Reference #1.

3: Heredity and Inheritance and Variation

I. Difference of Non-Mendelian and Mendelian Inheritance

1.__________________’s principles form the base of understanding heredity and variation.

2.__________ and 3.__________ became popular because they found the best evidence that
an inherited trait is determined by 4.__________. Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
explained that genes are in the chromosomes.
Mendelian laws of inheritance have important exceptions to them. For example, not all
genes show simple patterns of dominant and recessive alleles.
In the mendelian patterns of inheritance, the effects of the recessive gene are not
observed when the dominant gene is present.
II. Hereditary, Inheritance, and Variation
Allele – a different form of a gene that controls a certain trait
5.__________ – the method of which one can determine the possible genotypes and
phenotypes when two parents are crossed
Gamete – are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell
called a 6.__________.

• Incomplete Dominance
- a heterozygote shows a phenotype that is intermediate between the two homozygous
phenotypes. Neither allele is dominant over the other.

EX. Red Flower (RR) R R

Crossed between White Flower (WW) W RW RW

W RW RW

Key Concepts:
Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for
a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele.
This results in a 7.__________ in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of
the dominant and recessive phenotypes.

• Codominance
- this results when one allele is not dominant over the other. The resulting heterozygotes
8.__________ the traits of both parents.

Ex. M Blood Type (LMLM) crossed between Lm Ln

MN Blood Type (LMLN) Lm LmLm LmLn

Lm LmLm LmLn

Key Concepts:
In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the
heterozygote. For example, red cows crossed with white cows will have offspring that are
roan cows. 9.__________ refers to a horse coat color pattern characterized by a mixture of
colored and white hairs on the body, while the head and "points"—lower legs, mane and
tail—are mostly solid-colored.
 • Multiple Alleles
- even if only two alleles control a trait, there may actually be more than two types of alleles
available. This will also lead to 10.__________ than two phenotypes expressed.
An example of this is the Human ABO blood types and their phenotypes.
Blood Types Genotypes

A IA IA, IA i

B IB IB, IB i

AB IA IB

O ii
The IA and IB alleles are dominant over the i alleles, which is always recessive. However,
when the IA and IB alleles are inherited together, both alleles are expressed equally. This
makes IA and IB codominant of each other.

Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination

- Humans have 11.__________ chromosomes in each cell
Observation of the human body cell shows 23 pairs of chromosomes for both males and
females. 22 pairs are somatic chromosomes. The 23rd pair consists of 12.__________
chromosomes.
Male Chromosome (XY)

Female Chromosome (XX)

Key Concepts:

Males have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes X and Y.

Males = XY Chromosomes
The males determine the sex of their children. Females Have 44 body chromosomes and
two sex chromosomes, both X
Females = XX Chromosomes
The total number in each cell of an individual is 13.__________. These chromosomes
contain the genes, which are the factors of heredity.

Sex-Linked Genes
Genes located on the X chromosomes are called X-Linked Genes. Genes on the Y
chromosomes are called Y-Linked Genes
-Ex. Genotypes and phenotypes of color blindness in humans

Genotype Phenotype

XX Normal Female

X XC Normal Female, carrier of the gene

XC XC Color-blind female
XY Normal male

XC Y Color-blind male
Key Concepts:
- Sex-linked traits are 14.__________ through the X chromosomes.
- Males have only one X chromosome. Thus, if they inherit the affected X chromosome, they
will have the 15.__________.
- Females have two X chromosomes. Therefore, they can inherit/carry the trait without
being affected if it acts in a recessive manner

Sex-Limited Traits
- are generally 16.__________. Which means that they are not found on the X or Y
chromosomes.
Ex. Expression of lactation in cattle

Female Female Phenotype

Genotype
XXLL Female Lactating
XXLl Female Lactating
XXll Female not lactating
Male Male Phenotype
Genotype
XYLL Male not lactating
XYLl Male not lactating
XYll Male not lactating
Sex-Influenced Traits
- are also autosomal, it means that their genes are not carried on to the sex chromosomes.
One example of sex influenced trait is pattern baldness in humans, though the condition
is not restricted to males.
Ex. Expression of pattern baldness in humans.

