PHYSICS PHYSICS

FORMULA BOOKLET - GYAAN SUTRA FORMULA BOOKLET - GYAAN SUTRAA

INDEX UNIT AND DIMENSIONS
Unit :
S.No. Topic Page No. Measurement of any physical quantity is expressed in terms of an
internationally accepted certain basic standard called unit.
1. Unit and Dimension 2
2. Rectilinear Motion 3–4 * Fundamental Units.
3. Projectile Motion & Vector 5–5 S.No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol
4. Relavitve Motion 5–7
1 Length Metre m
5. Newton’s Laws of Motion 7–9
6. Friction 9–9 2 Mass Kilogram Kg
7. Work, Power & Energy 10 – 11 3 Time Second S
8. Circular Motion 11 – 14 4 Electric Current Ampere A
9. Centre of Mass 14 – 18
5 Temperature Kelvin K
10. Rigid Body Dynamics 18 – 25
11. Simple Harmonic Motion 26 – 28 6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
12. Sting Wave 29 – 31 7 Amount of Substance Mole mol
13. Heat & Thermodynamics 31 – 37 * Supplementary Units :
14. Electrostatics 37 – 40
15. Current Electricity 41 – 47 S.No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol
16. Capacitance 47 – 51 1 Plane Angle radian r
17. Alternating Current 52 – 54 2 Solid Angle Steradian Sr
18. Magnetic Effect of Current & Magnetic
force on charge 54 – 56
* Metric Prefixes :
19. Electromagnetic Induction 56 – 59
20. Geometrical Optics 59 – 66 S .N o . P re fix S ym b o l V a lu e

21. Modern Physics 67 – 70 1 C e n ti c 1 0 –2

22. Wave Optics 70 – 73 2 M ili m 1 0 –3

23. Gravitation 73 – 75 3 M icro µ 1 0 –6

4 Nano n 1 0 –9
24. Fluid Mechanics & Properties of Matter 75 – 77
–12
5 P ico p 10
25. Sound Wave 77 – 79
3
6 K ilo K 10
26. Electro Magnetic Waves 79 – 80
6
7 M ega M 10
27. Error and Measurement 80 – 81
28. Principle of Communication 82 – 83
29. Semiconductor 84 – 85

Page # 1 Page # 2

v-t graph
RECTILINEAR MOTION
 at graph is a horizontal line because a is constant.
Average Velocity (in an interval) : a a
positive
acceleration
Total displacement r  ri a
v av = v = <v> = = f 0
Total time taken t negative
acceleration
a
Average Speed (in an interval) 0
t

Total distance travelled a-t graph

Average Speed =
Total time taken Maxima & Minima
Instantaneous Velocity (at an instant) :
 dy d  dy 
 r  =0 &   < 0 at maximum
   dx 
v inst = lim 
t  0  t 
 dx dx

Average acceleration (in an interval): dy d  dy 

and =0&   > 0 at minima.
   dx dx  dx 
 v v f  vi
a av = = Equations of Motion (for constant acceleration)
t t
(a) v = u + at
Instantaneous Acceleration (at an instant): 1 2 1 2 1 2
 (b) s = ut + at s = vt  at xf = xi + ut + at
 dv  v  2 2 2
a = = lim  
t 0  t 
2 2
dt (c) v = u + 2as
 
(u  v ) a
Graphs in Uniformly Accelerated Motion along a straight line (d) s= t (e) sn = u + (2n  1)
(a  0) 2 2
 x is a quadratic polynomial in terms of t. Hence x  t graph is a For freely falling bodies : (u = 0)
parabola. (taking upward direction as positive)
x
(a) v = – gt
x
1 2 1 2 1 2
xi
a<0 (b) s=– gt s = vt  gt hf = hi – gt
xi 2 2 2
a>0
(c) v 2 = – 2gs
t t
0 0 g
(d) sn = – (2n  1)
x-t graph 2
 v is a linear polynomial in terms of t. Hence vt graph is a straight line of
slope a.
v v
a
= slo
e u pe
op =
sl a
u
a is positive a is negative
t t
0 0

Page # 3 Page # 4
 CROSSING RIVER
PROJECTILE MOTION & VECTORS A boat or man in a river always moves in the direction of resultant velocity
2u sin  of velocity of boat (or man) and velocity of river flow.
Time of flight : T= g
1. Shortest Time :
u 2 sin 2
Horizontal range : R=
g

u 2 sin 2 
Maximum height : H=
2g
Trajectory equation (equation of path) :

gx 2 x
y = x tan  – = x tan  (1 – )
2u 2 cos 2  R
Projection on an inclined plane
Velocity along the river, v x = v R.
y Velocity perpendicular to the river, v f = v mR

 The net speed is given by v m = 2
v mR  v R2

x 2. Shortest Path :
velocity along the river, v x = 0
Up the Incline Down the Incline
2u 2 sin  cos(    ) 2u 2 sin  cos(   ) and velocity perpendicular to river v y = 2
v mR  v R2
Range
g cos 2 
g cos 2 

2u sin  2u sin 
The net speed is given by v m = 2
v mR  v R2
Time of flight
g cos  g cos 
Angle of projection with
   
incline plane for maximum  
range 4 2 4 2
2
u u2
Maximum Range
g(1  sin  ) g(1  sin  )

RELATIVE MOTION
  
v AB ( velocity of A with respect to B )  v A  v B

  
a AB (acceleration of A with respect to B )  a A  aB at an angle of 90º with the river direction.
   velocity v y is used only to cross the river,
Relative motion along straight line - x BA  x B  x A

Page # 5 Page # 6

d d 1 1 1
therefore time to cross the river, t = v = For series combination of springs    .......
y
2
v mR  v R2 k eq k 1 k 2

and velocity v x is zero, therefore, in this case the drift should be zero. For parallel combination of spring keq = k1 + k2 + k3 ............
 v R – v mR sin  = 0 or v R = v mR sin 
9. SPRING BALANCE:
 vR  It does not measure the weight. t measures the force exerted by the
or  = sin–1  
 object at the hook.
 v mR 
Remember :
RAIN PROBLEMS
V1  V2
   Vp =
v Rm = v R – v m or v Rm = v R2  v m
2
2
a1  a2
aP =
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION 2

1. From third law of motion

F AB  FBA (m 2  m1 )g
11. a
F AB = Force on A due to B m1  m 2
2m1m2g
FBA = Force on B due to A T
m1  m2
2. From second law of motion
dPx dPy dPz
Fx = = max Fy = = may Fz = = maz
dt dt dt

5. WEIGHING MACHINE :
A weighing machine does not measure the weight but measures the
force exerted by object on its upper surface.
  12. WEDGE CONSTRAINT:
6. SPRING FORCE F  kx
x is displacement of the free end from its natural length or deformation
of the spring where K = spring constant.
7. SPRING PROPERTY K ×  = constant
= Natural length of spring.

8. If spring is cut into two in the ratio m : n then spring constant is given
by Components of velocity along perpendicular direction to the contact
plane of the two objects is always equal if there is no deformations
m n. and they remain in contact.
1 = ; 2 = k  = k 11 = k 22
mn mn

Page # 7 Page # 8
13. NEWTON’S LAW FOR A SYSTEM
    WORK, POWER & ENERGY
Fext  m1a1  m2 a2  m3 a3  ......
 WORK DONE BY CONSTANT FORCE :
Fext  Net external force on the system.  
W= F . S
m 1, m 2, m 3 are the masses of the objects of the system and
   WORK DONE BY MULTIPLE FORCES
a1,a2 ,a3 are the acceleration of the objects respectively..    
 F = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + .....
14. NEWTON’S LAW FOR NON INERTIAL FRAME :  
   W = [ F ] . S ...(i)
FRe al  FPseudo  ma      
W = F 1 . S + F 2 . S + F 3 . S + .....
Net sum of real and pseudo force is taken in the resultant force.
 or W = W 1 + W 2 + W 3 + ..........
a = Acceleration of the particle in the non inertial frame WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE
  
FPseudo =  m a
Frame dW = F.ds
(a) Inertial reference frame: Frame of reference moving with con-
stant velocity. RELATION BETWEEN MOMENTUM AND KINETIC ENERGY
(b) Non-inertial reference frame: A frame of reference moving with p2
non-zero acceleration. K= and P = 2 m K ; P = linear momentum
2m
FRICTION POTENTIAL ENERGY
U2 r2   r2  
Friction force is of two types.
(a) Kinetic (b) Static U1
dU    r1
F dr i.e., U 2  U1    r1
F  dr  W

r  
KINETIC FRICTION : f k = k N
The proportionality constant k is called the coefficient of kinetic friction
U  
F  d r  W

and its value depends on the nature of the two surfaces in contact. CONSERVATIVE FORCES
STATIC FRICTION :
U
It exists between the two surfaces when there is tendency of relative mo- F= –
tion but no relative motion along the two contact surfaces. r
This means static friction is a variable and self adjusting force. WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
However it has a maximum value called limiting friction. W C + W NC + W PS = K
f max = sN
0  f s  f smax Modified Form of Work-Energy Theorem
W C = U
W NC + W PS = K + U
Friction

fstatic maximum W NC + W PS = E
n
io
ct

s N  kN
f ri
ic
at
st

Applied Force

Page # 9 Page # 10

POWER 10. Angular acceleration

The average power ( P or pav) delivered by an agent is given by P or 
 d 
W   = dt (Non-uniform circular motion) W
pav = ACotation
t R
  
F  dS  dS  
P = F = F . v
dt dt v2 mv 2 3/2
12. Radius of curvature R = =   dy  2 
a F 1    
   
CIRCULAR MOTION dx
If y is a function of x. i.e. y = f(x)  R=
d2 y
 2  1 
1. Average angular velocity  av = t  t = dx 2
2 1 t
13. Normal reaction of road on a concave bridge
 mv 2
 N = mg cos  +
r
d 
2. Instantaneous angular velocity  = O
dt


