Impact of Darwinian Theory on Geographical Thought

Darwin’s Impact on Geography

Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory, introduced in On the Origin of Species

(1859), had a profound influence on various scientific disciplines, including
geography. Although geographers were initially slow to engage with Darwin’s
ideas, his work eventually became a significant force in shaping geographical
thought, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Key Ideas in Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Darwin's theory is built upon several fundamental concepts that explain how
evolution occurs:

1. The Struggle for Existence

○ In nature, there is a continuous struggle for survival among different

species of plants and animals. Darwin observed that, despite the
vast number of offspring produced by species, population sizes
remain relatively constant over time. This led him to infer that only a
fraction of offspring survive to maturity, and this survival is balanced
by the natural deaths of adult individuals.
○ The struggle for existence means that organisms must compete for
limited resources such as food, shelter, and mates, and only those
best suited to their environment are likely to survive and reproduce.

2. Variation Within Species

○ Darwin noted that within any given species, individuals exhibit

considerable variation in their traits. These differences can be seen
in aspects such as structure, coloration, behavior, and physiology.
He emphasized that no two individuals are identical, except in rare
cases like identical twins.
 ○ This natural variation is crucial because it provides the raw material
upon which natural selection acts. Traits that are advantageous for
survival and reproduction tend to be passed on to future
generations, leading to gradual changes in the species over time.

3. Survival of the Fittest

○ In the context of the perpetual struggle for existence, only the fittest
individuals—those with traits that offer a competitive
advantage—tend to survive and reproduce. Darwin called this
process "natural selection."
○ The concept of "survival of the fittest" implies that traits that
enhance an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in its
environment will become more common in the population over time,
leading to better adaptation to environmental conditions.

4. Natural Selection

○ Natural selection is the process by which favorable traits are

preserved and passed onto future generations. Darwin argued that
environmental changes, such as shifts in climate or habitat, create
new challenges for organisms. In response to these challenges,
natural selection favors individuals with traits that help them cope
with the changing environment.
○ Over long periods, this process can lead to the emergence of new
species as populations become better adapted to their specific
environmental conditions.

Key Themes in Darwin’s Impact on Geography

Geographer D.R. Stoddart, in his article Darwin’s Impact on Geography (1966),

highlighted four key themes that illustrate Darwin’s influence on geographical
thought. These themes offer insight into how Darwin’s ideas were interpreted
and incorporated into the geographical discipline:
1. The Idea of Change Through Time

One of the most significant contributions of Darwin to geography is the

idea of change over time. Darwin’s theory of evolution, which emphasized
gradual change through natural processes, inspired geographers to
consider how landscapes and human-environment interactions evolve
over time.

○ Lyell’s Influence on Physical Geography: Darwin was heavily

influenced by Sir Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, which
introduced the concept of uniformitarianism. This concept
revolutionized physical geography by suggesting that geological
processes occur gradually over long periods. Lyell’s work, along
with Darwin’s theory of evolution, encouraged geographers to think
in terms of cyclical processes in nature, particularly in the study of
landforms.

○ William Morris Davis and Geomorphology: Davis was particularly

influenced by Darwin’s ideas, which he applied to his own studies of
landform development. In his work on the geographical cycle
(1884), Davis used the analogy of biological life cycles (birth, youth,
maturity, and old age) to describe the processes of landscape
evolution. This cyclical approach became a cornerstone of
geomorphology, influencing studies on denudation chronology and
landform development.

○ Evolutionary Ideas in Human Geography: The idea of change

through time also became a dominant theme in human geography.
Scholars like Patrick Geddes explored how cities evolved over time,
while Carl O. Sauer and others at the Berkeley School applied
evolutionary frameworks to study American settlements.

2. The Idea of Organization and Ecology

 Darwin’s work on the interrelationships between organisms and their
environments laid the foundation for the field of ecology. Geographers
adopted this idea to study the relationships between humans, nature, and
their surroundings, leading to the development of ecological geography.

○ Ecosystem Concept: European scholars, like Tansley, expanded on

Darwin’s ideas by developing the concept of the ecosystem, which
emphasized the interactions between living organisms and their
environments. This framework became essential in understanding
how natural regions function as interconnected systems of inorganic
and organic elements.

○ Human Ecology and Barrows: H.H. Barrows, in his 1923

presidential address to the Association of American Geographers,
described geography as the science of human ecology. He
emphasized that geography should focus on the relationships
between humans and their natural environments. This ecological
approach, though not widely accepted by American geographers at
the time, was embraced by the Berkeley School in their studies of
human settlements.

○ Organic Analogy in Geography: The use of the organic analogy in

geography predated Darwin but gained new significance with his
work. Geographers like Humboldt and Ritter viewed the Earth as an
interconnected organism, a theme that resonated with Darwin’s
ideas on interdependence in nature. In political geography, scholars
like Friedrich Ratzel applied this analogy to the concept of the state,
describing it as an organism that grows and evolves based on its
environment.

3. The Idea of Struggle and Selection

 Darwin’s concepts of struggle and natural selection were also influential
in geography, particularly in studies of human-environment interactions.
The idea that species and societies must adapt to their environments or
risk extinction resonated with geographers studying political geography,
population dynamics, and economic systems.

○ Environmental Determinism: Geographers like Ratzel applied

Darwinian ideas of struggle and selection to political geography. In
his theory of Lebensraum, Ratzel argued that nations, like species,
must struggle for territory in order to survive. This deterministic
approach, which posited that the environment directly influences
human societies, became a central theme in early geographical
thought, though it was later criticized for its rigid and simplistic
framework.

○ Causality in Human Geography: In the United States, William

Morris Davis and other geographers attempted to incorporate the
idea of causality—how the environment influences human
development—into the definition of geography. However, this
approach faced criticism for oversimplifying the complex
interactions between humans and their environments.

4. Randomness and Chance

One area where Darwin’s influence was less prominent in geography was
the concept of chance. While Darwin acknowledged the role of random
variation in evolution, geographers were slow to incorporate this idea into
their studies. Instead, early geographical thought tended to favor
deterministic explanations, which focused on fixed relationships between
the environment and human activities.

○ The Role of Probability in Science: Although the concept of chance

was gaining popularity in other scientific disciplines, particularly in
 physics and biology, it was largely absent from early geographical
studies. Geographers like Laplace, Quetelet, and Pearson introduced
probabilistic approaches to the natural sciences, but geography
remained rooted in deterministic frameworks.

○ Recent Developments in Randomness: In recent times, the idea of

randomness and probabilism has gained more attention in
geography, particularly in studies of climate variability, migration
patterns, and economic development. However, this shift took time
to emerge, and Darwin’s ideas on random variation were not initially
a major influence on geographical thought.