Female Female Phenotype

Genotype
XXBB Female Bald
XXBb Female nonbald
XXbb Female nonbald
Male Male Phenotype
Genotype
XYBB Male bald
XYBb Male bald
XYbb Male nonbald

Key Concepts:
- Sex limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in 17._______ sex
- Sex influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one than in
the other sex.
 III. DNA: The Genetic Material
- The genetic materials, also known as the 18.__________ or DNA, are passed on
from one generation to the next to ensure continuity of life.
- By the end of 1940, scientists had found that DNA consists of long strands of
nucleotides;
DNA is composed of chains of nucleotides built on a sugar and phosphate backbone
and wrapped around each other in the form of a 19.____________.
Each nucleotide contains a pentose sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate
group, and one of the four compounds called 20.________________;

The backbone supports four bases:

• Adenine
• Thymine
• Guanine
• Cytosine

Reference #1.4: Biodiversity and Evolution

Different parts of the ecosystem interact with one another. Changes to one part affect
other parts. When all members of a species die, that species’ place in the ecosystem is gone
forever.

- 1.__________ is a group of living things within a certain area that are all of the same
species.
A population of one kind may affect a population of another kind within the community.
- 2._____________ refers to the variety of life in the area.

Communities with many different species (a high index of diversity) will be able to
withstand environmental changes better than communities with only a few species (a
low index of diversity).

In a balanced ecosystem, organisms need a balanced environment. A change in

population sizes may be due to factors affecting the environment

When we consider the number of individuals per unit area, we are referring to 3._________
of the population.
Anything that limits the size of a population like certain environmental conditions are
called 4.___________. Limiting factors keep a population from increasing in size and help
balance an ecosystem. Example; availability of food, water, and living conditions.
 The maximum population size an environment can support is called its carrying
capacity. If the population size rises above the carrying capacity, organisms die because
not all their needs can be met.

When a species’ population becomes so low that only a few remain, the species is
considered 5._______________ and will possibly become extinct.
Examples of endangered species:
• Tamaraw
• Philippine deer
• Dugong
Sometimes, there is a particular species that declines so fast that it becomes
endangered and is said to be 6.______________.
Human activity have resulted in habitat loss and degradation that have accelerated the
rate of extinction.
• Deforestation – is the rapid rate at which trees are cut down. Major causes of
deforestation are;
- Illegal logging
- Conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects
- Forest fires
- Typhoons
As a consequence of cutting down trees, the following effects could take place; soil
erosion, floods, decrease in wildlife resources.

• Wildlife Depletion – as human population gets bigger, huge space is needed for
human development. Deforestation is one of the major causes of the disappearances
of wildlife species.
If wildlife species cannot find enough space, many will die or become extinct.
Some species may become endangered or in the verge of becoming extinct.
In other cases, some animals may be threatened.

• Water Pollution – a major problem in

lakes, rivers and ponds is 7.__________. It
happens when the concentration of organic
nutrients that comes from domestic
garbage are thrown in bodies of water.
Effects of Eutrophication; fish kill
• 8._______________ is the buildup of
pollutants in organisms at higher trophic
levels in a food chain.
• Air pollution – Pollutants can enter the air as gases, liquids, or solids. Cars burn
fuel and produce harmful gases-carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons.
The trapping of heat by gases in the earth’s atmosphere is called the 9______________.
Global warming is an increase in the earth’s temperature from the rapid buildup of
carbon dioxide and other gases. This, in turn, could change the world climate patterns.
• Destruction of Coastal Resources – Coral reefs and coastal mangrove forests and
nurseries of marine fishes but due to man’s activities, coastal areas are getting
destroyed through the years.

Some of these activities include the following;

 - Deforestation, agricultural activities, and mining activities - Dynamite
fishing and muro-ami (fishing technique employed on coral reefs in Southeast Asia. It uses an
encircling net together with pounding devices.)