N
 2  1 
3. Average angular acceleration  av = t  t =
2 1 t

V concave
d d mgcos bridge
4. Instantaneous angular acceleration  = = mg
dt d
   14. Normal reaction on a convex bridge
5. Relation between speed and angular velocity  v = r and v    r
mv 2
7. Tangential acceleration (rate of change of speed)  N = mg cos  –
r
dV d dr
 at = =r = 
dt dt dt N V

2
v
8. Radial or normal or centripetal acceleration  ar = = 2r convex
bridge
r  mgcos

9. Total acceleration mg
   at 
 a  a t  a r  a = (at2 + ar2)1/2 a
O  v O
      ar or a c P
Where a t    r and a r    v
15. Skidding of vehicle on a level road  v safe  gr

16. Skidding of an object on a rotating platform  max = g / r

Page # 11 Page # 12
 24. Conical pendulum :
v2
17. Bending of cyclist  tan  =
rg fixed pointor
suspension
v2 O
/////////////
18. Banking of road without friction  tan  =
rg 
T cos  T L
v   tan  2 h
19. 
Banking of road with friction  
rg 1   tan  r
20. Maximum also minimum safe speed on a banked frictional road
1/ 2 1/ 2
 rg (   tan )   rg (tan   )  mg
Vmax    Vmin   
 (1   tan  )   (1   tan )  T cos  = mg
T sin  = m2 r
21. Centrifugal force (pseudo force)  f = m2 r, acts outwards when the
particle itself is taken as a frame. 2
L cos 
 Time period = g
22. Effect of earths rotation on apparent weight  N = mg – mR cos  ; 2 2
25. Relations amoung angular variables :
where  latitude at a place 0  Initial ang. velocity  = 0 + t
d ,  or 
23. Various quantities for a critical condition in a vertical loop at different
positions
(Perpendicular
C to plane of paper
r O directed outwards
 a for ACW rotation)
r
O B
D
  at or V
P
N
A
1 2
  Find angular velocity  = 0t + t
× 2
  Const. angular acceleration 2 = 02 + 2 
(1) (2) (3)   Angular displacement

Vmin  4gL Vmin  4gL Vmin  4gL

CENTRE OF MASS
(for completing the circle) (for completing the circle) (for completing the circle)  
Mass Moment : M = m r
CENTRE OF MASS OF A SYSTEM OF 'N' DISCRETE PARTICLES

  
 m1r1  m 2 r2  ........  m n rn 
rcm = ; rcm
m1  m 2  ........  mn

Page # 13 Page # 14

 A triangular plate (By qualitative argument)

n

 mi ri n

=
i 1
n

rcm =
1
M
m r i i h
m
i 1 at the centroid : yc =
i 3
i 1

CENTRE OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION 2R

 A semi-circular ring yc = xc = O

x cm =
 x dm
, ycm =
 y dm
, zcm =
z dm

 dm  dm  dm
 dm = M (mass of the body) 4R
 A semi-circular disc yc = xc = O
CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMON SYSTEMS 3
 A system of two point masses m1 r1 = m2 r2

R
 A hemispherical shell yc = xc = O
2

The centre of mass lies closer to the heavier mass.

3R
 A solid hemisphere yc = xc = O
 Rectangular plate (By symmetry) 8

h
 A circular cone (solid) yc =
4

b L
xc = yc =
2 2
h
 A circular cone (hollow) yc =
3

Page # 15 Page # 16
 MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM: (a) e=1  Impulse of Reformation = Impulse of Deformation
Velocity of centre of mass of system  Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
 Kinetic Energy may be conserved
m1
dr1 dr dr
 m2 2  m3 3 .......... ....  mn n
dr  Elastic collision.
 dt dt dt dt (b) e=0  Impulse of Reformation = 0
v cm =
M  Velocity of separation = 0
     Kinetic Energy is not conserved
m v  m2 v 2  m3 v 3 ..........  mn v n
= 1 1  Perfectly Inelastic collision.
M (c) 0<e<1  Impulse of Reformation < Impulse of Deformation
P System = M v cm  Velocity of separation < Velocity of approach
Acceleration of centre of mass of system  Kinetic Energy is not conserved
dv
 Inelastic collision.
dv 1 dv dv
  m 2 2  m 3 3 ..............  mn n
m1 VARIABLE MASS SYSTEM :
a cm = dt dt dt dt If a mass is added or ejected from a system, at rate  kg/s and relative
M 
    velocity v rel (w.r.t. the system), then the force exerted by this mass
m a  m 2a 2  m3 a 3 ..........  mn an 
= 1 1 on the system has magnitude  v rel .
M

Net force on system Net External Force  Net int ernal Force Thrust Force ( Ft )
= =
M M    dm 
Ft  v rel  
=
Net External Force  dt 
M Rocket propulsion :
  If gravity is ignored and initial velocity of the rocket u = 0;
Fext = M a cm
 m0 
IMPULSE v = v r ln  .
Impulse of a force F action on a body is defined as :-  m 

 tf  
J=  ti
Fdt J  ΔP (impulse - momentum theorem) RIGID BODY DYNAMICS
Important points :
1. RIGID BODY :
1. Gravitational force and spring force are always non-impulsive.
2. An impulsive force can only be balanced by another impulsive force. VAsin1
A
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (e)
A VA VAcos1
1
Im pulse of reformation  F dt
r B
e = Im pulse of deformation =
 F dt
d VB 2 B
VBsin2
Velocity of separation along line of impact VBcos2
= s Velocity of approach along line of impact

Page # 17 Page # 18

If the above body is rigid 2.4 For a larger object :

VA cos 1 = VB cos 2
VBA = relative velocity of point B with respect to point A. =  d element

where d = moment of inertia of a small element

A
3. TWO IMPORTANT THEOREMS ON MOMENT OF INERTIA :
3.1 Perpendicular Axis Theorem
[Only applicable to plane lamina (that means for 2-D objects only)].
B
VBA z = x + y (when object is in x-y plane).

Types of Motion of rigid body

3.2 Parallel Axis Theorem
(Applicable to any type of object):
 = cm + Md2

Pure Rotational Combined Translational and

List of some useful formula :
Pure Translational
Motion Motion Rotational Motion
Object Moment of Inertia
2. MOMENT OF INERTIA (I) :
Definition : Moment of Inertia is defined as the capability of system
to oppose the change produced in the rotational motion of a body. 2
MR 2 (Uniform)
Moment of Inertia is a scalar positive quantity. 5
 = mr12 + m 2 r22 +.........................
=  +  +  +......................... Solid Sphere
S units of Moment of Inertia is Kgm 2.
Moment of Inertia of :
2.1 A single particle :  = mr2 2
MR 2 (Uniform)
where m = mass of the particle 3
r = perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis about
which moment of Inertia is to be calculated
Hollow Sphere
2.2 For many particles (system of particles) :
n

=  mr
i1
i i
2

2.3 For a continuous object : MR2 (Uniform or Non Uniform)

 dmr
2
=
where dm = mass of a small element
r = perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis

Page # 19 Page # 20
 Ring.

2m  2
(Uniform)
3
MR 2
(Uniform)
2

Disc Ma2
AB = CD = EF = (Uniform)
12

Square Plate

MR 2 (Uniform or Non Uniform)

Ma2
(Uniform)
6
Hollow cylinder

Square Plate

MR 2 M(a 2  b 2 )
(Uniform) = (Uniform)
2 12

Solid cylinder Rectangular Plate

ML2
(Uniform)
3
M(a 2  b 2 )
(Uniform)
12

ML2
(Uniform)
12 Cuboid

Page # 21 Page # 22

4. RADIUS OF GYRATION : 6. ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM :

 = MK2 For translational equilibrium.
5. TORQUE : Fx  0 ............. (i)
and Fy  0 ............. (ii)
  
  rF The condition of rotational equilibrium is
z  0

7. ANGULAR MOMENTUM ( L )
7.1 Angular momentum of a particle about a point.

5.5 Relation between '' & '' (for hinged object or pure rotation)

 ext Hinge = Hinge 


 
Where ext Hinge = net external torque acting on the body about Hinge
point
Hinge = moment of Inertia of body about Hinge point
  
L = r P  L = rpsin
F1t 
F1c r1 L = r  × P
F 
x 2c L = P× r
r2 F2t

7.3 Angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about fixed axis :

F1t = M1a1t = M1r1  
F2t = M2a2t = M2r2 L H =  H
resultant = F 1t r1 + F 2t r2 + ........ LH = angular momentum of object about axis H.
= M1  r12 + M2  r22 + ............ IH = Moment of Inertia of rigid object about axis H.
resultant ) external =   = angular velocity of the object.
7.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum
1
Rotational Kinetic Energy = .  . 2 Angular momentum of a particle or a system remains constant if
2  ext = 0 about that point or axis of rotation.
   
P  M v CM  Fexternal  M a CM 7.5 Relation between Torque and Angular Momentum

Net external force acting on the body has two parts tangential and dL

centripetal.  =
dt
v2 Torque is change in angular momentum
 FC = maC = m = m2 rCM  Ft = mat = m rCM
rCM

Page # 23 Page # 24
 7.6 Impulse of Torque :
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
 dt  J J  Change in angular momentum. S.H.M.
F = – kx
For a rigid body, the distance between the particles remain unchanged General equation of S.H.M. is x = A sin (t + ); (t + ) is phase of the
during its motion i.e. rP/Q = constant motion and  is initial phase of the motion.
For velocities
2
with respect to Q with respect to ground Angular Frequency () : = = 2f
P P T
r  VQ
r r
wr 2 m
 VQ Time period (T) : T= = 2
Q Q   k
k
m

VP  VQ 2  r 2  2 VQ r cos  Speed : v   A 2  x2

For acceleration :
Acceleration : a = 2x
1 1 1
Kinetic Energy (KE) : mv 2 = m2 (A2 – x2) = k (A2 – x2)
2 2 2
1
Potential Energy (PE) : Kx2
2
Total Mechanical Energy (TME)
1 1 1
, ,  are same about every point of the body (or any other point = K.E. + P.E. = k (A2 – x2) + Kx2 = KA2 (which is constant)
2 2 2
outside which is rigidly attached to the body).
Dynamics :
   SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

 cm   cm  , Fext  Ma cm
 
Psystem  Mv cm ,
k
m
1 1 (1)   T = 2
Total K.E. Mv cm2 +
=  cm  2 smooth surface
k
2 2 m

 
Angular momentum axis AB = L about C.M. + L of C.M. about AB
   
L AB   cm   rcm  Mv cm (2)

 m1m 2
T = 2 where  = (m  m ) known as reduced mass
K 1 2

Page # 25 Page # 26

COMBINATION OF SPRINGS  b2 - 4mK = 0 critical damping

Series Combination : 1/keq = 1/k1 + 1/k2  b2 - 4mK < 0 under damping
Parallel combination : keq = k1 + k2  For small damping the solution is of the form.
  2
SIMPLE PENDULUM T = 2 g = 2 geff . (in accelerating Refer-   k  b 
x = A 0 e – bt / 2m sin [1t +  ], where '    –  
 m   2m 
ence Frame); geff is net acceleration due to pseudo force and gravitational
For small b
force.
COMPOUND PENDULUM / PHYSICAL PENDULUM  angular frequency '  k / m,  0

 – bt
Time period (T) : T = 2 mg  Amplitude A  A 0 e 2m
where,  = CM + m2 ;  is distance between point of suspension and l
centre of mass.
1
TORSIONAL PENDULUM  Energy E (t) = KA2 e – bt / m
2

Time period (T) : T = 2 where, C = Torsional constant
C E '
 Quality factor or Q value , Q = 2 = 2
Superposition of SHM’s along the same direction | E | Y
x1 = A1 sin t & x2 = A2 sin (t + )
A2 k b2 b
where , '  . , Y 
m 4m 2 2m
A
2. Forced Oscillations And Resonance
External Force F(t) = F0 cos d t
A1 x(t) = A cos (dt + )
If equation of resultant SHM is taken as x = A sin (t + ) F0
A v0
A 2 sin   2 2
   and tan  
2
A= A12  A 22  2A1A 2 cos  & tan  =  m   d
2
 d2 b2  d x0
A1  A 2 cos   

1. Damped Oscillation F0
(a) Small Damping A 
 Damping force
 

m 2  2d 
F  – bv
 equation of motion is (b) Driving Frequency Close to Natural Frequency A 
F0
db
mdv
= –kx – bv
dt
 b2 - 4mK > 0 over damping

Page # 27 Page # 28
 STRING WAVES y t  A t sin (t – k 2 x)
 if incident from denser to rarer medium. (v 2 > v 1)
GENERAL EQUATION OF WAVE MOTION : y r  A r sin (t  k1x) 
(d) Amplitude of reflected & transmitted waves.
2y 2y
= v2 k1  k 2 2k 1
t 2 x 2 Ar = A i & At = Ai
k1  k 2 k1  k 2
x STANDING/STATIONARY WAVES :-
y(x,t) = f (t ± )
v (b) y1 = A sin (t – kx + 1)
where, y (x, t) should be finite everywhere. y2 = A sin (t + kx + 2)
 x
 f  t   represents wave travelling in – ve x-axis.   2  1     
 v y1 + y2 = 2 A cos  kx    t  1 2 
2  sin 
  2 
 x
 f  t   represents wave travelling in + ve x-axis.
 v   2  1 
y = A sin (t ± kx + ) The quantity 2A cos  kx   represents resultant amplitude at
 2 
TERMS RELATED TO WAVE MOTION ( FOR 1-D PROGRESSIVE x. At some position resultant amplitude is zero these are called nodes.
SINE WAVE ) At some positions resultant amplitude is 2A, these are called antin-
(e) Wave number (or propagation constant) (k) : odes.
 
k = 2/ = (rad m –1) (c) Distance between successive nodes or antinodes = .
v 2
(f) Phase of wave : The argument of harmonic function (t ± kx + ) (d) Distance between successive nodes and antinodes = /4.
is called phase of the wave. (e) All the particles in same segment (portion between two successive
Phase difference () : difference in phases of two particles at any nodes) vibrate in same phase.
time t. (f) The particles in two consecutive segments vibrate in opposite phase.
2 2 (g) Since nodes are permanently at rest so energy can not be trans-
 = x Also.  t mitted across these.
 T
SPEED OF TRANSVERSE WAVE ALONG A STRING/WIRE. VIBRATIONS OF STRINGS ( STANDING WAVE)
T  Tension (a) Fixed at both ends :
T
v= where 1. Fixed ends will be nodes. So waves for which
   mass per unit length
 2 3
L= L= L=
POWER TRANSMITTED ALONG THE STRING BY A SINE WAVE 2 2 2
Average Power P = 22 f 2 A2 v
P
Intensity I= = 22 f 2 A2 v are possible giving
s
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF WAVES n 2L
L= or  = where n = 1, 2, 3, ....
yi = Ai sin (t – k1x) 2 n
y t  A t sin ( t  k 2 x)  T n T
 if incident from rarer to denser medium (v2 < v1)
y r   A r sin ( t  k 1x)  as v=

fn =
2L 
, n = no. of loops

Page # 29 Page # 30

(b) String free at one end : Maxwell’s law of equipartition of energy :

 Total K.E. of the molecule = 1/2 f KT
1. for fundamental mode L = = or  = 4L For an ideal gas :
4
f
Internal energy U = nRT
fundamental mode 2
Vf
3 4L Workdone in isothermal process : W = [2.303 nRT log10 ]
First overtone L = Hence  = Vi
4 3
Internal energy in isothermal process : U = 0
 first overtone Work done in isochoric process : dW = 0
Change in int. energy in isochoric process :
3 T f
so f 1 =
4L 
(First overtone) U = n R T = heat given
2
Isobaric process :
5 T
Second overtone f 2 = Work done W = nR(Tf – Ti)
4L  change in int. energy U = nCv T
 1 heat given Q = U + W
n  
so f n =  2 T (2n  1) T f f 
 Specific heat : RCv = Cp =   1 R
2L  4L  2 2 
Molar heat capacity of ideal gas in terms of R :
HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS Cp
1 3 3 (i) for monoatomic gas : = 1.67
Total translational K.E. of gas = M < V2 > = PV = nRT
T Cv
2 2 2
Cp
3P 3P 3 RT 3 KT (ii) for diatomic gas : = 1.4
< V2 > = Vrms = = = Cv
  Mmol m
Important Points : Cp
(iii) for triatomic gas : = 1.33
Cv
8 KT KT KT
– Vrms  V
T  m = 1.59 m
Vrms = 1.73
m 
Cp 2
= = 1 
f 
In general :

Cv
2 KT KT Mayer’s eq.  Cp – Cv = R for ideal gas only
Most probable speed Vp = = 1.41  Vrms > V > Vmp
m m
Adiabatic process :
Degree of freedom :
Mono atomic f = 3 nR (Ti  Tf )
Work done W =
Diatomic f = 5  1
polyatomic f = 6
Page # 31 Page # 32
In cyclic process :  Rudlope Classius Statement
Q = W It is impossible to make heat f low f rom a body at a lower
In a mixture of non-reacting gases : temperature to a body at a higher temperature without doing external work
on the working substance
n1M1  n2M2
Mol. wt. =
n1  n 2 Entropy
n1C v 1  n 2C v 2 f
Q Q
Cv =
n1  n 2  change in entropy of the system is S =
T
 S f – Si  
i
T

Cp (mix ) n1Cp  n2 Cp  .....  In an adiabatic reversible process, entropy of the system remains con-
1 2
= C = n C  n C  .... stant.
v ( mix ) 1 v1 2 v2

Efficiency of Carnot Engine

Heat Engines (1) Operation I (Isothermal Expansion)
(2) Operation II (Adiabatic Expansion)
(3) Operation III (Isothermal Compression)
(4) Operation IV (Adiabatic Compression)

Thermal Efficiency of a Carnot engine

V2 V3 Q 2 T2 T
    1– 2
V1 V4  Q1 T1  T1

work done by the engine

Efficiency ,  
heat sup plied to it

W QH – Q L Q
= Q  Q  1– L
QH
H H

Second law of Thermodynamics

 Kelvin- Planck Statement
It is impossible to construct an engine, operating in a cycle, which will
produce no effect other than extracting heat from a reservoir and perform-
ing an equivalent amount of work.

Page # 33 Page # 34

Refrigerator (Heat Pump) (b) Area/superficial :

Refrigerator A
= or A = A0 (1 + T)
A 0 T
Hot (T2) Hot (T1) (c) volume/ cubical :
Q2 Q1
V
r = V T or V = V0 (1 +  T)
0
W
 
 
2 3
Q2 1 1 Thermal stress of a material :
 Coefficient of performance,   =  = T
W T1
–1 1
–1 F 
T2 T2 Y
A 
Energy stored per unit volume :
1 1 AY
Calorimetry and thermal expansion E= K(L)2 or E ( L )2
Types of thermometers : 2 2 L
Variation of time period of pendulum clocks :
   0 
(a) Liquid Thermometer : T =   × 100 1
 100   0  T = T
2
(b) Gas Thermometer : T’ < T - clock-fast : time-gain
 P  P0  T’ > T - clock slow : time-loss
Constant volume : T =  P  P  × 100 ; P = P0 + g h
 100 0 CALORIMETRY :
 V  Q
Constant Pressure : T=   T Specific heat S =
 V  V  0 m.T
(c) Electrical Resistance Thermometer : Q
Molar specific heat C =
 R t  R0  n.T
T =  R  R  × 100 Water equivalent = mWSW
 100 0

Thermal Expansion : HEAT TRANSFER

(a) Linear :
dQ dT
L Thermal Conduction : = – KA
dt dx
 = L T or L = L0 (1 + T)
0

Thermal Resistance : R=
KA

Page # 35 Page # 36
 Series and parallel combination of rod : If (W  P)ext is the work required in moving a point charge q from infinity
to a point P, the electric potential of the point P is
 eq 1  2
(i) Series : =   ....... (when A = A = A = .........) ( Wp )ext 
K eq K1 K 2 1 2 3
Vp  
(ii) Parallel : Keq Aeq = K1 A1 + K2 A2 + ...... (when  1 = 2 = 3 = .........) q  acc 0
 Potential Difference between two points A and B is
for absorption, reflection and transmission VA – VB
r+t+a=1 
 Formulae of E and potential V
U
Emissive power : E= Kq Kq  Kq
A t (i) Point charge E=  2  r̂ = 3 r , V =
|r| r r
dE
Spectral emissive power : E = 
d
(ii) Infinitely long line charge 2 r r̂ = 2Kr̂
E of a body at T temp. 0 r
Emissivity : e= V = not defined, v B – v A = –2K ln (rB / rA)
E of a black body at T temp.
E (body ) 
Kirchoff’s law : a (body ) = E (black body) (iii) Infinite nonconducting thin sheet 2 n̂ ,
0
Wein’s Displacement law : m . T = b. 
b = 0.282 cm-k V = not defined, v B  v A   rB  rA 
2 0
Stefan Boltzmann law :
(iv) Uniformly charged ring
u =  T4 s = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 k4
u = u – u0 = e A (T4 – T04) KQx

d
Eaxis =
R 2
 x2 
3/2 , Ecentre = 0
Newton’s law of cooling : = k ( – 0) ;  = 0 + (i – 0) e–k t
dt KQ KQ
Vaxis = , Vcentre =
R2  x2 R
ELECTROSTATICS
x is the distance from centre along axis.
Coulomb force between two point charges

 1 q1q2 (v) Infinitely large charged conducting sheet n̂
1 q1q2    r̂ 0
F  r = 4 0r | r |2
4 0  r | r |3 
 The electric field intensity at any point is the force experienced V = not defined, v B  v A  rB  rA 
0

 (vi) Uniformly charged hollow conducting/ nonconducting /solid
by unit positive charge, given by E  F conducting sphere
q0
 Electric force on a charge 'q' at the position of electric field  kQ KQ
(a) for E   r̂ , r  R, V =
   | r |2 r
intensity E produced by some source charges is F  qE
 Electric Potential  KQ
(b) E  0 for r < R, V = R

Page # 37 Page # 38

(vii) Uniformly charged solid nonconducting sphere (insulating material)  Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole in External Electric Field:
 
U = - p. E
 kQ  Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field :
E   2 r̂ for r KQ
(a)
|r|  R,V=    
r torque   p x E ; F = 0
 KQ r    Electric Dipole in Nonuniform Electric Field:
 r for r
(b) E 3   R, V=
6 0
(3R2–r2)
R 3 0      E
(viii) thin uniformly charged disc (surface charge density is ) torque   p x E ; U =  p  E , Net force |F| = p
r
     2  Electric Potential Due to Dipole at General Point (r, ) :
R  x 2  x
x
1    
2 0  
Eaxis = 2 Vaxis = P cos 
0  R2  x 2  V= 
p.r
4 0 r 2 4 0 r 3
 Work done by external agent in taking a charge q from A to B is  The electric flux over the whole area is given by
(W ext)AB= q (VB – VA) or (W el ) AB = q (VA – VB) . 
E 
 = E.dS = En dS
S  S
 The electrostatic potential energy of a point charge  Flux using Gauss's law, Flux through a closed surface
U = qV
 qin
 U = PE of the system = 
E = E  dS =
0
.
U1  U2  ...  Electric field intensity near the conducting surface
= (U12 + U13 + ..... + U1n ) + (U23 + U24 + ...... + U2n )
2
+ (U34 + U35 + ..... + U3n ) .... 
= n̂
0
1 2  Electric pressure : Electric pressure at the surface of a conductor is
 Energy Density = E
2 given by formula
2
KQ 2
 Self Energy of a uniformly charged shell = Uself 
2R P= where  is the local surface charge density..
 Self Energy of a uniformly charged solid non-conducting sphere 2 0
 Potential difference between points A and B
3KQ 2
= Uself  B
5R  
 Electric Field Intensity Due to Dipole

VB – VA = –  E .d r
A
 2KP
(i) on the axis E = 3
r           
 E =   î x V  ĵ x V  k̂ z V  = –   î x  ĵ x  k̂ z  V
    
KP
(ii) on the equatorial position : E = – 3 = – V = –grad V
r
KP
(iii) Total electric field at general point O (r,) is Eres = 1  3 cos 2 
r3

Page # 39 Page # 40
 Dependence of Resistance on Temperature :
CURRENT ELECTRICITY R = Ro (1 + ).
Electric current in resistance
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT
V2  V1
q I=
Iav = and instantaneous current R
t 5. ELECTRICAL POWER
q dq P = V
i =. Lim 
t
 pdt
t  0 dt
Energy =

2. ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A CONDUCTOR

V2
I = nAeV. P = I2R = V = .
R

vd  , V2
 H = Vt = 2 Rt = t
R
1  eE  2
   2RT
2 m  1 eE H = 2 RT Joule = Calorie
vd  = , 4.2
 2 m
9. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
I = neAVd 9.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (Junction law)
3. CURRENT DENSITY  in = out
 dI  9.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (Loop law)
J n IR + EMF =0”.
ds
4. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
10. COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES :
 eE   ne 2   Resistances in Series:
I = neAVd = neA   =   R = R1 + R2 + R3 +................ + Rn (this means Req is greater then any
 2m   2m  AE
  resistor) ) and
V = V1 + V2 + V3 +................ + Vn .
V  ne 2    A  A
E= I =  2m     V =   V = V/R  V = IR
so R1 R2
       V1 = V ; V2 =
R1  R 2  .........  R n
V ;
R1  R 2  .........  R n
 is called resistivity (it is also called specific resistance) and
2m 1 2. Resistances in Parallel :
= = ,  is called conductivity. Therefore current in conductors
ne 2  
is proportional to potential difference applied across its ends. This is
Ohm's Law.
Units:
R  ohm(),   ohm  meter(  m)
also called siemens,    1m 1 .
Page # 41 Page # 42

11. WHEATSTONE NETWORK : (4 TERMINAL NETWORK) Ammeter is represented as follows -

If maximum value of current to be measured by ammeter is  then

I G . RG = (I – I G )S
 G .R G  G  RG
S=  S= when  >> G.
G 
When current through the galvanometer is zero (null point or balance where  = Maximum current that can be measured using the given
ammeter.
P R
point) = , then PS = QR 16. VOLTMETER
Q S
A high resistance is put in series with galvanometer. It is used to
13. GROUPING OF CELLS
measure potential difference across a resistor in a circuit.
13.1 Cells in Series :

Equivalent EMFEeq = E1  E 2  .......  En [write EMF's with polarity]

Equivalent internal resistance req = r1  r2  r3  r4  ....  rn
For maximum potential difference
13.2 Cells in Parallel: V = G . RS + G RG
1   2  ....   n V V
E eq 
r1 r2 rn RS =
– RG If RG << RS  RS 
1  1  .....  1 [Use emf with polarity] G G
r1 r2 rn 17. POTENTIOMETER

1 1 1
   .... 
1 =
r R
req r1 r2 rn

15. AMMETER
A shunt (small resistance) is connected in parallel with galvanometer
to convert it into ammeter. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance


VA – VB = .R
Rr
Potential gradient (x)  Potential difference per unit length of wire
VA  VB  R
x= = .
L R r L

Page # 43 Page # 44
 Application of potentiometer by first arrangement ’ = x1 ...(1)
(a) To find emf of unknown cell and compare emf of two cells. by second arrangement IR = x2
In case ,
x 2 '
In figure (1) is joint to (2) then balance length = 1  = , also  =
1 = x1 ....(1) R r 'R
in case , ' x 2 x 1 x 2
In figure (3) is joint to (2) then balance length = 2  =  =
r 'R R r 'R R
2 = x2 ....(2)
 1   2 
1  1 r’ =    R
  2 
2  2
(d)Ammeter and voltmeter can be graduated by potentiometer.
(e)Ammeter and voltmeter can be calibrated by potentiometer.
18. METRE BRIDGE (USE TO MEASURE UNKNOWN RESISTANCE)
If AB =  cm, then BC = (100 – ) cm.
Resistance of the wire between A and B , R  
[  Specific resistance  and cross-sectional area A are same for whole
of the wire ]
or R =  ...(1)
where  is resistance per cm of wire.
If any one of 1 or 2 is known the other can be found. If x is known then
both 1 and 2 can be found

(b) To find current if resistance is known

VA – V C = x 1
IR1 = x1
x 1
= R
1

Similarly, we can find the value of R2 also.

Potentiometer is ideal voltmeter because it does not draw any current
from circuit, at the balance point.
(c) To find the internal resistance of cell.
If P is the resistance of wire between A and B then
I st arrangement 2nd arrangement
P  P = ()
Similarly, if Q is resistance of the wire between B and C, then
Q  100 – 
 Q = (100 – ) ....(2)
P 
Dividing (1) by (2), =
Q 100  

Page # 45 Page # 46

Applying the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge, we get R Q = P X (c) Cylindrical Capacitor :  >> {a,b}
Q 100  
 x=R or X= R
P 
Since R and  are known, therefore, the value of X can be calculated. 2 
Capacitance per unit length = F/m  b
n(b / a) 
CAPACITANCE

1. (i) q V  q = CV (vi) Capacitance of capacitor depends on

q : Charge on positive plate of the capacitor (a) Area of plates
C : Capacitance of capacitor. (b) Distance between the plates
V : Potential difference between positive and negative plates. (c) Dielectric medium between the plates.
(ii) Representation of capacitor : , (vii) Electric field intensity between the plates of capacitor
(
 V
1 Q 2
QV E= 
(iii) Energy stored in the capacitor : U = CV2 = = 0 d
2 2C 2
Surface change density
1 1
(iv) Energy density =   E2 = K E2 q2
2  r 2
(viii) Force experienced by any plate of capacitor : F=
r = Relative permittivity of the medium. 2A 0
K= r : Dielectric Constant
1 2. DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ON CONNECTING TWO CHARGED
For vacuum, energy density =  E2
2  CAPACITORS:
(v) Types of Capacitors : When two capacitors are C1 and C2 are connected as shown in figure
(a) Parallel plate capacitor
 0r A 0 A
C= = K
d d
A : Area of plates
d : distance between the plates( << size of plate )
(b) Spherical Capacitor :
 Capacitance of an isolated spherical Conductor (hollow or solid )
C= 4 r R
(a) Common potential :
R = Radius of the spherical conductor
 Capacitance of spherical capacitor C1V1  C 2 V2 Total ch arg e
 V= = Total capaci tan ce
C1  C 2
b
1 2
a
ab C1
C= 4 (b) Q 1' = C1V = (Q 1 + Q 2)
(b  a ) C1  C 2
b
4 0K 2ab K1 K2 K3
a C2
 C= Q 2' = C2 V = C  C (Q 1 +Q 2)
(b  a) 1 2

Page # 47 Page # 48
 (c) Heat loss during redistribution : Time constant = CReq.
1 C1C 2 q0 V –t/
H = Ui – Uf = (V1 – V2)2 I= e – t /  e
2 C1  C 2  R
The loss of energy is in the form of Joule heating in the wire.

3. Combination of capacitor :
(i) Series Combination
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
   V1 : V2 : V3  : :
Ceq C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
+Q –Q +Q –Q +Q –Q
C1 C2 C3
V1 V2 V3

(ii) Discharging of Capacitor :

(ii) Parallel Combination : q = q0 e – t / 
q0 = Initial charge on the capacitor
Q+ –Q
q0
C1 I= e –t/

Q+ –Q q
C2 R
q0
Q+ –Q
C3
C
0.37v0
V
 t
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 Q1: Q2 :Q3 = C1 : C2 : C3
5. Capacitor with dielectric :
(i) Capacitance in the presence of dielectric :
4. Charging and Discharging of a capacitor : K0 A
(i) Charging of Capacitor ( Capacitor initially uncharged ): C= = KC0
d
q = q0 ( 1 – e– t /)
+ +
R
– – – – – – – – – – – – b

V  0  b0
V C

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + b
– –
q0 = Charge on the capacitor at steady state
q0 = CV C0 = Capacitance in the absence of dielectric.

Page # 49 Page # 50

 b  V ALTERNATING CURRENT
(ii) Ein = E – Eind =  –  = K =
0 0 0 d 1. AC AND DC CURRENT :
A current that changes its direction periodically is called alternating cur-

E: Electric field in the absence of dielectric rent (AC). If a current maintains its direction constant it is called direct
0 current (DC).
Eind : Induced (bound) charge density.
1
(iii) b = (1 – ).
K
6. Force on dielectric

0b(K  1)V 2
(i) When battery is connected F
2d

b
b

+


3. ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE:

F d Root Mean Square Value of a function, from t1 to t2, is defined as
t2

f
– 2
x dt
2
Q dC f rms = t1 .
(ii) When battery is not connected F=
2C2 dx t 2  t1

4. POWER CONSUMED OR SUPPLIED IN AN AC CIRCUIT:

2


* Force on the dielectric will be zero when the dielectric is fully inside.  Pdt
o 1
Average power consumed in a cycle = = V  cos 
2 2 m m


m
Vm
= . . cos = Vrms rms cos.
2 2
Here cos is called power factor.
Page # 51 Page # 52
5. SOME DEFINITIONS: IC leads by v C by /2 Diagrammatically
The factor cos  is called Power factor. (phasor diagram) it is represented as
m sin  is called wattless current. m
Vm Vrms .
Impedance Z is defined as Z = = Vm
m rms Since º, <P> = Vrms rmscos 
L is called inductive reactance and is denoted by XL.
1 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT & MAGNETIC FORCE ON
is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC.
C CHARGE/CURRENT
6. PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT:
1. Magnetic field due to a moving point charge
  q( v  r )
v V sin t B 0 
I= s = m = m sin t 4 r3
R R
Vm v
m = r
R 2. Biot-savart's Law
Vrms
rms = 
R 0I  d  r 
dB  
2 4  r 3 
<P> = Vrmsrmscos 
Vrms  
R
 1 P
7. PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT: 3. Magnetic field due to a straight wire r 2
Vm
I= = cos t 0 I
1
C B= (sin 1 + sin 2)
4 r
Vm 
= cos t = m cos t.
XC
4. Magnetic field due to infinite straight wire
1 P
XC = and is called capacitive reactance. r
C
0 I
B= 
v 2 r
V 5. Magnetic field due to circular loop
T
t
 0NI
(i) At centre B=
i 2r
I
t 0  NR2 

(ii) At Axis B = 2  2 2 3/2 
 (R  x ) 

Page # 53 Page # 54

6. Magnetic field on the axis of the solenoid 13. Magnetic field due to a single pole
2 0 nI 0 m
1
B= (cos 1 – cos 2) B= ·
2 4 r 2
7. Ampere's Law 14. Magnetic field on the axis of magnet

   0 2M

B= ·
B.d    0I 4 r 3
15. Magnetic field on the equatorial axis of the magnet
8. Magnetic field due to long cylinderical shell 0 M
B= ·
4 r 3
B = 0, r < R
16. Magnetic field at point P due to magnet
0 I
= ,r  R 0 M
2 r B= 1  3 cos 2 
4 r 3
9. Magnetic force acting on a moving point charge
   P
a. F  q (  B)
  × × × ×
(i) B × × × r
m B×
r × × r ×
×
qB ×
× × ×

2m
T= S N
qB

m sin 
(ii) r ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 qB
B  
T=
2m
qB
Pitch =
2m cos 
qB
1. Magnetic flux is mathematically defined as =
 B.ds
2. Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
b.
   

F  q (  B)  E  d
E=–
dt
10. Magnetic force acting on a current carrying wire 3. Lenz’s Law (conservation of energy principle)


 
F  I  B  According to this law, emf will be induced in such a way that it will oppose
the cause which has produced it.
11. Magnetic Moment of a current carrying loop
Motional emf
M=N·I·A
12. Torque acting on a loop 4. Induced emf due to rotation
   Emf induced in a conducting rod of length l rotating with angular speed 
  MB
about its one end, in a uniform perpendicular magnetic field B is 1/2 B 
2.
Page # 55 Page # 56
 1. EMF Induced in a rotating disc : The quantity L/R is called time constant of the circuit and is denoted by .
Emf between the centre and the edge of disc of radius r rotating in a The variation of current with time is as shown.
Br 2 
magnetic field B = 1. Final current in the circuit = , which is independent of L.
2 R
5. Fixed loop in a varying magnetic field
dB
If magnetic field changes with the rate , electric field is generated
dt
r dB
whose average tangential value along a circle is given by E=
2 dt
This electric field is non conservative in nature. The lines of force associ-
ated with this electric field are closed curves. 2. After one time constant , current in the circuit =63% of the final current.
3. More time constant in the circuit implies slower rate of change of current.
6. Self induction
8 Decay of current in the circuit containing resistor and inductor:
 =   (Nt )    (LIt )   Lt I . Let the initial current in a circuit containing inductor and resistor be 0.
Rt

 =  d ( N)   d( LI )   LdI Current at a time t is given as I = 0 e L

The instantaneous emf is given as
dt dt dt 1
Self inductance of solenoid = µ0 n2 r2. Current after one time constant : I = 0 e =0.37% of initial current.
6.1 Inductor
9. Mutual inductance is induction of EMF in a coil (secondary) due to
It is represent by change in current in another coil (primary). If current in primary coil is I,
electrical equivalence of loop total flux in secondary is proportional to I, i.e. N  (in secondary)  I.
or N  (in secondary) = M I.
The emf generated around the secondary due to the current flowing around
the primary is directly proportional to the rate at which that current changes.
 10. Equivalent self inductance :

VA  VB
L ..(1)
dI dI / dt
VA  L  VB
dt 1. Series combination :
L = L1 + L2 ( neglecting mutual inductance)
1 2 L = L1 + L2 + 2M (if coils are mutually coupled and they have
Energy stored in an inductor = L
2 winding in same direction)
7. Growth Of Current in Series R–L Circuit L = L1 + L2 – 2M (if coils are mutually coupled and they have
If a circuit consists of a cell, an inductor L and a resistor R and a switch S winding in opposite direction)
,connected in series and the switch is closed at t = 0, the current in the 2. Parallel Combination :
Rt
 1 1
 
1
circuit I will increase as I = (1  e L ) ( neglecting mutual inductance)
R L L1 L 2

Page # 57 Page # 58

Differentiating w.r.t time , we get

For two coils which are mutually coupled it has been found that M  L1L 2
v (im)x = -v(om)x ; v (im)y = v (om)y ; v (im)z = v (om)z ,
or M =k L1L 2 where k is called coupling constant and its value is less 3. Spherical Mirror
than or equal to 1. 1 1 2 1
Magnetic Core + = = ..... Mirror formula
E s Ns p v u R f
  where denota- S x co–ordinate of centre of Curvature and focus of Concave
Ep Np  s ,
mirror are negative and those for Convex mirror are positive.
tions have their usual mean-
EP ES In case of mirrors since light rays reflect back in - X direction,
ings.
therefore -ve sign of v indicates real image and +ve
NS > NP
sign of v indicates virtual image
 ES > EP 
(b) Lateral magnification (or transverse magnification)
for step up transformer. Primary Secondary
coil coil h2 v
12. LC Oscillations m= m = .
h1 u
2 1
 
LC
dv v2 .
(d) On differentiating (a) we get =
du u2
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
(e) On dif f erentiating (a) with respect to time we get
1. Reflection of Light dv v 2 du dv
(b)   i = r  2 ,where is the velocity of image along Principal
1.3 Characteristics of image due to Reflection by a Plane dt u dt dt
Mirror: du
(a) Distance of object from mirror = Distance of image from the mirror. axis and is the velocity of object along Principal axis. Negative
(b) The line joining a point object and its image is normal to the reflecting dt
surface. sign implies that the image , in case of mirror, always moves
(c) The size of the image is the same as that of the object. in the direction opposite to that of object.This discussion is
(d) For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual object the image for velocity with respect to mirror and along the x axis.
is real (f) Newton's Formula: XY = f 2
X and Y are the distances ( along the principal axis ) of the object
2. Relation between velocity of object and image :
and image respectively from the principal focus. This formula can
From mirror property : xim = - xom , yim = yom and zim = zom be used when the distances are mentioned or asked from the
Here xim means ‘x’ coordinate of image with respect to mirror. focus.
Similarly others have meaning.
1
(g) Optical power of a mirror (in Diopters) =
f
f = focal length with sign and in meters.
(h) If object lying along the principal axis is not of very small size, the
v 2  v1
longitudinal magnification = u  u (it will always be inverted)
2 1

Page # 59 Page # 60
4. Refraction of Light
 1   1   n 
vacuum.  
speed of light in vacuum c
 . Apparent shift = t1  1  + t2  1  +........+ 1  n 
 rel 
speed of light in medium v  n 1rel   n 2 rel   n 
4.1 Laws of Refraction (at any Refracting Surface) 8. Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection ( T. I. R.)
Sin i nr
C = sin 1
(b) = Constant for any pair of media and for light of a given nd
Sin r
wave length. This is known as Snell's Law. More precisely,
(i) Conditions of T. I. R.
(a) light is incident on the interface from denser medium.
Sin i n v  (b) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical
= 2 = 1 = 1
Sin r n1 v2 2 angle (i > c).
4.2 Deviation of a Ray Due to Refraction 9. Refraction Through Prism
Deviation () of ray incident at i and refracted at r is given by  = |i  r|. 9.1 Characteristics of a prism

5. Principle of Reversibility of Light Rays

A ray travelling along the path of the reflected ray is reflected along the
path of the incident ray. A refracted ray reversed to travel back along its
path will get refracted along the path of the incident ray. Thus the incident
and refracted rays are mutually reversible.
7. Apparent Depth and shift of Submerged Object
At near normal incidence (small angle of incidence i) apparent depth (d)
is given by:
d n i (R .I.of medium of incidence )
d=  nrelative =
n relative n r (R.I.of medium of refraction )

 1   = (i + e)  (r1 + r2) and r1 + r2 = A

Apparent shift = d 1  n   = i + e  A.
 rel  9.2 Variation of  versus i
Refraction through a Composite Slab (or Refraction through a
number of parallel media, as seen from a medium of R. I. n0)
Apparent depth (distance of final image from final surface)
t1 t2 t3 tn
= + + +......... +
n1 rel n 2 rel n 3 rel n n rel

Page # 61 Page # 62

(1) There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the angle
n v  nr
of deviation is minimum. [ ny = if ny is not given in the problem ]
(2) When  = min , the angle of minimum deviation, then i = e and 2
r1 = r2, the ray passes symmetrically w.r.t. the refracting surfaces.  v  r nv  nr n v  nr
We can show by simple calculation that min = 2imin – A = = n  1 [take ny = if value of ny is not given in
y y 2
where imin = angle of incidence for minimum deviation and r = A/2.

  , where n
the problem]
A  m
sin 2
n prism nv, nr and ny are R. I. of material for violet, red and yellow colours respectively.
 nrel =
sin A2   rel
=
n surroundings
11. Combination of Two Prisms
Alsomin = (n  1) A (for small values of  A) Two or more prisms can be combined in various ways to get different
(3) For a thin prism ( A 10o) and for small value of i, all values of combination of angular dispersion and deviation.
nprism (a) Direct Vision Combination (dispersion without deviation)
 = ( nrel  1 ) A where nrel = The condition for direct vision combination is :
nsurrounding
 n v nr   n v  n r 
10. Dispersion Of Light
  1 A    1 A  n y 1 A = ny 1 A
The angular splitting of a ray of white light into a number of components  2   2 
and spreading in different directions is called Dispersion of Light. This
(b) Achromatic Combination (deviation without dispersion.)
phenomenon is because waves of different wavelength move with same
Condition for achromatic combination is: (nv  nr) A = (nv  nr) A
speed in vacuum but with different speeds in a medium.
The refractive index of a medium depends slightly on wavelength also.
12. Refraction at Spherical Surfaces
This variation of refractive index with wavelength is given by Cauchy’s
For paraxial rays incident on a spherical surface separating two media:
formula.
b n2 n n n1
Cauchy's formula n () = a  where a and b are positive constants  1 = 2
2 v u R
of a medium. where light moves from the medium of refractive index n1 to the medium
Angle between the rays of the extreme colours in the refracted (dispersed) light is of refractive index n2.
called angle of dispersion.
For prism of small ‘A’ and with small ‘i’ :  = (nv – nr)A Transverse magnification (m) (of dimension perpendicular to principal axis)
Deviation of beam(also called mean deviation)  = y = (ny – 1)A
Dispersive power () of the medium of the material of prism is given by: v  R  v / n 2 
due to refraction at spherical surface is given by m = = 
u  R  u / n1 
n v  nr
 = n 1 13. Refraction at Spherical Thin Lens
y
A thin lens is called convex if it is thicker at the middle and it is
For small angled prism ( A 10 ) with light incident at small angle i :
o
called concave if it is thicker at the ends.
n v  nr  For a spherical, thin lens having the same medium on both sides:
 v  r
ny  1 =  = 
y 1 1  1 1  n lens
y
 = (nrel  1)    where nrel =
angular dispersion
v u  R1 R2  n medium
=
deviation of mean ray (yellow)

Page # 63 Page # 64
 Astronomical Telescope
1  1 1 
= (nrel  1)    Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f  R1 R 2  f0
M=  L = f + ue.
1 1 1 e
 =  Lens Maker's Formula
v u f f0
M  L = f0 + fe
v fe
m=
u f0  f  Df e
MD  1  e  LD= f 0 + D  f
1 1 1 1
   ...
fe  D e
Combination Of Lenses: F f1 f2 f3
Terrestrial Telescope
OPTICAL INSTRUMENT Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f0
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE M L= f 0 + 4f + Ue.
Ue
D
 Magnifying power : U M 
f0
0
fe L = f 0 + 4f + fe.
D
 when image is formed at infinity M  f0  fe  Df e
f MD  1  
f e  D
LD = f 0 + 4f + D  f
e
D
 When change is formed at near print D. MD  1  Galilean Telescope
f
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
f
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE M 0 L = f 0 - Ue.
Ue
Magnifying power Length of Microscope
V0D 0 f0
M L = V0 + Ue M  L = f 0 - fe.
U0U e fe

V0D f0  f  fe D
M  MD  1 – e 
f e 
L = V0 + f e LD = f 0 – D – f
U0 f e d e

V  D D.f e
MD  0 1   LD = V0  D  f
Resolving Power
U0  f e 
 e
1 2 sin 
Microscope R  
d 
1 a
Telescope. R  
 1.22

Page # 65 Page # 66

When light is incident at an angle  with vertical.

MODERN PHYSICS (a) a = 1, r = 0
A cos  F cos  
 Work function is minimum for cesium (1.9 eV) F= , P= = cos2 
c A c
hc (b) r = 1, a = 0
 work function W = h0 = 
0
2A cos 2  2 cos2 
 Photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation. F=
c
, P=
c
( – constant) (c) 0 < r < 1, a+r=1
 Photoelectrons ejected from metal have kinetic energies ranging from 0 to  cos 2 
P= (1 + r)
KEmax c
Here KEmax = eVs Vs - stopping potential  De Broglie wavelength
 Stopping potential is independent of intensity of light used (-constant) h
h h
 Intensity in the terms of electric field is == =
mv P 2mKE
1  Radius and speed of electron in hydrogen like atoms.
I = 0 E2.c
2
n2
rn = a0 a0 = 0.529 Å
h Z
 Momentum of one photon is .
 Z
 Einstein equation for photoelectric effect is vn = v0 v 0 = 2.19 x 106 m/s
n
hc hc  Energy in nth orbit
h = w0 + kmax  =  + eVs
 0 Z2
En = E1 . E1 = – 13.6 eV
12400 n2
 Energy E = eV  Wavelength corresponding to spectral lines
( A 0 )
 Force due to radiation (Photon) (no transmission) 1  1 1
=R  2  2
When light is incident perpendicularly   n1 n2 
(a) a=1 r=0 for Lyman series n1 = 1 n2 = 2, 3, 4...........
A  Balmer n1 = 2 n2 = 3, 4, 5...........
F= , Pressure = Paschen n1 = 3 n2 = 4, 5, 6...........
c c
 The lyman series is an ultraviolet and Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series
(b) r = 1, a = 0
are in the infrared region.
2A 2 n(n  1)
F=
c
, P=
c
 Total number of possible transitions, is , (from nth state)
2
(c) when 0 < r < 1 and a + r = 1  If effect of nucleus motion is considered,
A  n2 m
rn = (0.529 Å) .
F=
c
(1 + r), P =
c
(1 + r) Z 
Z2 
En = (–13.6 eV) .
n2 m

Page # 67 Page # 68
 Here µ - reduced mass  A radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes having half
Mm lives t1 and t2 respectively. Effective half-life of nucleus is given by
µ= , M - mass of nucleus 1 1 1
(M  m)   .
 Minimum wavelength for x-rays t t1 t 2
hc 12400
min = eV = V (volt) Å WAVE OPTICS
0 0
 Moseley’s Law Interference of waves of intensity 1 and 2 :

v = a(z – b)
resultant intensity,  = 1 + 2 + 2 1 2 cos () where,  = phase
a and b are positive constants for one type of x-rays (independent of Z) difference.
 Average radius of nucleus may be written as
R = R0A1/3, R0 = 1.1 x 10–15 M
For Constructive Interference : max = 1  2 
2

=   
2
A - mass number For Destructive interference : min 1  2
 Binding energy of nucleus of mass M, is given by B = (ZMp + NMN – M)C2
If sources are incoherent  = 1 + 2 , at each point.
 Alpha - decay process YDSE :
A
Z
X  Az 24 Y  24 He Path difference, p = S2P – S1P = d sin 
Q-value is dy
      m  He C
if d<<D =
A4 D
Q = m AZ X  m z 2 Y
4
2
2
if y << D
 Beta- minus decay for maxima,
A
X
A
 z 1 Y    p = n  y = n n = 0, ±1, ±2 .......
Z
A
for minima
Q- value = [ m ( zA X)  m ( Z1 Y )] c 2
  
Beta plus-decay (2n  1) n  1, 2, 3.............
A  2
A
z X
 Z1 Y
+ + +  p = p = 
(2n  1)  n  -1, - 2, - 3........
A
Q- value = [ m ( zA X)  m ( Z1 Y )  2 me] c 2  2
 Electron capture : when atomic electron is captured, X-rays are emitted.  
A (2n  1) 2 n  1, 2, 3.............
A
z X + e  Z1 Y
+  y= 
A (2n  1)  n  -1, - 2, - 3.......
Q - value = [ m ( zA X)  m ( Z1 Y )] c 2  2
 In radioactive decay, number of nuclei at instant t is given by N = N0 e–t ,
D
-decay constant. where, fringe width  =
d
 Activity of sample : A = A0 e–t Here,  = wavelength in medium.
 Activity per unit mass is called specific activity. d
Highest order maxima : nmax =  
0.693 
 Half life : T1/2 = total number of maxima = 2nmax + 1

T1/ 2  d 1
 Average life : Tav = Highest order minima : nmax =   
0.693  2
total number of minima = 2nmax.
Page # 69 Page # 70

2 THIN-FILM INTERFERENCE
Intensity on screen :  = 1 + 2 + 2  1 2 cos () where,  = p for interference in reflected light 2d

   n for destructiv e interference
If 1 = 2,  = 41 cos2   
 2  =  1
YDSE with two wavelengths 1 & 2 : (n  2 ) for constructi ve interference
The nearest point to central maxima where the bright fringes coincide: for interference in transmitted light 2d
y = n11 = n22 = Lcm of 1 and 2
n for constructive interference
The nearest point to central maxima where the two dark fringes 
=  1
coincide, (n  2 ) for destructive interference

1 1
y = (n1 – ) 1 = n2 – ) 2
2 2 Polarisation
Optical path difference
  = tan .(brewster's angle)
popt = p
 +  r = 90°(reflected and refracted rays are mutually
2 2
 = p = popt. perpendicular.)
  vacuum
 Law of Malus.
D B
 = ( – 1) t. = ( – 1)t . I = I0 cos2
d 
I = KA2 cos2
YDSE WITH OBLIQUE INCIDENCE  Optical activity
In YDSE, ray is incident on the slit at an inclination of 0 to

the axis of symmetry of the experimental set-up t C 
LC
 = rotation in length L at concentration C.
S1 P1
1 Diffraction

0 2 O  a sin  = (2m + 1) /2 for maxima. where m = 1, 2, 3 ......

dsin0 S2 P2
m
 sin  = , m =  1,  2,  3......... for minima.
B0 a
O'
We obtain central maxima at a point where, p = 0.
2 = 0. 2d
or  Linear width of central maxima =
This corresponds to the point O’ in the diagram. a
Hence we have path difference.
2
d(sin 0  sin )  for points above O  Angular width of central maxima =
 a
d(sin 0  sin )  for points between O & O'
p =  ... (8.1)
d(sin   sin  )  for points below O'
 0

Page # 71 Page # 72
 Gravitational field is maximum at a distance,
2
 sin  / 2  a sin  r=± a 2 and it is – 2GM 3 3 a 2
   0   where  =
 /2  
2. Thin Circular Disc.
 Resolving power .  
 2GM  2 2
  
1

V=  a r 2  r 2GM 
& E=– 1
r 
1 = –
2GM
1  cos 
a2 
2

1

R =  –   
a 2 
3.

 r 2  a 2 2 
Non conducting solid sphere

a2

(a) Point P inside the sphere. r < a, then
1   2 GM GM r 3GM
where ,   ,  = 2 - 1 V=  (3a 2  r 2 ) & E = – , and at the centre V = – and E = 0
2 2a 3 a3 2a
(b) Point P outside the sphere .
GM GM
r > a, then V =  & E=– 2
GRAVITATION r r
4. Uniform Thin Spherical Shell / Conducting solid sphere
GRAVITATION : Universal Law of Gravitation (a) Point P Inside the shell.
m1 m 2 m m  GM
F or F = G 1 2 r < a , then V = & E=0
r2 r2 a
–11 2 –2
where G = 6.67 × 10 Nm kg is the universal gravitational constant. (b) Point P outside shell.
 GM GM
Newton's Law of Gravitation in vector form : r > a, then V = & E=– 2
r r
 Gm1m2  Gm1m2 VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY :
F12 = r̂12 & F2 1 =
r2 r2 1. Effect of Altitude
  G m1 m2 GMe 2
Now r̂12   r̂21 , Thus F21  r̂12 .  h   2h 
= g 1   g 1   when h << R.
 r2 gh =
R e  h2  Re


~


Re 
Comparing above, we get F12   F21
F GM  d 
Gravitational Field = 2 E= 2. Effect of depth gd = g 1  

m r  Re 
Gravitational potential : gravitational potential, 3. Effect of the surface of Earth
GM dV The equatorial radius is about 21 km longer than its polar radius.
V=– . E=– .
r dr GMe
We know, g = Hence gpole > gequator.
 GM  GM r R 2e
1. Ring. V= 2 2 1/ 2 & E= r̂
x or (a  r ) (a  r )
2 2 3/2
SATELLITE VELOCITY (OR ORBITAL VELOCITY)
GM cos  1 1
or E = –  GM e  2  g R 2e  2
x2 v0 =   =  

 eR  h    R e  h 

Page # 73 Page # 74

p1 – p2 =  a0 where p1 and p2 are pressures at points 1 & 2.

When h << Re then v 0 = gRe
a 0
Then h1 – h2 =
 v 0 = 9.8  6.4  10 6 = 7.92 × 103 ms–1 = 7.92 km s1 g
Time period of Satellite (iii) Free surface of liquid in case of rotating cylinder.
1
2 R e  h 2  R e  h  2 v2  2r 2
3
T= 1
=   h= =
R e  2g 2g
 g R 2e 2
g 
 
 R e  h 
Equation of Continuity

Energy of a Satellite
a1v1 = a2v2
GMem GMem GM e m
U= K.E. = ; then total energy E = – In general av = constant .
r 2r 2R e
Kepler's Laws
Law of area : Bernoulli’s Theorem
The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time. P
1 1 2
r (rd) i.e. + v + gh = constant.
area swept 2 1 2 d  2
Areal velocity = = =7 r = constant .
time dt 2 dt 2gh
2
1 2 T2 (vi) Torricelli’s theorem – (speed of efflux) v= 1  A 22 ,A2 = area of hole
Hence r  = constant. Law of periods : = constant A1
2 R3
A1 = area of vessel.
FLUID MECHANICS & PROPERTIES OF MATTER restoring force F
ELASTICITY & VISCOSITY : stress = area of the body  A
FLUIDS, SURFACE TENSION, VISCOSITY & ELASTICITY :
change in configuration
f F A Strain,  =
1. Hydraulic press.  p=or F   f . original configuration
a A a L
Hydrostatic Paradox PA = PB = PC (i) Longitudinal strain =
(i) Liquid placed in elevator : When elevator accelerates upward with L
acceleration a0 then pressure in the fluid, at depth ‘h’ may be given by, V
p = h [g + a0] (ii) v = volume strain =
V
x
(iii) Shear Strain : tan  or  =

and force of buoyancy, B = m (g + a0)
F/ A FL
1. Young's modulus of elasticity Y = 
(ii) Free surface of liquid in horizontal acceleration : L / L AL
1 1
a0 Potential Energy per unit volume = (stress × strain) = (Y × strain2 )
tan  = 2 2
g Inter-Atomic Force-Constant k = Yr0.
Page # 75 Page # 76
 dv dv where Y = young's modulus for the solid
Newton’s Law of viscosity, F A or F = – A
dx dx
B
2 r 2 (  )g – for liquid

C=
Stoke’s Law F = 6 r v. Terminal velocity =
9  where B = Bulk modulus for the liquid
SURFACE TENSION
B P  RT
Total force on either of the imaginary line (F ) – for gases  C= 
Surface tension(T) = Length of the line ( ) ;   M0
where M0 is molecular wt. of the gas in (kg/mole)
W
T=S= Intensity of sound wave :
A
Thus, surface tension is numerically equal to surface energy or work Pm2
done per unit increase surface area. <> = 22f 2A2v = <>  Pm2
2v
4T
Inside a bubble : (p – pa) = = pexcess ;   
r (iv) Loudness of sound : L = 10 log10    dB
 0
2T
Inside the drop : (p – pa) = = pexcess where I 0 = 10–12 W/m 2 (This the minimum intensity human ears can
r listen)
2T P
Inside air bubble in a liquid :(p – pa) =
r
= pexcess Intensity at a distance r from a point source =  
4r 2
2T cos  Interference of Sound Wave
Capillary Rise h=
rg if P1 = pm1 sin (t – kx 1 + 1)
P2 = pm2 sin (t – kx 2 + 2)
SOUND WAVES resultant excess pressure at point O is
p = P1 + P2
(i) Longitudinal displacement of sound wave
p = p0 sin (t – kx + )
 = A sin (t – kx)
(ii) Pressure excess during travelling sound wave p0 = 2
pm 1
 pm
2
2
 2pm1 p m2 cos 
 where  = [k (x 2 – x 1) + (1 – 2)]
Pex =  B (it is true for travelling
x
and I = I1 + I2 + 2  1  2
= (BAk) cos(t – kx)
wave as well as standing waves) (i) For constructive interference
Amplitude of pressure excess = BAk  = 2n and  p0 = pm1 + pm2 (constructive interference)
(ii) For destructive interfrence
E
(iii) Speed of sound C =  = (2n+ 1) and  p0 = | pm1 – pm2 | (destructive interference)

2
Where E = Ellastic modulus for the medium If  is due to path difference only then  = x.
 = density of medium 
Condition for constructive interference : x = n
Y
– for solid C= 
 Condition for destructive interference : x = (2n + 1) 
2
Page # 77 Page # 78

(a) If pm1 = pm2 and 

resultant p = 0 i.e. no sound U energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, the magnitude of
p
(b) If pm1 = pm2 and  = 0 , 2, 4, ... c
the total momentum delivered to this surface (for complete
p0 = 2pm & I0 = 4I1
p0 = 2pm1 absorption) is p
Close organ pipe : Electromagnetic spectrum
v 3v 5v (2n  1)v Type Wavelength Production Detection
f= , , ,.......... n = overtone range
4 4 4 4
Radio > 0.1m Rapid acceleration and Receiver's aerials
Open organ pipe :
decelerations of electrons in
v 2v 3v nV aerials
f= , , ,.......... Microwave 0.1m to 1mm Klystron value or magnetron Point contact diodes
2 2 2 2 value
Beats : Beatsfrequency = |f 1 – f 2|. Infra-red 1mm to 700nm Vibration of atoms and Thermopiles Bolometer,
Doppler’s Effect molecules Infrared photographic
film
vv 
f = f  v  v 
0 Light 700nm to Electrons in atoms emit light The eye, photocells,
The observed frequency, 400nm when they move from one Photographic film
 s 
energy level to a lower
 v  vs  energy
and Apparent wavelength  =    Ultraviolet 400nm to 1nm Inner shell electrons in photocells photographic
 v  atoms moving from one film
energy level to a lower level
–3
ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES X-rays 1nm to 10 nm X-ray tubes or inner shell Photograpic film, Geiger
electrons tubes, lonisation chamber
–3
Maxwell's equations Gamma < 10 nm Radioactive decay of the do
rays nucleus
 E  dA  Q /  0 (Gauss's Law for electricity)

 B  dA  0 (Gauss's Law for magnetism)

– d B ERROR AND MEASUREMENT

 E  d  dt
(Faraday's Law)
1. Least Count
d E
 B  d   i
0 c  0 0
dt
(Ampere-Maxwell Law)

Oscillating electric and magnetic fields mm.scale Vernier Screw gauge Stop Watch Temp thermometer
E= Ex(t) = E0 sin (kz - t) L.C =1mm L.C=0.1mm L.C=0.1mm L.C=0.1Sec L.C=0.1°C
 z 2. Significant Figures
   z t 
= E0 sin 2  – vt  = E0 sin 2  – T   Non-zero digits are significant
       Zeros occurring between two non-zeros digits are significant.
E0/B0 = c  Change of units cannot change S.F.
 In the number less than one, all zeros after decimal point and to
c = 1/  0  0 c is speed of light in vaccum the left of first non-zero digit are insignificant
 The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal
v  1/  v is speed of light in medium
point are not significant.
Page # 79 Page # 80
3. Permissible Error PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION
 Max permissible error in a measured quantity = least count of
the measuring instrument and if nothing is given about least count Transmission from tower of height h
then Max permissible error = place value of the last number
 f (x,y) = x + y then (f)max = max of (  X  Y)
 f 
f (x,y,z) = (constant) xa yb zc then  
 f  max
 x y z 
= max of   a x  b y  c z   the distance to the horizon dT = 2RhT
 
 dM = 2RhT  2RhR
4. Errors in averaging
 Absolute Error an = |amean -an|
Amplitude Modulation
 n   The modulated signal cm (t) can be written as

 Mean Absolute Error amean =   | a i | 
 n A c A c
 i1  cm(t) = Ac sin ct + cos (C - m) t – cos (C + m)
2 2
a mean
 Relative error = a mean Change in amplitude of carrier wave kA m
 Modulation index ma  Amplitude of original carrier wave

Ac
a mean
 Percentage error = a ×100 where k = A factor which determines the maximum change in the
mean
amplitude for a given amplitude Em of the modulating. If k = 1 then
5. Experiments
A m A max – A min
 Reading of screw gauge ma = 
Thicknes of object  Re ading of screw gauge Ac A max – A min

 main   circular   If a carrier wave is modulated by several sine waves the total modulated
    Least 
  scale    scale   index mt is given by mt = m12  m22  m32  .........
 reading   reading  count 
     Side band frequencies
(f c + f m) = Upper side band (USB) frequency
pitch (fc - f m) = Lower side band (LBS) frequency
least count of screw gauge = No. of circular scale division
 Band width = (fc + fm) - (f c - f m) = 2fm
 Vernier callipers
Thicknes of object  Re ading of vernier calliper 2
Vrms
 Power in AM waves : P 
 main   vernier  R
    Least 
  scale    scale   2
 reading   reading  count   Ac 
     
A2
Pc  
(i) carrier power 2
 c
R 2R
Least count of vernier calliper = 1 MSD –1 VSD

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2
 ma A c   ma A c  SEMICONDUCTOR
    2 2
(ii) Total power of side bands Psb =  2 2 

2 2  ma A c
 Conductivity and resistivity
R 2R 4R  P (– m) (–1m–1)
Metals 10–2 -10–6 102 – 108
A c2  ma2 
(iii) Total power of AM wave PTotal = Pc + Pab = 2R  1  2 
 semiconductors 10–5 -10–6 105 – 10–6
 
Insulators 1011 –1019 10–11 – 10–19
Pt  ma2  P ma2 / 2
(iv) P   1  2  and sb 

Charge concentration and current
c   Pt  m2  [ n = e] In case of intrinsic semiconductors
1 a   P type n >> e
 2 
  i = ie + ih
(v) Maximum power in the AM (without distortion) will occur when  e n = i2
ma = 1 i.e., Pt = 1.5 P = 3Pab  Number of electrons reaching from valence bond to conduction bond.
(vi) If Ic = Unmodulated current and It = total or modulated current = A T 3 / 2 e – Eg / 2kT (A is positive constant)
  = e ( e me + n n)
Pt 2t t  ma2  for  hype n = Na >> e.
 P  2     1  2  for  – type e = Na >> h
c c c  
V
Frequency Modulation  Dynamic Resistance of P-N junction in forward biasing =

Em Transistor
 Frequency deviation  = = (fmax - fc) = f c - fmin = kf .  CB amplifier
2
 Carrier swing (CS) = CS = 2 × f Samll change in collector current (ic )
(i) ac current gain c = Samll change in collector current ( i )
 Frequency modulation index (mf) e

 fmax – fc fc – fmin k f Em Collector current (ic )

=. mf = f  fm

fm

fm
(ii) dc current gain dc = Emitter current (i ) value of dc lies
m e
 Frequency spectrum = FM side band modulated signal consist of infi- between 0.95 to 0.99
nite number of side bands whose frequencies are (fc ± f m), (f c ± 2f m), Change in output voltage ( V0 )
(f c ± 3fm)......... (iii) Voltage gain AV = Change in input voltage ( V )
f
(f )max AV = aac × Resistance gain
 Deviation ratio = (f )
m max Change in output power ( P0 )
( f )actual (iv) Power gain = Change in input voltage ( P )
 Percent modulation , m = (f ) C
max  Power gain = a2ac × Resistance gain
(v) Phase difference (between output and input) : same phase
(vi) Application : For High frequency

Page # 83 Page # 84
CE Amplifier
ROUGH WORK
 i c 
(i) ac current gain ac =  i  V = constant
 CE
 b 

ic
(ii) dc current gain dc = i
b

V0
(iii) Voltage gain : AV = V = ac × Resistance gain
i

P0
(iv) Power gain = P = 2ac × Resistance
i
(v) Transconductance (gm) : The ratio of the change in collector in
collector current to the change in emitter base voltage is called trans
i c AV
conductance i.e. gm = V . Also gm = R RL = Load resistance.
EB L

 
 Relation between  and  :   or  =
1–  1 
(v) Transconductance (gm) : The ratio of the change in collector in collec-
tor current to the change in emitter base voltage is called trans conductance
i.e. gm = . Also gm = RL = Load resistance.

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