an agent But then, a thing to remember is that…
towards an end. It is a prerequisite of an action to Whether such virtues are innate or acquired, a morally
be considereda human act. courageous person exhibits the steadfastness of such virtues
3. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, who through the proper exercise of the will.
differentiated human acts from acts of man, it takes
human act the intellect (knowledge of the action) DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN BY ARISTOTLE
and the will (voluntariness on the action) otherwise,
an action is just an actof man.
✓ It suggests a balance between a surplus of virtues
and a lacking of vices.
4. Moral courage must be a human act (performed
knowingly and voluntarily), thus it should be an ✓ Proposes that moral courage entails an equilibrium
interplay between the intellect and the will. between any kinds of excesses.

✓ Hence, life should be seen in the light of moderation

For example: a daughter who joins an outreach
or a practice of moderation.
program just because the parent say so, is not a
moral courage. There is the knowledge in the part of ✓ For example: over-indulgence and non-indulgence of the
the daughter on whatever she’s about to do but then, pleasant, over-working and complacency, being trustful
she joined not because of her will of joining, but and doubtful, and so on are forms of excesses. In
rather, because of an external factor (which is her between are the virtues which we should acquire.
mother).
CASIPLE, J.
CASIPLE, J.