- Coastal areas’ conversion to beach resorts, residential areas -

Overharvesting

• 10.________________ – it is commonly known as acid rain. Rainwater is normally

acidic because carbon dioxide is normally present. Other pollutants, mostly sulfur
and nitrogen oxides, make rainwater even more acidic with a pH of 5.6 or lower.
Acid rain can be harmful to living things. It causes yellowing of leaves of trees and causes
leaves to fall, aside from direct touching of leaves, nutrients can be lost from the soil.
Acid water flowing through the soil can exchange acidic hydrogen ions for essential plant
nutrient ions such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium. If these nutrients migrate
beneath the rooting zone, they become unavailable to tree roots.

Reference # 1.5: Ecosystem: Life Energy

I. 1.________________ is a process of food making done by plants and other

autotrophic organisms.
The presence of 2.____________ enables these organisms
to make their own food.
Autotrophic organisms require light energy, carbon
dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O) to make food (sugar).

Photosynthesis primarily takes place in the leaves

and little or none in stems depending on the presence of
chlorophyll.
Plants have green pigments called chlorophyll stored
in the 3._____________
The pigment aids in capturing light energy from the sun
that enables plants to change it into chemical energy stored in the food.

4.______________ are found on the lower surface of the leaf that allows the entrance of
carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis. They also serve as exit point for the oxygen
produced during photosynthesis.
Factors that affect the rate of Photosynthesis:
- temperature
- carbon dioxide
- water
- light
Organisms need food as the main source of energy. All organisms need energy to perform
essential life processes.
The food must be digested to simple forms such as glucose, amino acids, and
triglycerides.
Glucose – immediate source of the cells
- Glucose inside the cell is broken down to release the stored energy.
- this stored energy is harvested in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a high-
energy molecule needed by working cells.
Glycolysis – the 6-carbon sugar, glucose, is broken down into two molecules of a 3-
carbon molecule called pyruvate This change is accompanied by a net gain of 2 ATP
molecules and 2 NADH molecules.
5._________________ – occurs in the
mitochondrial matrix and generates a
pool of chemical energy (ATP, NADH,
and FADH2) from the oxidation of
pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis

Pyruvate is transported into the

mitochondria and loses carbon dioxide
to form acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon
molecule. When acetyl-CoA is oxidized
to carbon dioxide in the Krebs Cycle,
chemical energy is released and
captured in the form of NADH, FADH2,
and ATP.

Electron Transport Chain – the electron transport chain allows the release of the large
amount of chemical energy stored in reduced NAD+ (NADH) and reduced FAD (FADH2). The
energy released is captured in the form of ATP (3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH 2).

The electron transport chain (ETC) consists of a series of molecules, mostly proteins,
embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This phase of cellular respiration
produces the greatest number of chemical energy in the form of ATP.

II. Parts of the Leaves

• Upper and lower epidermis – protects the leaves and has nothing to do with
photosynthetic processes.
• 6.___________________– has the most number of chloroplasts that contain
chlorophyll. They are important in trapping light energy from the sun.
 • Vascular bundles – phloem and xylem serve as transporting vessels of manufactured
food and water.
Carbon dioxide and oxygen were collected in the spongy layer and enters and exits the
leaf through the stomata.

A. Parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes, intermembrane

space, stroma and thylakoids stacked in grana.

- The chlorophyll is built into the membranes of the thylakoids.

Chlorophyll absorbs white light but it looks green because white light consists of three
primary colors, red, blue and green. Only red and blue light are absorbed thus making
these colors unavailable to be seen by our eyes while the green light is reflected which
makes the chlorophyll look green.
It is the energy from red light and blue light that are absorbed and will be used in
photosynthesis

III. Two Stages of Photosynthesis

A. 7._______________ – happens in the presence of light. - It occurs in the thylakoid

membrane and converts light energy to chemical energy.
- Water one of the raw materials of photosynthesis is utilized during this stage and
facilitates the formation of free electrons and oxygen. - The energy harvested during
this stage is stored in the form of 8.________________.
(Adenosine Triphosphate) and 9.________________ (Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen). These products will be needed in the next
stage to complete photosynthetic process.

B. 10._____________ or Light independent phase – that takes place in the stroma

and convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into sugar. This stage does not directly need
light but needs the products of light reaction. This is why it occurs immediately
after the light dependent phase.
The chemical reaction for photosynthesis: