CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

CHAPTER 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Objectives:
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
 Understand the formal definition of limit and continuity;
 State some limit theorems;
 Evaluate limits of functions;
 Determine points of discontinuity of functions;
 Apply Intermediate Value Theorem;
Introduction
The topic that we will be examining in this chapter is that of Limits. Limits are very
important in the study of calculus. We will be see limits in a variety of places once we
move out of this chapter. In particular we will see that limits are part of the formal
definition of the other two major topics. Here is a quick listing of the material that will be
covered in this chapter.

3.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT

Objectives
At the end of this section, students should able to:
 Define informal definition of limit;
 Define formal definition of limit;
 Use definition to show that the limit of at is L;
 Find a non-existence of limit.

Definition 3.1: Let be defined on an open interval about except possibly at itself.
If gets arbitrarily close to (as close to L as we like) for all sufficiently close to
we say that approaches the limit as approaches and we write

which is read “the limit of as approaches is ”.

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Essentially, the definition says that the values of ) are close to the number whenever x
is close to (on either side of ). This definition is “informal” because phrases like
arbitrarily close and sufficiently close are imprecise: Their meaning depends on the
context.

Example 1: The behavior of a function near a point.

How does the function behave near x = 1?

Solution: The given formula defines ƒ for all real numbers except (since we
cannot divide by zero). For any x we can simplify the formula by factoring the
numerator and canceling common factors:

The graph of ƒ is thus the line with the point (1, 2) removed. This removed point is shown
as a “hole” in Figure 3.1. Even though is not defined, it is clear that we can make the
value of ƒ as close as we want to 2 by choosing close enough to 1 and we say that
approaches the limit 2 as approaches 1 and we write,

The graph of is identical with the line except at where is not defined.
Example 2: The identity and constant functions have limits at every point. If is the
identity function , then for any value of (Figure 3. 2).

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If is the constant function (function with the constant value k), then for any
value of (Figure 3.3)

Now that we have gained some insight into the limit concept, working intuitively with the
informal definition, we turn our attention to its precise definition. We replace vague
phrases like “gets arbitrarily close to” in the informal definition with specific conditions
that can be applied to any particular example. With a precise definition we will be able to
prove conclusively the limit properties given in the preceding section, and we can establish
other particular limits important to the study of calculus.
To show that the limit of ) as equals the number L, we need to show that the gap
between ) can be made “as small as we choose” if x is kept “close enough” to
arbitrary number.
Definition 3.2 (Formal Definition of Limits)
Let be a function defined at each point of some open interval containing possibl at
itself,then umber L is the limit of as approaches (or is the limit of f at ) if for
every number there is a number such that

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.
If is the limit of ) as approaches then we write

If such an can be found we say that the limit of at exists or that has a limit at or that
exists.
Let us look at the following graph and let us also assume that the limit does exist

What the definition is telling us is for any number that we pick we can go to our
graph and sketch two horizontal lines at as shown on the graph above.
Then somewhere out here in the world is another number 0. Which we will need to
determine that will allow us to add in two vertical lines to our graph at .
Now, if we take any in the vertical strip, between , then this will be
close to than either of and or . If we now identify the point on
the graph that our choice of gives, then this point on the graph will lie in the intersection
of the horizontal and vertical strip. This means that, this functional value of will be
close to than either of and or . So, if we take value of in the
horizontal strip then the graph for those values of will lie in the vertical strip.
Notice that there are actually an infinite number of ’s that we can choose. In fact, if we go
back and look at the graph above it looks like we could have taken slightly large and still
gotten the graph from that horizontal strip to be completely contained in the vertical strip.
Example 1: Use the definition of limit to prove the following limit

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Solution: We need to show that given then there exists such that

To choose an appropriate we start with then we have

|5x- 
Now we can Choice

Assum and we have

=5 2

Therefore,

Example 2: Show that

Solution: Let be given we need tofind a such that

Equivalently,
if then
⁄
It is enough to let because
⁄ 2 ⁄ 2
if then x
This proves that
Example 3: Prove that
Solution:
I. Guessing a value for .
Let be given, we have to find a number a >0 such that
if then
To connect with we write Then we want
if then .
Notice that if we can find a positive constant C such that then

And we can make by taking . We can find such a number

if we restrict to lie in some interval centered at 3. Infact, since we are interested only
in values of that are close to 3, it is reasonable to assume that is within a distance 1

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from 3, that is , then so Thus we have

, and so is a suitable choice for the constant But now there are two restrictions on
namely
and

To make sure that both of these inequalities are satisfied , we take to be the small of the

two numbers 1 and . The notation for this is { }

II. Showing that this works .

Given , let { } . If

Then  (as in part I). We also have

, so

This shows that

Example 4: Show that

Solution: Referring to the quarter of the unit circle in figure 3.5, along with the
accompanying line segments, we see that . So that

for .

Since and hence it follows that

for .Consequently

…………………… (1)
Now let , let be any positive number less than both and . From (1), it follows

that if , then .
We conclude that
To show that , observe form figure 3.5 that
For . Since , it follows that

for ….…………………. (2)

Now let , let be any positive number less than both and . From (2) we find,

if , then . We conclude that

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Next, we present an example of a function that does not have a limit at a certain point. For
a function f not to have a limit at a means that for every real number L, the statement “ is
the limit of at ” is false. What does it mean for that statement to be false?
Definition 3.3 (Negation of the Existence of a Limit)
“ is the limit of at ” means that for every there is a number such that
if then
For this statement to be false there must be some such that for every it is false
that
if then
But to say that ( ) is false is the same, as to say that there must be a number such that
then
Thus to say that the statement is false is the same as to that there is some
such that for every there is a number satisfying
then
Example 5: Let be defined by

has no limit at 0.
Solution: Let be any number. We will prove that the statement “ is the limit of at ”
is false by letting and showing that for any there is an satisfying

– and –

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CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

Let be any positive number. If – , then we let and note that so

that

| | | |

If then we let ⁄ and note that so that

– | |

In either case we have shown that for any there is an satisfying

– and –
Therefore has no limit at .

Exercise

1. Use definition proves the following limits.

a)
b) √ =3 f)
c) √ √ If g)

d). h)

i) [ |√ √ | ]
√ √

2. Find the number such that

a) If , then where
b) Repeat part (a) with

3.Let { . Prove that does not exist.

3.2 Basic Limit Theorems

Objectives
By the end of this section, students will able to:
 State some limit theorems;
 Find the limit of function by using limit theorems;
 Apply Squeezing Theorem to find limits of some functions.

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Even if we have developed important techniques of solving limit problems by using the
formal definition, by now we have realized that it is not that easy to use this definition to
solve each and every problem. Nevertheless, the student had encountered in his or her
earlier studies of calculus rather easy ways of evaluating limits by the help of different
rules. Here we state and prove some of them by using definition 3.2 and use those to
evaluate more complex limit cases.
Theorem 3.4:
i. If the limit of a function at exists, then this limit is unique.
ii. If and are both limits of at then
Theorem 3.5: Assume that l exist and c is any constant.
Then
1.
2.
3. .
4.

5. If exist then .

6. where n is a positive integer.

7.
8.
9. where n is a positive integer
10. √ =√ where n is positive integer (if n is even. We assume that a>0)
11. √ √ where n is positive integer (if n is even. We assume
that
Proof: We are going to proof only the first one the other properties are left as an exercise
to the reader.
Let

Le t given. We want to find a positive number such that for all



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Regrouping terms, we get

By triangle inequality. Since there exists a number such that for

all x
then

Similarly, since , there exists a number such that for all x

then .

Let { } the smaller of if

So and hence . Therefore,

This shows that

Example 1: Evaluate the following limits and justify each step.

a. b.

Solution:
By law 1 and 2
=2 by 3
by 9,7 and 7

b. (by law 5)

(By 1, 2 and 3)

(By 9, 8 and 7

Direct substitution property

If is a polynomial or a rational function and is in the domain of . Then

A function with the direct substitution property is called continuous at However, not all
limits can be evaluated by direct substitution as the following examples show.

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Example 2: Find

Solution: Let ⁄ . We can’t find the limit by substitution

because isn’t defined nor can we apply the quotient rule because the limit of the
denominator is 0. Instead, we need to do some preliminary algebra. We factor the
numerator as a difference of square:

The numerator and denominator have a common factor of . When we take the limit as
approaches 1, we have and so . Therefore, we can cancel the common
factor and compute the limit as follows:

=
Example 3: Find where

Solution: Here is defined at and but the value of a limit as

approaches 1 does not depend on the value of the function at 1, since
for , we have

Example 4: Evaluate the following limits.

a. √

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Solution: a. by the sum theorem, we have

b. From the constant multiple theorems we find that.

√ √ √

c. By the product theorem and we conclude that

d. By the quotient Theorem along the results of part (a)and(c), we find that

Activitiy: Evaluate the following limits.

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑒𝑥

Note:
Another widely used form equivalent to is
(1)
and this is obtained by replacing by .
Using the sum and constant multiple theorems and (1) we can show that the sine cosine
functions have limits at any number.
Example 5:Show that for any number a, and
Solution: Using the trigonometric identities
(2)
(3)
We will prove that and beginning with the sine
function, from (2) it follows that

For the cosine function we use (3) and find that

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The other trigonometric functions also have the property that the limit at a point in the
domain by evaluating the function at . Thus

Although the quotient theorem does not guarantee the existence of , when

, sometimes it is still possible to evaluate such limits.

Theorem 3.6 (Substitution Theorem for limits)
Suppose for all in some open interval about with the
possible exception of itself. Suppose also that exists. Then
( ) .

Proof: Let Suppose =L, then there is a such that

if Then (1)
Since , there is a such that
if , then
By hypothesis, may be chosen so small that if , then f
Thus,
if .
Hence by (1) | ( ) |
Consequently ( )

Example 6: Find √
Solution: Let y is the expression since approaches 1 as x approaches 0, it
follows those y approaches 1, and we have
√ = √ 1.
Example 7:

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Find

Solution: Let y is the expression . Since approaches as x approaches

. It follows that y approach , so we have

⁄ )= ⁄ = ⁄ =0

Activities :
Find the following limits

⁄ b) ⁄ √ c) √

Theorem 1.7 (squeezing theorem)

Assuming that for all x in the some open interval I about a
except possible itself. If , Then exists

Example 8: Show that .

Solution: We can consider as product of and , but we cannot use product

rule because does not exists, since the value of the function lies in the

interval it follows that

for

Multiplying by non negative number yeild

Let , and . Now,

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and .
That is
.

Hence by Squeezing Theorem the limit of exists and

Therefore,
.

Example 9: Show that

=1

Solution: Using figure 3.8 we obtain the following equations which are valid for
.

Area of triangle OPA .

Area of sector OPA (area of circle) .

Area of triangle OAT

It is geometrically clear that

Area of triangle OAP area of sector OAP area of triangle OAT
Thus

so that

Separately, the first and the second inequalities yield

and (1)

Combining the inequality in (1) and use the fact that

and

we obtain

, for

Since it follows from the squeezing theorem that

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exists and 1

Exercises

1. Given that
Find the limits if exist.If the limit does not exist, explain why.

a) d)

b) e) √

c) √ f)

2. Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate limit laws.
√
a) e) √

b) f)

c) g) √
d) ( √ )
3. Evaluate the limit if it exists.

a) e)

b) f) √

c) g) ( )

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√
d) h)

4. Find the limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why.

a) e) ( )

b) f)

c) ( ) g) and

d) h)

5. Let {

a) Find and
b) Does exist?

6. Let . then find and

7. Use the squeeze Theorem to show that

√ b) c)

1.3. One Sided Limits

Objectives
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 Find one sided limit;
 Find the right hand side limit;
 Find the right hand side limit.
To have a limit L as approaches , a function f must be defined on both sides of and its
values f(x) must approaches L as approaches from either side. Because of
this,ordinary, limits are called two-sided.
If fails to have a two-sided limit at , it may still have a one sided limit, that is ,a limit if
the approaches is only from one side. If the approaches is from the right, the limit is right-
hand limit. From the left, it is a left-hand limit.
Example 1: one-side limit for simecircle
The domain of √ is [-2,2], its graph is the semicircle in figure 1.9, we have

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√ and √
The function does not have a left hand limit at a right hand limit at x It
does not have ordinary two sided limits at either -2 or 2.

Definition 3.8:
a ) Let 𝑓 be defined on some open interval A number L is the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as
approaches 𝑎 from the right (or the right-hand limit of 𝑓 at 𝑎) if for every ε there
is a number δ such that
𝑥 𝑎 𝛿 then 𝑓 𝜀.
In this case, we write 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝐿.
b) Let 𝑓 be defined on some open interval 𝑐 𝑎 A number L is the limit of 𝑓 𝑥) as
𝑥 approaches a from the left (or the left-hand limit of 𝑓 at 𝑎 ) if for every ε there is
a number δ such that
if –δ 𝑥 𝑎 then 𝑓 𝑥 𝐿 𝜀
In this case we write 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝐿

Thus the symbol and means that we consider only

respectively.

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Example 2: Prove that √ =0

Solution: Let be given, here xo 0 and L 0, so we want to find a such that for
all implices √ < or
then √
Squaring both sides of this last inequality gives if
If we choose we have implices √ or implices
that |√ |

According to definition, this shows that √ =

Example 3: Show that ⁄ has no limit as approaches zero from either side.
Solution: As approaches zero its reciprocal, ⁄ , grows without bound and the values
of ⁄ cycle repeatdly from to . There is no single number L such that
function`s values stay increasing close to approaches zero. This is true even if we restrict
to positive values or to negative values. The function has neither a right-hand limit nor a
left-hand limit at

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From figure 1.12 we see that ⁄ has neither a right-hand nor a left-hand limit as
approaches zero.
Theorem 3.9: Let be defined on an open interval about except possible at it self.
Then if and only if both one sided
limits, exists and
In this case

Example 1: Show that

Solution: Recall that

Since
For , we have and so
Therefore, by Theorem 3.9

Example 2: Let {

find .
Solution: since and by theorem 3.9 we have

Hence =5

Example 3: Prove that does not exist.

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Solution : . And

Since the right and the left limits are different, it follows that from theorem 1.9 that

does not exist.The graph of the function ⁄ is shown in Figure

3.14 supports the one-sided limits that we found.

Example 4: The greatest integer function is defined by ⟦ ⟧ the largest integer
that is less than or equal to . (For instance, ⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧ ⟦√ ⟧

⟦ ⟧ ). Show that ⟦ ⟧ does not exist.

Solution: The graph of the greatest integer function is shown in Figure 3.15
For we have.
⟦ ⟧

Since ⟦ ⟧ for we have ⟦ ⟧

Because of one side limits are not equal. ⟦ ⟧ does not exist by Theorem 3.9.

Exercises

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1. Let {

Then evaluate the limit,if it exists.

a) b) c)
d) f
2. If n is an integer ,evaluate.
a) ⟦ ⟧ b) ⟦ ⟧ c) ⟦ ⟧
3. Which of the following statements about the function sketched in figure 3.16
are true, and which are false?

e) i)

f) j)

c) exists g) k) does not exist.

d) h) l)

3.4- Infinite limits, limit at infinity and asymptotes

Objectives
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 Find infinite limits;
 Find limits at infinity;
 Find infinite limits at infinity;
 Use the limit to find asympotes of function.

3.4.1 Limit at Infinity

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Now we consider the limit of as becomes larger and larger in absolute value. Here we
see precise definition of limit.

Definition 3.10
a) if for every ε there is a number M such that
if 𝑀 then 𝜀
b) if for every ε 0 there is a number N such that
if 𝑁, 𝜀

The symbol for infinity does not reprsent a real number. We use to describe the
behavior of a function when the values in its domain or range out grow all finite bounds.
For example, the function ⁄ is define for all (Figure 3.17). When is
positive and becomes increasingly large, ⁄ becomes increasingly small. When is
negative and its magnitude becomes increasingly large. ⁄ again becomes small. We
summarize these observation by saying ⁄ at infinity and negatve infinity.

Example 1: Show that ⁄ b ⁄

Solution: a. Let be given. We must find a number M such that for all ,

implices | | | |

The implication will hold if ⁄ or any large positive number.This proves

⁄

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b. Let be given. We must find a number N such that for all implices

| | | | This implication will hold if ⁄ or any less than ⁄ . This

prove ⁄

Example 2: Show that and

Solution: Let To show that we must find an M such that

If then | | | | , but then if then

√

Therefore we let and conclude that

√

To show that we simple choose then and thus

√

if then | | | |

This proves that

Definition 3.11: Horizontal Asymptote

A line is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function if either
or

In the above examples that is the horizontal asymptote of the graphs of ⁄ and

⁄ .

Example 3:

Let’s begin by investigating the behavior of the function defined by .

As grows larger and larger you can see that the values of get closer and closer to 1
(figure 3.18). In fact ,it seems that we can make the values of as close we like 1 by
taking sufficient large.This situation is expressed symolically by writing

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The curve illustrated in Figure 18 has the line as a horizontal asymptote because

Theorem 3.12 If is a rational number, then

if is a rational number such that is defined for all , then

To determine the limit of a rational function as , we can divide the numerator and
denominator by the highest power of in the denominator.Then depends on the degrees of
the polynomails involved. Example 4 Numerator and denominator of the same degree.
Example 4: Evaluate

and indicate which properties of limits are used at each stage.

Solution:
To evaluate the limit at infinity of any rational function ,we first divide both the numerator
and denominator by the highest power of that occurs in the denominator. (We may
assume that , since we are interested only in large values of ).
In this case the highest power of in the denominator is , so we have

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( )
(by limit law 5)
( )

(by limit laws1,2 and 3)

Example 5: Evaluate

(√ )

Solution: Because both √ and are large when is large, it is difficult to see what
happens to their difference, so we use algebra to rewrite the function. We first multiply
numerator and denominator by the conjugate radical.
√
(√ ) (√ )√

√ √
now divide numerator and denominator by √ for

√ √

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Theorem 3.13
If L, M and K are real number and
and , then
1. Sum Rule:
2. Difference Rule:
3. Product Rule:
4. Constant Multiple Rule:

5. Quotient Rule: , M

6. Power Rule: if r and s are integers with no common factors,s .then

⁄ ⁄

⁄
provided that is real number.(If s is even we assume that .)

Example 6: Using theorem 3.13

a. Sum rule

known limits
√
b. √ x

√ product rule

3.4.2 Infinite Limits at Infinity

The notation
is used to indicate that the values of become large as becomes large. Similar
meanings are attached to the following symbols.

Example 7: Find and .

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Solution: When x becomes large, also becomes large, For instance.

In fact ,we can make as big as we like by taking large enough.

Therefore we can write

Similarly, when is large negative, so is . Thus

Definition 3.14. Let be a function defined on some interval . Then

Means that for every positve number M there is a corresponding positve number N
such that
If
Similar definition apply when the symbol is replace by

3.4.3 Infinite Limits

Infinite limits can also be defined in a precise way. Let us look again at the function
as the values of grow with out bound, that is

And as , the values of become negative, that is

Example 8: Find and

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Geomeric solution: The graph of is the graph of shifted 1 unit to the

right (see Figure 3.21) therefore be haves near 1 exactly the way y behaves

near 0.
=

Example 9: discuss the behavior of th functions

a. near

b. near

Solution:
a. As appraoches zero from either side,the values of are positive and

become arbitrarily large.We write

b. The graph of is the graph of shifted 3 units to the left

(Figure 3.22).Therefore behaves near exactly the way behaves near 0.

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Instead of requiring to lie arbitrarily close to a finite for all sufficiently close to ,
the definition of infinte limits require to arbitrarily far from the origin. Except for this
change, the langauge is identical with what we have seen before.
Definetion 3.15 (Precise definition of infinite limits).
Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number except
possible at itself. Then

means that for vevery positve number M there is positve number such that
whenver

This says that the values of can be made arbitrarily large (larger than any given
Number taking close enough to (within a distance , where depends on , but
with ). A geometric illustration is shown in Figure 3.23.
Given any horizontal line , we can find a number such that if we restrict to lie in
the interval but , then the curve lies above the line .
You can see that if a larger is chosen, then a smaller may be required.

Example 10: Use the definition to prove that

Solution: 1. guessing a value for . Given that , we want to find such that

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Whenever

That is whenever

or whenever work
√

This suggests that we should take ⁄√ .

2. Showing that this works. If is given. Let ⁄√ . If
Then 

Thus Whenever

Therefore, .

Definition 3.16: Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains
the number except possibly at itself. Then

means that for every negative number here is a positive number such that

Notice that the distance between a point on the graph of ⁄ and the y-axis approaches
zero as the point moves vertically along the graph and away from the origin

We say the line is the vertical asympote of the graph of ⁄ .

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Definition 3.17: A line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function

if either or .

Remark: If a function has a vertical asymptote at then is not continuous at

Exercises

1. Determine the infinite limit.

b) c)

e) f) ⁄

i)
√

√
( √ )

2. Let P and Q be polynomials. Find

a) If the degree of P is less than the degree of Q

b) If the degree of P is greater than the degreeof Q
3. Use the definition to prove that

4. Find all vertical asymptotes .

a) f b) f
√

d) f e) f f)

3.5. Continuity; one- sided continuity

Objectives
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 Define continuity of a function;

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 Define one-sided continuity of a function;

 Distinguish continuous function on any given interval.
We noticed that the limit of a function as approaches can often be found simply by
calculating the value of the function at . Functions with this property are called continuous
at . We will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds closely with
the meaning of the word continuity in everyday language. (A continuous process is one that
takes place gradually, without interruption or abrupt change).
Definition 3.18 A function is continuous at a number if

Notice that definition 3.18 requires three properties if is continuous at

1. is defined (that is , is in the domain of )
2. exists.
3.

If a function is not continuous at a point c, we say that is discontinuous at c and c is a

point of discontinuos of .
A function is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at point in its
domain if . It is left-continuous(continuous from the left )
at c if . Thus a function is continuous at a left end point of its
domain if it is right -continuous at and continuous at a right end point of it is domain
if it is left continuous at A function is continuous at an interior point of its domain if
and only if it is both right-continuous and left-continuous at .
Example 1:

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The function √ is continuous at every point of its domain ,

,including . Where is right-continuous, and where is left-continuous.

Figure 3.26 shows an example of function that is continuous at every point on its domain
Example 2: Figure 3.27 shows the graph of a function At which number is
discontinuous?

Solution: It looks as if there is a discontinuity where because the graph has a break
there. The main reason that is discontinuous at 1 is that is not defined.The graph
also has a break when , but the reason for the discontinuity is different. Here, is
defined , but does not exist (because the left and right limits are different). So
is discontinuouts at 3. What about Here, is defined and exist
(because the left and right limits are the same). But, So is
discontinuous at 5
Class activity
Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

a. b. { if c. {

Definition 3.19 (One Sided Continuity)

i. A function is continuous from AKSUM
By: GEBRE GEBRETSADIK
the right at a number 𝑎 f
UNIVERSITY 𝑥 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎 .
ii. A function is continuous from the right at a number 𝑎 f 𝑥 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎 .
34
CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

Example 3: At each integer n, the function ⟦ ⟧ is continuous from the right but

Definition 3.20 A functions is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every

number in the interval. (If is defined only on one side of an end point of the interval,
we understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or
continuous from the left ).

A continuous functions need not be continuous on every interval. For example ⁄ is

not continuous on [-1,1] (Figure 3.28), but it is continuous at its domain .

The function ⁄ is continuous at every values of except . It has a point of

discontiniuty at .
Theorem 3.21: properties of continuous function at
If the functions and are continuous at then the following combinations are
continuous at
1. Sum:
2. Differences:
3. Product:
4. Constant multiple: for any number k
5. Quotients : ⁄ provided

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⁄
6. Power: , provided it is defined on an open interval containig c,
where and are integer.

Proof: by the limit rules

To proof the sum property we have

sum rule theorem.

= continuity of at
=
This show that is continuous.
It follows from theorem 3.21 and definition 3. 20 that if and are continuous on an
intervals, then so are the functions if g is never zero 0) ⁄
Theorem 3.22
a. Any polynomial is continuous every where, that is continuous on
b. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined, that is continuous on
its domain.

Proof:
a. A polynomail is a function of the form:

are constants. We know that

(by law 7)
And
(by law 9)
This equation is precisely the statement that the function is a continuous
function. Thus by part 3 of theorem 3.21 the function is continuous.Since
is a sum of function of this form and a constant funcition. It follow from part 1 of the
theorem 3.21 that is continuous.
b) A rational function is a function of the form

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where P and Q are polynomails.The domain of is { }. We know

from part ( a) that P and Q are continuous every where. Thus, by part 5 of Theorem
3.21 is continuous at every number in D.

Example 4: Find

Solution: The function

is rational, so by theorem 3.22 it is continuos on it domain, which is { }.

Another way of combining continuous functions and to get a new continuous function
is to form the composite function this fact is a consequence of the following theorem.
Theorem 3.23 If is continuous at and

Theorem 3.24 tells us that the composite of two continuous functions at a given number is
continuous.
Theorem 3.24
If 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎 and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑔 𝑎 , then the composite 𝑓𝑜𝑔 given
by 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 is continuous at 𝑎

Example 5: where are the following functions continuous?

a) b)

Solution:
a. Let and , we have
Now is continuous on since it is polynomial and is continuous everywhere. Thus
is continuous on by theorem 3.24.
b. We know from theorem 3.22 that is continuous and
(because and continuous). Therefore by Theorem 3.24
is continuous, where it is defined. Now is defined when . So it
is undefined when and this is happened when . Thus is
discontinuous when is an odd multiple of and is continuous on the intervals between
these values.

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Definition 3.25
a) A function is continuous on ,if it is continuous at every point in
b) A function is continuous on , if it is continuous on , and is also continuous
from the right at and continuous from the left at b.

Exercises

1.Write an equation that expresses the fact that a function if continuous at the number
4.
2. If is continuous on ,what can you say about its graph?
3. a) From figure 3.29. State the number at which is discontinuous and explain why.
b) For each of the numbers stated in part (a) determine whether is continuous from
the right, or from the left ,or neither.

4. Determine whether is continuous or discontinuous at .if is discontinuous, determine

whether is continuous from the left at , is continuous from the right at .

√ √

5. Find the values for the constant k, that makesthe following functions are continuous at
or continuous every where.

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CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

a) { b) {

{ d) {

e) {

6. If and are continuous functions with and

3.6- Intermediate value theorem

Objectives
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 State Intermediate value Theorem;
 Use the intermedaite value Theorem to show that there is a root of the given
equation in the specified interval.

Functions that are continuous on intervals have properties that make them particularly
useful in mathematics and its applications. One of these is the Intermediate Value Property.
A function is said to have the Intermediate Value Property if whenever it takes on two
values, it also takes on all the values in between.

Theorem 3.26 (Intermediate Value Theorem)

Suppose that 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval 𝑎 𝑏 and let N be any number
between 𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑏 where 𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 𝑏 . Then there exists a number c in 𝑎 𝑏
such that 𝑓 𝑐 𝑁

The intermediate value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on every
intermediate value between the functional values and It is illustrated by Figure
3.30 below. Note that the value N can be taken on once [as in part (a)] or more than once
[as in part (b)].
If we think of a continuous function as a function whose graph has no hole or break, then it
is easy to believe that the intermediate value theorem is true. In geometric terms it says that

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CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

if any horizontal line is given between and as in Figure 1.32,

then the graph of cannot jump over the line.it must intersect somewhere.

The intermediatevalue theorem is not true in general for discontinuous functions.

One use of the intermediate value theorem is in locating roots of equations as in the
following example.
Example 1: Show that the expression has at least one root between 1
and 2.
Solution: Let we are lookig for a solution of the given
equation , that is a number c between 1 and 2 such that . Therefore ,we take
and by the theorem, we have

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Thus ; that is is a number between .Now is

continuous since it is polynomial, so the intermediate value theorem says there is a number
c between 1 and 2 such that .
In other words, the equation has at least one root c in the
interval ,

Summary

I. Let be a function defined at each point of some open interval containing possibly at
itself, then a number L is the limit of as approaches (or is the limit of at ) if
for every number there is a number such that
then .
If is the limit of ) as approaches then we write

If such an L can be found we say that the limit of at exists or that has a limit at or
that exists.

II. For real number and and function

 , right-hand limit
 , left-hand limit
 If , then it is said that has limit at
or the limit of exists at and is expressed as

 If the limit of a function exist, then it unique.

III. Limit at and infinite limit
 limit at infinity
In this case, the line is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of
 , infinite limit

In this case, the line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of If , we have

 , and

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IV. A function is continuous at a point if:

V. If is continuous on , and have opposite signs, then there is at

least one number such that

Review Exercises

1. Using Prove the following limits

a) b) c)

d) If then e) ( √ )

f)
√

2. Find the limits of the following.

a) Where and and where

b) c) d)

e) (√ √ )
√
f) g) (√ )

h)
3. Find two function and such that does not exist but

exists.
4. Then find
, provided that the limits exist at
5. Explain why the function is discontinuous at the given number
a)

b) {

c {

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CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

6. Show that the number at which the function

is discontinuous?At which of these points is continuous from the right, from the left.
7. For what value of the constant c is the function continuous on (

8. Find the values of and that make continuous every where.

{
9. Show that is continuous on (

a) {
√

b) {

10.Use the intermedaite value Theorem to show that there is a root of the given equation in
the specified interval.
a) b) c) ,

d) √ e)

References

1. James Stewart, Calculus early trancedental, 6th ed., Prentice Hall, 2008
2. Howard Anton,Calculus a new horizon, 6th ed., John wiley and Sons Inc
3. Robert Ellis and Denny Gulick, Calculus with analytic geometry, 6th ed, Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 5th ed, 1993
4. Adams, Calculus: A complete course, 5th ed, Addison Wesley, 2003

By: GEBRE GEBRETSADIK AKSUM UNIVERSITY

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CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

5. R. Wrede and M. R. Spiegel, Theory of advanced calculus, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,

2002.
6. A. E. Taylor and W. R. Mann, Advanced calculus, 3rd ed, John-Wiley and Son, INC,
1995.
7. R. T. Smith and R. B. Minton, Calculus concepts and connections, McGram-Hill book
company, 2006
8. D. V. Widder, Advanced calculus, Prentice-Hall, 1979
9. Ross L. Finney et al, Calculus, Addison Wesley, 1995
10. E. J. Purcell and D. Varberg, Calculus with analytic geometry, Prentice-Hall INC.,
1987
11. Lynne, Garner: Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Dellen Publishing Company
12. John A. Tierney: Calculus and Analytic, 4th edition, Allyn and Bacon, Inc. –Boston.
13. Earl W. Swokowski: Calculus with Analytic Geometry, 2nd edition, Prindle, Weber
and Schmidt.
14. Goldstein, L. J., Lay D. C. , and Schneider D. I (1987). Calculus and its applications,
4th, edn, Prentice-Hall, Inc, London
15. Kresying, Advanced Engineering Mathematics.
16. Alan Jeffry , Advanced Engineering Mathematics

CHAPTER-FOUR
DERIVATIVES AND APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
 Define the derivative and differntiability of a function;

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 Find the slope and the equation of the tangent line to the graph of a given function
at a given point;
 State and prove some techniques of differntiation;
 Compute the derivative of a given function;
 To find higher order of derivative of functions.

Introduction

In this chapter,we will discuss the concept of tangent line and normal line to graph of a
function at a given point. With the concept of geometric interpretation of tangent line
to a curve at a point,we will see the formal definition of the derivative of a function at
point ,which will be followed by the derivative of a function at any point along with
the usual notations for the derivative. We will also duscuss the concept of
differentiablility and its relationship to continuity. We will also develop the Chain
Rule to find the derivative of composition of functions. we will also emphasize the
application of the derivative to graphing functions. We will learn how to determine
where the graph of a differentiable function rise and where it falls: where it has peak
and where it has valleys: where it curves upward and where it curves downward. The
concepts we will introduce have application not only to graphing functions but also to
problems in such widely varying areas.

4.1- Definition of derivatives; basic rules

Objectives:
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 Develop formulas to differentiate different types of functions;
 Find the derivatives of functions using an appropriate method.

Definition 4.1: Let be a number in the domain of a function If

(1)

exists, we call this limit the derivative of at and write it , so that

(2)

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If the limit in (2) exists, we say that has a derivative at and is defferentiable at or
that exists.
The derivative of a function at a point can also be defined as

if this limit exists.

Formula (3) is obtained by replacing by and by in formula (2).
Example 1: Find the derivative of the function at a number
Solution: From definition 2.1 we have

Differentaible functions

The derivative of function may or may not exist at particular point . If the limit in (3) fails
to exist, say at we say is not differentaible at
Definition 4.2: Let a function be defined in open interval containig the point c. The
function is differentaible at c if and only if the derivative exists. If is differentaile
at every point of its domain we say simply that is differentaible.
Example 2: Let Then determine the set of values of for which is
differentaible.
Solution:
Let

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Since this expression is defined for every real number , is defferentaible in the whole
real line.
Theorem 4.3: If differentaible at point , then it is continuous at
Proof: To prove that is continuous at , we have to show that .
We do this by showing that the difference approaches 0.
The given information is that is differentiable at , that is

exists. Now divide and multiply by (which we can do when )

Taking the limit on both side of equation, we get

Therefore, is continuous at .
The converse of this theorem is not true ; that is ,there are functions that are continuous at a
point but not differentaible at that point.
Example 3: Show that the function is continuous at 0, but not differentiable at .
Solution: The function continuous at 0, since

If we compute the derivetive, we obtain

For

And for

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does not exists, because the right and the left hand side limits are not

equal. Therefore, is not differentaible at

Notation: Alternative notations for of a function , ,

etc.

Exircses

1. Find
a) b) c)

d) e) f) f(x

g)
√
h) √

2. Each limit represents the derivative of some function at some number . State such an
and in each case.
√
a) b) c) ⁄

d) e) f)

3. Determine whether

4. Given {

Show that :
a) is continuous for all values of
b) is differentiable for all value of
c) is not continuous at

Tangent Lines
Activity
Q1.What is a tangent line? a normal line?

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Q2. Is any line that touches a curve at one point a tangent line?
For circle, tangency is striaght forward. A line L is tangent to a circle at a point P if L
passes through P perpendicular to the raduis at P (Figure 4.1). Such a line just touches the
circle. But what does it mean to say that a line L is tangent to some other curve C at a
Point P? Generalizing from the geometry of the circle, we might say that it means one of
the following:
1. L passes through P perpendicular to the line from P to the center of C.
2. L passes through only one point of C, namely P.
3. L passes through P and lies on one side of C only.

L Passes through P perpendicular to radius OP.

Most curves do not have centers, and a line we may want to call tangent may intersect C at
other points or cross C at point of tangency (Figure 4.2).

In this section, we make use of limit concept to find the equation of a line tangent to the
graph of a function at a given point.
Definition 4.4: The tangent line to the curve at the point is the line
through p with slope

(4)

provided that this limit exists.

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Example 1:
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola at the point .
Solution: Here we have and , so the slope is

Using the point slope form of the equation of the line, we find that an equation of the
tangent line at is or
There is another expression for the slope of tangent line that is sometimes easier to use.
Let so that
So the slope of the secant line PQ is

See Figure 4.3 where the case is illustrated and Q is to the right of P. If it happened
that However, Q would be to the left of P.
Notice that as approaches approaches (because so that the expression
for the slope of the tangent line in definition 4.4 becomes

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Example 2:
Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola ⁄ at the point
Solution: Let ⁄ . Then the slope of tangent at is

Therefore, the equation of the tangent at the point (3,1) is

which simplifies to
Definition 4.5: The slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function at
is equal to
the derivative of at
The geometric interpretion of a derivative is shown in Figure 4.4.

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If we use the point - slope form of the equation of a line, we can write an equation of the
tangent line to the curve at the point (

Example 3: Find the equation of the tangent line to the parabola at the
point (3,-6).
Solution: We know that the derivetive of at the number is
. Therefore, the slope of the tangent line at (3,-6) is

Thus, the equation of the tangent line to the parabola is:

Definition 4.6: Let be continuous at . If

Then we say that the graph of has a vertical tangent line at . In that case the
vertical line is called the line tangent to the graph of at .

Example 4:
⁄
Let . Show that the graph of has vertical tangent line at and find an
equation for it.
Solution: We observe that is continuous at 0 an d that
⁄
⁄

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By definition 2.6 the graph has a vertical tangent line at and an equation of the
tangent is

Normal Lines

Definition 4.7: A line is said to be normal to a curve at point P, if it is perpendicular to the

tangent line at P.

If the tangent line has slope then the normal line will have slope , and the

equation of the normal line to the curve at is given by

It is clear that if the tangent line is horizontal then the normal lne will be vertical, and vice
varsa.
Example 5: Find the equation of the normal line to the function at
Solution: Let us compute the slope of the tangent line to the curve at . This is done in
the following ways.

= .

That is , so the normal line is will have slope , hence the equation

of normal line is

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Or

Execises

1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point
a) using definition 1
b) using equation 3
2. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve given point.

a) ,
b) √ ,
c) ⁄ , (3,2)
d) ⁄ ,

3. a) Find the slope of the tangent to curve ⁄ at the point .

b) Find the slope of the tangent lines at the point whose x-coordinates ar
, and
4. Compute tangent line if it exists for each curve at the given value of a.
⁄
a) b) c) any

d) any e) f)

5. Find the equation of tangent line if it exists to the given curve at given point .
a) , b) , c) ,

d) √ , e) , f)
√

g) ,( )

6. Explian why there is no tangent line to the given curve at the given point.
⁄
a) , b) √ , c)

d) e) f) ,

7. Find the equation for the normal line to the given curve at the given point.

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⁄
a) , ( ⁄ ⁄ ) b) , c) √ , (

d) , e) ( f) √ , (√ √ )

Basic Rules of Derivatives

Here, we will discuss rules stated as theorems that help us differentiate combinations of
functions. The proofs of these theorems depend mainly on the appropriate limit theorems.

Rule 1 :Derivative of constant function.

If has the constant value , then

Example 1: Let

Similarly,

Rule 2: Power rule

If n is nonnegative integer and , then is defferentaible on the set of real

numbers and is given by
Proof: when , then thus is constant function , and

When n is any positive integer ,then we have form the definition of derivative

By the binomial expansion theorem, we have

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so that

.
Therefore

Example 1: Let Then find .

Solution: By the power rule we obtain .

The power rule (general version)

If n is any real number , then .

Activities: Differentiate
a. b. √ c. d)
√

Rule 3: The constant multiple

If c is a constant and is differentaible function, then .

Proof: Let , then

Example 2:

Rule 4 : Sum rule

If the functions and are differentiate at a point a, then so are and and
1 sum rule
difference rule

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Proof
1. Using the limit theorem , we find that

Proof of 2 is similar with that of 1.

This can also be extended to finite number differetaible function as:
.
Class activities: Find the derivative of
a. b. c.

Rule 5 :The product rule

If are differentaible, then the product is differentailble, and

+
Proof: Let . We need to show that F is differentaible by finding its
derivative.

Now, and

Since is differentaible it is continuous so

Therefore by limit theorem ,we have +

Example 3:
a) Let then find
b) then find ,
Solution: a) Let and so that
By product rule, we have

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+h = 2x
4 + =6
b) By product rule we have

Rule 6: The quotient rule

If are differentaibe at , and then ⁄ is differentaible at

Proof : Since exists by hypothesis, it follows that is continuous at so that

, because by hypothesis.
Therefore, ⁄ is defined throught some open interval about , and the following limits
exist:
⁄ ⁄
⁄

( ) ( )

Therefore,

Example 4: . Then find .

Solution:

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( )

Rule 7: Reciprocal rule

If is differentaible function, then is differentaible whenever it is defined, and

[ ]

Activities.
Differentaite the following function.

a. b. c.

We smmarize the differentiation formulas we have learned so far as follows.

1. 4. ( 7.

2.( 5. ( )

3.( f 6.

Exercises

1. Find the derivative of in two ways: by using the product Rule and
performing the multiplication first. Do your ansewrs agree?
2. Find the derivative of the function
√
√
In two ways:by using the Quotient Rule and by simplifing first. Show that your answers are
equivalent.Which method do you prefer?

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3. Differentiate.
a) f)

b) g)

c) h) ( )

d) √ i) ( √ )

e) j)

4. Suppose that , and then find the following

values.
a) b) ⁄ c) ⁄
5. Suppose that . Find if
a) c)

b) d)

6. If , where ,Find .

7. If and find ( )|

8. Find equation of the tangent line and normal line to the given curve at the specified
point.
√
a) , b) , (

9. If f is a differentiable function, find an expression for the derivative of each of the

following functions.

a) c. b) d)
√

10. Let and ⁄ ,where F and G are the functions

whose graphs are shown.

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Then find;
a) b)

11. Find equations of the tangent lines to the curve

That are parallel to the line .

12. a)Use the poduct Rule twice to prove that if and are differentiable,then

b) Taking in part (a), show that

Derivatives of Polynomial Functions

The constant multiple rule, sum rule the difference rule can be combined with the power
rule to find any polynomial, as the following example.
Example 1: Given the polynomial function , its
derivative is given as

Example 2: Find the horizontal tangents of the curve

Solution: The horizontal tangent, if any, occurs at the points where

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Now solve the equation

Thus, has any horizontal tangent at

the corresponding points on the curve are (0.2),(1,1) and (-1,1) see Figure 2.8.

Derivatives of Rational Functions

The Quotient Rule and the other differentiation formulas enable us to compute the
derivative of any rational function, as the next example illustrates.

Example 3: Let . Then

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Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Activity
1. State and describe the basics of derivatives of trignometric functons.
2. Show that the derivative of is .

In this discussion, we will find the derivatives of all the trignometric functions. There are
six important formulas for differentiating trignometric functons.
Theorem 4.8:
The trignometric functons are differentiable whenever they are defined and
1. 4.

Proof:
1. Using the definition of derivative, we have ,

Notice that and

Therefore,

2. To show (3), we make use of the definition and the quotient rule.

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3. similar with the proof of (3).

4. To prove (5),we use the fact that , and along with the reciprocal rule

( )

5. This can be shown in a similar manner as that of (5).

Example 4:
Differentiate the following functions.
a. b.

Solution:
a. Using the sum and product rule,we get,
(x)=2x
b. Use the product and the quotient rule , we have,

Exercises

1-24 Differentiate the given functions.

1. 2.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10. √ 11. 12.

13. 14 . 15.

16. 17. 18.

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19. 20 . 21.

22. f(x)= 23. 24. √

25. prove that . 26. prove that .

27. prove that .

28. prove ,using the definitionof derivative,that if . Then

29-32 Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point.
29. , ⁄ 30. , 31. ,

32.

33. Let

a) Use the Quotient Rule to differentiate the function

b) Simplify the expression for f(x) by write it in terms of and and then find

c) Show that your answers to parts (a) and (b) are equivalent.

34. Suppose ⁄ and ⁄ and. Let and

. Then find ⁄ and ⁄ .

35. For what values of x does the graph of f have a horizontal tangent?

Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Let us try to find the derivative of the exponential function using the definition
of a derivative .

The factor does not depend on h, so we take it infront of the limit :

Notice that the limit is the value of derivative of at 0 . That is,

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, we have shown that the exponential function is differentiable at 0,

and it is differntaible every where and
.
Example 5: Differentiate
Solution: Here the inner function is and the outer function is the
exponential function . So by Chain Rule ,

( )

We can use chain Rule to differentiate an exponential function with any base
let then and Chain Rule gives

( )

Because is a constant, we have the formula

Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we use implicit differentaition to find the derivatives of the logarithmic
function and in particular, the natural logarithmic function .

Proof: Let then Differentiating this equation implicity with

respect to and using formula (1) we get

and so

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If we put in formula 1, then the factor on the right side becomes and
we get the formula for the derivative of the natural logarithmic function

By comparing formula 1 and 2 ,we see one of the main reasons that natural logarithms
(logarithms with base e) are used in calculus : The differentiation formula is simplest when
become In general , if we combine formula 2 with the chain rule we get

Example 6: Differentiate
Solution: let and now by formula (3) we have

Example 7: Find .

Solution: Using (3),we have

Example 8: Differentiate
Solution: Using formula 1 with , we have

Example 9: Find (x) if

Solution : Since {

It follows that

Thus (x) for all .

The result is

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Logarithmic differentiation

The calculation of deravative of complicated functions involving product, quotient, or

power can often be simplified by taking logarithms. The method used in the following
example is called logarithmic differntiation.
⁄ √
Example 10: differentiate

Solution : We take logarithms of both sides of the equation and use the law of logarithms
to simplify:

Diffentiating implicity with respect to gives

Solving for ⁄ , we get

( )

Because we have an explicit expression for , we can substitute and write

⁄
√
( )

Steps in logarithmic differentiation:

1. Take natural logarithms of both sides of an equation and use the laws of
logarithms to simplify;
2. Differentiate with respect to ;
3. Solve the resulting equation for

The Power Rule:

If n is any real number and , then

(x)
Proof: Let and use logarithmic differntiation:

Therefore

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Hence

Remark:
You should distinguish carefully between the Power Rule [ where the base
is variavble and the exponent is constant, and the rule for differentiating exponential
functions [ where the base is constant and the exponent is variable.
In general there are four cases for exponent and bases:

1. (a and b are constants)

2. (x)

3. [ ]

4. To find , logarithmic differentiation can be used, as in the next

example.

Example 11: Differenttiate √ .

Solution: Using logarithmic differentiation , we have
√
√

√
√

(√ ) √ (√ )
√ √
√ √
Another method is to write ( )

( √ ) ( √ ) √ (√ )

√ ( )
√
Activity:
⁄
Show that

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Note:
If we put ⁄ in the above limit, then as and so an alternative
expression for is

( )

The Chain Rule

Suppose you are asked to differentiate the function

The differentiation formulas that we have learned so far do not enable us to

calculate . Observe that F is a composite function. In fact if we let
and and . We know how to differentiate both and , so it
would be useful to have a rule that tells us how to find the derivative of
in terms of the derivatives of and .

Theorem 4.9 (The chain rule)

If is differentiable at and is differentiable at . Then is differentiable at

, and

( )

The chain rule can be written in the form

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( ( )) ( )

Example 1: Let . Find a formula for .

Solution: Let and Then , since

and we conclude that

Example 2 Find a formula for √ .

Solution: Let √ , √ and , so

and . By chain rule
√

√ ( ) √ √

Activity 3.10

𝒙 𝟐 𝟓
Differentiate a) 𝒍𝒏√𝒙 b) (𝟐𝒙 𝟏) c) 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙

The chain rule assumes a very suggestive form in the Leibniz notation.
Suppose the function and in the chain rule are already given and let

and . Then ( ) and .

Therefore

( ( ))

Or more concisely, 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 (8)

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

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If then we can write where . By using the chain

rule and the power rule we get

Therefore

If n is any real number and is differentiable then

𝑑 𝑛 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 𝑛𝑢𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (9)

Example 3: Let Find

Solution: Put and . Then from (8), it follows that

Example 4: Find if .
√

⁄
Solution: Let and √ . So, and

Then from (8) it follows that

( ) √
⁄
( )

⁄
( )
⁄

Example 5: Suppose the radius of a ballon varies with respect to time according to
the equation . Find the rate of change of the ballon’s volume with respect to
time.
Solution: Let be the volume, then , while by assumption

Therefore (8) tells us that

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The compound chain rule

Activity:
𝟒
Find 𝒌′ 𝒙 where 𝒌 𝒙 √𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙

Let ( ) and is differentiable at , differentiable

at and differentiable at . Since

first application of the chain rule yields

But

So,
Therefore,
𝑘 𝑥 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 (10)

In the formula, the derivative of at the number appears first, then the
derivative of at the number and finally the derivative of at the number .
Example 6: Let . Find and calculate ⁄
Solution: Let and
Then ,
From (9) we have
( )

In particular,
( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
√ √
⁄ ( )

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Exercises

1. Find the derivative of the function

⁄ ⁄
a. d) √
b. √ e)
√
c. f)

2. Write the composite function in the form . Then find

⁄
a. d)
√
b. e) √
c. √
3. Write the composite in the form of ( ) . Then find
⁄
a.
b.
c. √
4. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the given point
a. at the point (0,1)

b. √ , find
5. If , where f'(5)=32 and g'(5)=6,
2 find
6. If ( ) where
and 6 find .
7. If √ where and find

4.2. Derivatives of Inverse Functions

4.2.1. Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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4.2.2. Hyperbolic and Inverse hyperbolic Functions

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Certain combinations of exponential functions and occur in advanced application of

calculus. Their properties are similar in many ways to those of and , they have

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the same relationship to the hyperbola that the trigonometric function have to the circle. For
this reason they are collectivelly called hyperbolic functions and individually called
hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine and so on. We also define the rest of the
hyperbolic functions interms of these functions.
Definition 4.10:

The graphs of hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine can be sketched using graphical
addition as in the Figure belows.
Note that has domain and range . While has domain and range
The hyperbolic functions satisfy a number of identities that are similar to well - known
trigonometric identities. We list some of them here and leave most of the proof as an
exercises.

Hyperbolic Identities

4.

Proof:

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1. Trivial!
2. By definition, we have

( ) ( )

3. Trivial!
4. Left as an exercise

Derivatives of hyperbolic functions

We list the differentiation formula for the hyperbolic functions below. We prove (1) and
(2). The remaining proof are left as exercise.Obserbe that the analogy with the
differentiation formulas for trigonometric functions, but be aware that the signs are
different in some cases.

1. 4.

2. 5.

3. 8.

Proof:

( )

( )

Inverse of hyperbolic functions

It can be seen from their graphs that and are one-to-one functions and so they
have inverse functions denoted by and . But, is not one –to-one.
However, when restricted to the domain it become one-to-one. The inverse
hyperbolic cosine function is defined as the inverse of this restricted function.
iff
iff
iff

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The remaining invese hyperbolic functions are defined similarly.

We can sketch the graphs of ,

Since the hyperbolic functions are definded in terms of exponential funfions ,it is not
surprising to learn that the inverse hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of
logarithms. In particular,we have :
Theorem 4.11:
1. ( √ )

2. ( √ )

3.
√
4. ,

Proof: To pove (1):

In order to derive a formula for we note that ,then by definition

Our aim now is to write as a function of x. Using the quadratic formula and the fact that
,we deduce that
√
√

We can find by taking natural logarithms in ( ) this yeilds

( √ )

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Thus our formula for is

( √ )

The remaining proofs are left as an exercise.

Exercises

1. Differentiate the following function.

a) b) c)

d) e) ( ) f) √

g) h) √ i)

2. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point.
a) b) ,
3. find the numerical value of the expression.
a) b) c). d)
e) f) g) ( √ )
4.Prove following function:

(a). (b)

(c). (d)

4.3. Higher Order Derivatives

Objectives:
After completion of this section, students will be able to:
 Define the higher order derivative of a function
 Understand the method of finding the higher order derivative.
If the derivative of a function is itself differentiable, then the derivative of is
denoted by and is called the second derivative of . As long as we have
differentiability, we can continue the process of differentiating derivatives to obtain
third, fourth, fifth and even higher derivatives of . The successive derivatives of
are denoted by

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These are called the first derivative, the second derivative, the third derivative and so
forth. The notation of a derivative of arbitrary order is
and is read as order derivative.

Activity : Find
a) 𝑦 ′′′ , where 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑦
b) | , where 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example 1: If . Find the successive

derivatives of .
Solution:

.
.
.

Example 2: Find a general formula for if and and

are differentiable at .
Solution: using the product rule differentiate

( )

Therefore,

Successive derivatives can also be denoted as follows:

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[ ]

[ ]

In general, we write

𝑛
𝑑𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 (11)

which is read "the nth derivative of with respect to . "

When a dependent variable is involved, say Then the successive derivatives
can be denoted by writing

or more briefly

Example 3: Find the 27th derivative of

Solution: the first few derivative of are as follows:

We see that the successive derivatives occur in a cycle of length 4 and, in

particular whenever n is a multiple of 4. Therefore

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and , differentiating three more times, we have

Exercises

1. Show that satisfies

2. Show that if , then satisfies the equation

3. find and

a)

b)
c)
d)
4. a) Use the Quotient Rule to differentiate the function

b) Simplify the expression for by writing it in terms of and

nd then find
c) show that your answers to part (a) and (b) are equivalent.
5. Suppose ( ⁄ ) and ( ⁄ ) and let and

find

a) ( ⁄ ) ⁄ .

4.4. Implicit Differentiation

Objectives:
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 Understand the implicit differentiation
 Differentiate the functions using implicit differentiation

Up to now, we have been concerned with differentiating functions that are expressed in
the form , that is, functions that can be expressed in one variable explicitly.
Because the variable appears alone on one side of the equation. However, sometimes

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functions are defined by equations in which is not alone on one side: For example,
the equation

is not of the form . However, this equation still defined as a function of

since it can be rewritten as

Thus, we say that (1) defines implicitly as a function of , the function being

The method of implicit differentiation consists of differentating both sides of the

equation with respect to and then solving the resulting equation for . In the
examples and exercises of this section it is always assumed that the given equation
determines implicitly as a differentable function of so that the method of implicit
differentation can be applied.
Example 1:
a) If find

b) Find an equation of the tangent to the circle at the point (3,4)

Solution:
a) Differentiate both sides of the equation

Remembering that is a function of and using the chain rule, we have

Thus,

Now we solve this equation for

b) At the point ) we have and , so

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An equation of the tangent to the circle at (3,4) is therefore

or

Alternatively, solving the equation , we get √ . The point

(3,4) lies on the upper semicircle √ and so we consider the function
√ . Differentiating using the Chain Rule, we have

⁄
√

So,

√
and an equation of the tangent is

Example 2: Use implicit differentiation to find if

Solution:

( )

Solving for we obtain

Activity.
𝑑𝑦
a) Use implicit differentiation to find 𝑑𝑥 for the equation 𝑥

𝑦 𝑥𝑦
b) Find an equation for the tangent
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AKSUM to the equation𝑥
UNIVERSITY 𝑦

𝑥𝑦 at the point . 87
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Example 3: Using implicit differentiation, find if

Solution: Differentiating both sides of with respect to x implicitly yields

Again applying implicit differentiation for the second time, we get

Example 4: Use implicit differentiation to find if

Solution: Differentiating both sides of implicitly yields

from which we obtain

(1)

Differentiating both sides of (1) implicitly yields

⁄
(2)

Substituting (1) into (2) and simplifying using the original equation, we obtain
⁄

Example 5: Find if

Solution: Differentiating implicitly we get

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Exercises

1. Find

a) d)

b) e) √

c) √ f) √

2. Find by implicit differentiation.

a) f)
⁄
b) g)
c) h)

d) √ i) √

e)
3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the given points in two ways:
first by solving for interns of and differentiating and then by implicit
differentiation.

a) ( )
√ √ √ √

b)
4. Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola

at the point

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5. Find the value of a and b for the curve if the point (1,1) is on
its graph and the tangent line at (1,1) has the equation

4.5. Applications of Derivatives

Objectives:

On completion of the section, students will be able to:

 Define the extreme value of a function

 Differentiate the relative and absolute extreme value of a function
 Calculate the relative maximum and minimum value of a function
 Calculate the absolute maximum and minimum value of a function
 Understand the Mean Value Theorem;
 Solve problems using Mean Value Theorem.
 Apply derivatives to determine the intervals on which a given function is
increasing and decreasing.
 Apply derivatives to determine relative extremes
 Define concavity of functions;
 Identify where a graph of a function is concave upward and concave
downward;
 Define inflection points.
 Sketch the graph of a given function.

In this section , we will give emphasize the application of the derivative to graphing
functions. We will learn how to determine where the graph of a differentiable function
rise and where it falls: where it has peak and where it has valleys: where it curves
upward and where it curves downward. The concepts we will introduce have
application not only to graphing functions but also to problems in such widely varying
areas.

4.5.1. Extreme Values of Functions

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Some of the most important applications of differential calculus are optimization

problems, on which we are required to find the optima (best) way of doing something.

Definition 4.12: A function 𝑓 is said to have an

a. Absolute maximum (or global maximum) at the point 𝑥 on an interval 𝐼 if
𝑓 𝑥 is the largest value of 𝑓 on 𝐼: that is 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 . The number 𝑓 𝑥
is called the maximum value of 𝑓 on 𝐼.
b. Absolute minimum (or global minimum) at the point 𝑥 on 𝐼 if 𝑓 𝑥 is the
smallest value of 𝑓 on 𝐼: that is 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in 𝐼. The number 𝑓 𝑥
is called the minimum value of 𝑓 on 𝐼.

If has either an absolute maximum or absolute minimum on at , then is said to

have an absolute extreme on at .
As it is illustrated in figure 3.1, there is no guarantee that a function will have
absolute extrema on given interval.

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Part (a)-(e) of figure 4.12 show that a continous function may or may not have relative
maximum or minimum on an infinite interval or on a finite open interval. However,
theorem 4.14 will show us that a continous function must have both an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum on every finite closed interval(see part (f) of
figure 4.12)

Definition 4.13 A function 𝑓 has a local maximun (or relative maximum)

at 𝑥 if
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 when 𝑥 is near 𝑥 [this means that
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
Example 1. If then because for all therefore
𝑓
is the absolute (and local) minimum value of . this corresponding to the
fact that the origin is the lowest point on the parabola (see figure 4.13)
however, there is no highest point on the parabola and so this function has no
maximum value.

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Figure 4.13 shows an example of a function which has minimum value and no
maximum value.
Example 2. the function is continous, and hence is guaranteed to have
both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on every finite closed interval
and, in particular, on the interval the absolute minimum occures at and the
absolute maximum occurs at at which points the absolute minimum and
maximum values are and .

Finding absolute extrema on finite closed intervals:

The Extreme Value Theorem is an example of what mathematicians call an existence

theorem. Such theorems state conditions under which something exists, in this case
absolute extrema. However, knowing that something exists and finding it are two
separate things, so we will now address the problem of finding the absolute extrema.

Theorem 4.14 (The Extreme Value Theorem)

If is continuous on a closed interval , then attains an absolute maximum value

and an absolute minimum value at some numbers and in .

Definition 4.15: A critical number of a function 𝑓 is a number 𝑐 in the

domain of 𝑓 such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 or 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 doesn’t exist.

Example 3: Find the critical number of .

Solution: . Now,
.
Thus, is the only critical number of the given function.
Theorem 4.16: If has an absolute extremum on an open interval then it must
occur at a critical point of .

Steps to find the extreme value of a function on an interval (a, b):

1. Compute the value of at all the critical points in

2. Compute the value of at the end points snd .

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3. Compare the results in and . The largest of those values is the

maximum value of on the smallest of those values is the
minimum value of on .

Example 4: Let . Find the extreme value of on and determine at

which numbers in they occur.

Solution: First we find the critical point has extreme values because it is continuous
on , since is differentiable,

√
.

√ √
Since is not in the interval , the only critical number in our focus is .

We compute the corresponding value of ,

√
( ) √

Consequently, the minimum value of on [0,1] is 0 and it occurs at 0 and 1. The

√
maximum value of f on [0,1] is √ and it occurs at .

Example 5: Let Find the extreme value of on [2,4] and determine at

which numbers in [2,4] they occur.

√
Solution: From example 4, the critical point is , therefore for

all in . Hence the extreme value of on [2,4] must occur at the end points of the
interval. Since , we conclude that is the maximum value
and occurs at , whereas is the minimum value and occur at .

Example 6: Find the extreme value of , on

Solution:

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or

or

But is not in so

We compute the corresponding value of

So, the maximum value of on is , and it occurs at and the minimum

value of on is , and it occurs at .

Activity
⁄
a) Find the critical number of the function: 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
b) Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum value of f on the given
interval 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example 7: A landowner wishes to use mile of fencing to enclose a rectangular

region of maximum area, what should the lengths of the sides be?

Solution: Any rectangular region the landowner could enclose must have a length
and width (figure 4.14)

since the perimeter is to be (miles), we have Rectangle with 2 miles

perimeter
for and .
Figure 4.14

Therefore, , so the area of the rectangle can be written as a function of

alone.

for

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The problem has been reduced to finding the maximum value of on , since
and thus only when , can have its maximum value

on [0,1] only at 0, or 1. But

( ) and

Thus the maximum value of occurs for (mile) (see figure 3.4 ); since

the value of y corresponding to is also (mile). Consequently, the fence

should enclose a square region of area ( ) (square miles).

Exercise .

1. Find all critical points (if any) of the given function

a) d)

b) e)

c) f)

2. Find all extreme values (if any) of the given function on the given interval.
Determine at which number in the interval these value occur
a)
b)
c)

d)

⁄
e)
3. If a and b are positive number , find the maximum value of

4. Assume that is defined on and that . prove that is the

maximum value of on if and only if is the minimum value of on

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4.5.2. Mean - Value Theorem

Theorem 4.17 (Rolle’s Theorem)

Let be continuous on [a, b], and differentiable on . If then there

is a number c in (a, b) such that

Theorem 4.18 (The Mean Value Theorem)

Let be a function that satisfies the following:

1. is continuous on the closed interval

2. is differentiable on the open interval

Then there is a number in such that

(1)

or, equivalently,

(2)
Proof: We introduce an auxiliary function that allows us to simplify the proof
by using Rolle’s Theorem. The function is defined by

[ ]

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CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

(see figure 4.15), now is continuous on and differentiable , since is a

simple combination of , constant functions and a linear functions. Substituting in the
equation above, we find that

So, that by Roll’s Theorem there is a number c in such that

However, for and thus

Solving for , we obtain

Example 1. Let . Find a number c in (-1,3) such that

Solution: since

We see a number c in (-1,3) such that . But

So that,

Since , we conculude that .

Applications of the Mean Value Theorem

The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important results in calculus. We will
use it now to prove two very different theorems; the first implies that if two functions
have identical slopes at each number in an interval; then the functions differ by a
constant on that interval.
Theorem 4.19

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CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

a) Let be contionous on an interval . If for each interior point of ,

then is constant on .
b) Let and be contionous on an interval . If for each interior
point of , then is constant on . In other words, there is a constant such
that for all in

Proof:

To prove (a), let and be arbitrary numbers in with . By the Mean Value
Theorem there is a number in such that

(1)

by assumption and thus (1) reduce to

Therefore, .

It follows that assigns the same value at any two points in , so is constant on .

To prove (b), notice that

So satisfies the conditons of point (a). consequently is constant on . in

other words, there is a constant such that for all in .

If is a function defined on an interval , then any function such that

for each in is called an antiderivative of ( since f is the derivative
of on )

Example 2: Find the antiderivatives of the function .

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Solution: tan x is an antiderivative of , so the antiderivatives of have the

form , where c is any constant.

Example 3. Let be suchthat and . Determine the function

Solution: Since and are both antiderivatives of , by theorem () (b) there

is a constant such that

For the appropriate constant c. to determine c, we use the assumption that ,

which yhields

therefore 2 and hence

Exercises:

1. Let , where A, B, and C are costants with . Show that

for any interval [a, b], the number c guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem is
the mid point of [a, b].
2. Let . Show that , but there is no number c in (-2, 2) such
that . Does this result contradict Rolle’s Theorem? Explain.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

The main singificance of the Mean Value Theorem is that it enables us to analyze the
nature of graphs of functions. Our immediate use of this principle is to prove the basic
fact concerning increasing and decreasing functinos. But, before stating the theorem let
us see the following definitions.

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Definition 4.20: A function 𝑓 is said to be increasing on an interval 𝐼 provided that

𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑧 whenever 𝑥 and 𝑧 are in I and 𝑥 𝑧

The function 𝑓 is strictly increasing on I provided that 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑧 whenever x and z are

in I and 𝑥 𝑧.

Definition 4.21: A function 𝑓 is said to be decreasing on an interval 𝐼 provided that

𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑧 whenever 𝑥 and 𝑧 are in I and 𝑥 𝑧

The function 𝑓 is strictly increasing on I provided that 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑧 whenever x and z are

in I and 𝑥 𝑧.

Theorem 4.22: Let be continuous on an interval and differentiable at each interior

point of

a. If at each interior point of then is increasing on . Moreover, is

strictly increasing on I if for at most a finite number of points in I.
b. If at each interior point of then is decreasing on . Moreover, is
strictly decreasing on I if for at most a finite number of points in I

Definition 4.23: A function 𝑓 𝑤 𝑖𝑐 is either increasing or decreasing is called

monotonic function.

Example 1: Let On which interals is strictly increasing

and strictly decreasing.
Solution: For all x, we have

Thus, is positive except for . It follows that is strictly increasing on

.
Example 2: Let . On which interval is incerasing and
on which it is decerasing.
Solution: For all x, we have

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Using sign chart Method to know where and where .this depends
on the sign of the three factors of , namely, .
From figure 3.6, we conclude that decreasing on and
and increasing on .

Exercises:

Find the intervals on which the given function is strictly increasing and those on
which it is strictly decreasing.

1.
2.
3.
4.

4.5.3. The First and Second Derivative Tests

i. If a continuous is increasing on the portion of an interval I to the left of c
and decreasing on the portion to the right of c, then is the maximum
value of on I.
ii. If a continuous is decreasing on the portion of an interval I to the left of c
and increasing on the portion to the right of c, then is the minimum
value of on I.

First Derivative Test

The derivative changes from positive to negative at c if there exists some number
such that for all in and for all in .

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The definition of changes from negative to positive at c, results from replacing

by and vice versa.
⁄ ⁄
Example 1: Let . Determine where changes from positive to
negative and where it changes from negative to positive.

Solution: First we find the derivative of f

⁄ ⁄

Since when and doesn’t exist when or . To

determine where changes sign, we assemble the chart

Consequently, changes from negative to positive at 0 and from positive to negative

at 4. But at 6 the sign doesn’t change (negative to negative)
Theorem 4.24 (First Derivative Test)
Suppose that is a critical number of a continuous function on an interval

a. if changes from positive to negative at , then has a relative maximum at

b. If changes from negative to positive at , then has a relative minimum

value at .
c. If doesn’t change sign at , (that is is positive on both sides or negative
on both sides), then has no relative maximum or minimum at .

Example 2: Let . Show that has a relative maximum

at -2 and a relative minimum value at .

Solution: First we find the derivative of

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( )

To determine where changes the sign

Consequently, changes frome positive to negative at -2 and frome negative to

positive at ⁄ . Thus the first derivative test implies that f has a relative maximum

value at , similarly, has a relative minimum value at ⁄ .

Together, the First Derivative Test and theorem (4.22) can help us sketch the graph of
a function . The procedure is as follows. We compute the derivative of and
examine it:

1. From theorem 4.24, if for all in an interval , then is increasing

on , whereas if for all in an interval then is decreasing on the
interval (figure 4.18(a))
2. From the First Derivative Test, if changes from positive to negative at ,
then has a relative maximum value at , if changes from negative to
positive at , then has a relative minimum value at . (figure 4.18(b)).

Example 3: Let . Sketch the graph of .

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Solution: First we find the derivative of

Since when or we determine the sign change at each of

these points.

From figure 4.19, is strictly increasing on the interval and and strictly
decreasing on the intervals and . We also find that changes from
negative to positive at 1 and 3 and from positive to negative at 2. As a result, the first
derivative test implies and are relative minimum value and
is relative maximum value. Figure 4.20 shows the graph of .

Theorem 4.25 (Second Derivate Test )

Assume that
a. If then is a relative maximum value of .
b. If then is a relative minimum value of .
If then from this test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about a
relative exterme value at .

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Example 4: Let . Using the Second Derivative Test, find the

relative exteme value of .

Solution: By differentiation we obtain

and

Therfore when or . Since

an

We know from the second derivative test that is a relative maximum value
of , whereas is relative minimum value of .
Example 5: Use the Second Derivative Test to determine the relative extreme values
of the function

Solution: Differentiating with respect to we get

and

Now,

Thus is the only critical number of . More over, . Therefore,

by the Second Derivative Test relative maximum value.
⁄ ⁄
Example 6: Sketch the graph of the function

Solution: changes from negative to positive at 0, is a relastive

⁄
minimum. Since changes from positive to negative at 4, is a relative
maximum. The sign of doesn’t change at 6, so there is no minimum or maximum
there.

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⁄
And ⁄ ⁄
, for all we have for and

0for all .

Figure 4.21

Exercise

1. Determine the value of c at which changes from positive to negatiove or

frome negative to positive.
a.
b.

c.

d.
2. Use the first derivative test to determine the relative extreme values(if any)
of the function
a.
b.
c.

e.

3. Use the second derivative test to determine the relative extreme value of
the function
a.
b.

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d.

c.

4. Suppose is contionous on
a. If and . What cann you say about ?
b. If and . What cann you say about ?

Applications of Extreme Values

To solve many applied problems, one needs to find a maximum or minimum value of a
suitable function on an interval I. Recall from the Extreme Value Theorem that if is
continuous on a closed, bounded interval , assumes a maximum and a
minimum value. Moreover thes values can be assumed only at the end points a and bof
the interval or at critical points in . The following examples illustrate this idea.

Example 1: A farmer has 2400 ft of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular field that
borders a straight river. He needs no fence along the river. What are the dimensions of the
field that has the largest area?
Solution: In order to get a feeling for what is happening in this problem, let’s experiment
with some special cases.
We see that when we try shallow, wild fields or deep, narrow fields, we get relatively small
areas. It seems plausible that there is some intermediate configuration that produces the
largest area. Figure 4.22 shows the general case. We wish to maximize the area A of the
rectangle. Let and be the depth and width of the rectangle in feet. Then we express A in
terms of and :

We want to express A as a function of just one variable, so we eliminate by expressing it

in terms of x. To do this we use the given information that the total length of the fencing is
2400 ft. Thus

From this equation, we have , which gives

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Figure 4.22
Note that and (otherwise A < 0). So the function that we wish to
maximize is

The derivative is , so to find the critical numbers we solve the equation

Which gives . The maximum value of A must occur either at this critical number
or at an end point of the interval. Since , , and ,
the closed interval method gives the maximum value as .
Therefore, the rectangular field should be 600 ft deep and 1200 ft wide.
Example 2: Find the two nonnegative numbers whose sum is 18 and whose product is as
large as possible.
Solution: Let and be positive numbers such that with
. Let the product be . Then,

.
Now, is the critical number of A. From this we have
and
Thus, by the closed interval method, we have that is the largest possible
product of the numbers and

Related Rates

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In this subtopic, we are going to study problems involving variables that are changing with
respect to time. If two or more such variables are related to each other, then their rates of
change with respect to time are also related.
For instance, suppose that and are related by the equation . If both variables
are changing with respect to time then their rates of change will also be related by the
equation

Example 3: Given .Find

a. The rate of change of with respect to
b. The rate of change of with respect to .

Solution:
a. In this case we assume is differentiable with respect to .
Thus,

b. Similarly

Example 4: A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder
slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 ft per second, how fast is the top of the ladder
sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft from the wall?
Solution:

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We first draw a diagram and label it as in the figure. Let feet be the distance from the
bottom of the ladder to the wall and y feet the distance from the top of the ladder to the
ground. Note that x and y are both functions of time t measured in seconds.

We are given that ⁄ and we are asked to find when . In this problem,

the relationship between x and y is given by the Pythagorean Theorem:

Differentiating each side with respect to t using the chain rule, we have

and solving this equation for the desired rate, we obtain

When , the Pythagorean Theorem gives and so, substituting these values we
have
⁄ ⁄ .

The fact that is negative means that the distance from the top of the ladder to the

ground is decreasing.
Example 5: A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2m
and height 4m . If water is being pumped in to the tank at a rate of 2 ⁄ , find the rate
at which the water level is raising when the water is 3m deep.
Solution:

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Let V, r, and h be the volume of the water, the radius of the surface, and the height of the
water at a time t, where t is measured in minutes.

We are given that 2 ⁄ and we are asked to find when h is 3m. The given

quantities are related by the equation

V=

Now, implies that . Thus,

V= ( ) .

Now we can differentiate each side with respect to t:

so

Substituting h = 3 and 2 ⁄ , we have

The water level is rising at a rate of ⁄ .

Example 6: Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon at the rate of 4.5 ⁄ . Find
the rate of change of the radius when the radius is 2cm.
Solution: Let r be the radius of the sphere, then the volume V of the sphere is given by

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Example 7: The radius r of a circle is increasing at a rate of 3cm/min. Find the rate of
change of the area when r = 8cm.
Solution: If A is the area of the circle and r is its radius, then
A=

Exercises

1. Find two real numbers whose difference is 16 and whose product is as small as
possible.
2. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a semicircle.
3. A metal box (without top) is to be constructed from a square sheet of metal that is
10m on a side by first cutting square pieces of the same size from each corner of the
sheet and then folding the sides. Find the dimensions of the box with largest
volume.
4. A cylindrical can is to be made to hold 1 L of oil. Find the dimensions that will
minimize the cost of the metal to manufacture the can.
5. A ladder 5m long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides
away from the wall at a rate of 0.25m/sec, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding
down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 3m from the wall?

4.5.4. Concavity and Inflection Points

Definition 4.26: Let be differentiable at and let be the line tangent to the graph
of at ( )

a. The graph of is concave upward at ( ) if there is an open interval

about c such that if is in and then lies above .
b. The graph of is concave downward at if there is an open interval
about c such that if is in and , then lies below .

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c. The graph of a function is concave upward (respectively concave

downward) on an open interval I if it is concave upward (respectively concave
downward) at for each in I.

Notice from figure 4.25 (a) that the graph of lies below all its tangents and the slopes
of the tangents decrease from left to right. Thus, the graph is concave down ward.
Similarly, the graph of in figure 4.25 (b) lies above all its tangents. Thus it is
concave upward.

A point where a curve changes its direction of concavity is called an inflection point.

Theorem 4.27 (concavity test)

Assume that exist on an open interval I

a. If for all in , then the graph of is concave upward on .

b. If for all in , then the graph of is concave downward on .

Example 1: Let . Find the interval on which the graph of is

concave upward and those on which it is concave downward. Then sketch the graph of
f.

Solution:

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and that is a relative minimum value of f. Now we determine the sign

of .

From figure 4.26 and theorem 4.27 we deduce that the graph of is concave upward
on and ⁄ and is concave downward on ⁄ . From this information
we conclude the graph of is as shown in figure 4.27.

Activity

Discuss the curve 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 with respect to concavity,

inflection point and relative maximum and minimum. Use this information
to sketch the curve.
Assume that exists and is continuous on an interval containing c. Assume also that
the graph of f has an inflection point at ( ) there is a change of concavity at
( ). Because of the continuity of it is possible to show that . Thus
we are led to the following method of finding inflection points:

1. Find the values of c for which .

2. For each value of c found in step 1, determine whether changes sign at c.

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3. If changes sign at c, the point ( ) is an inflection point.

Example 2: Let . Find the inflection points of the graph of .

Solution: The derivatives of are

Since and changes sign at 0, the point ( ) is the only

inflection point of the graph of f.

Exercises

1. Find the interval on which the graph of the function is concave upward
and those on which it concave downward. Then sketch the graph of the
function.
a.

b.
c.
d. √
e.
2. Find the interval of concavity and the inflection points
a.
b.

c.

3. Let with . Show that the graph of f

has exactly one inflection point and find it.
4. Suppose is continuous on
a. If and . What can you say about ?
b. If and . What can you say about ?

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5. Suppose the derivative of function is

.
On which interval is f increasing?

Curve sketching

As we have seen throughout chapter three, a knowledge of derivatives is very

important in sketching graphs of functions. In this section we collect the method we
have encountered for sketching graphs and we illustrate their uses.

Table 4.1 lists the items that are must important in graphing a function.

Table 4.1
Property Test
has intercept
has intercept
Graph of is symmetric with
respect to {
has a relative maximum value at
{

has a relative minimum value at

{
is strictly increasing on an open for all except finitely many in
interval
is strictly decreasing on an open for all except finitely many in
interval
Graph is concave upward on an for all in
open interval
Graph is concave downward on for all in
an open interval
is an inflection point of changes sign at ( and usually )
the graph of
has a vertical asymptote or
has a horizontal asymptote or

Example 1: Let . Sketch the graph of

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Solution:
 intercept
, so the y –intercept is 2.
 intercept
it is false for all so has no intercept.

 Symmetry:

so the graph of is symmetric with respect to −axis.

 Extreme

and

Since for all and for all , it follows that is

strictly increasing on and strictly decreasing on , so that

is the maximum value of .

 Concavity

Now we display the sign of

From figure 4.28 , the graph is concave upward on √ and on √

and it is concave downward on ( √ ) and √ .

 Asymptote

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Which means that - axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph.

We are now ready to sketch the graph of shown in figure 3.20

Activity
𝑥 𝑦
Skecth the graph of

Exercises

1. Skecth the graph of the given function noting all relevant proberties listed
in table3.1.
a.
b.
c.

d.

2. Skecth the graph of the given equation

a.

b. c.

Summary

 The function is said to have a derivative at point if

or exists.

 The slope of a function means the derivative of a function.

 The equation of a tangent line to the curve at a point
is where is the slop.

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 If the derivative of a function is exist at each point in its domain then

we say that a function is differentiable.
 If is differentiable at then f is contionous.
 A function is differentiable on if it is differentiable on
and if the left and right sided limit are exist.
 Differentiation rule: if and are differentiable function and c be any
constant number then:

 ( )

 A function is said to have an absolute maximum on an interval at

the point if , is called the maximum value of
on .
 A function is said to have an absolute minimum on an interval at
the point if , is called the minimum value of
on
 If has either an absolute maximum or minimum at then is said
to have an absolute extremum on at .
 A function is called increasing on an interval if
whenever in
 A function is called decreasing on an interval if
whenever in
 A function is monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing function.
 A critical number of a function is a number in the domain of such
that doesn’t exist.
 If on an interval then is increasing on .

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 If on an interval then is decreasing on .

 If changes from positive to negative at , then has a relative
maximum at Were c is a critical number.
 If changes from negative to positive at , then has a relative
minimum value at . Where c is a critical number.
 If then is a relative maximum value of . Where c is a
critical number.
 If then is a relative minimum value of . Where c is
a critical number.
 If for all in , then the graph of is concave upward on .
 If for all in , then the graph of is concave downward on .

Review exercises

1. Find the derivative of the following function at

⁄
a. √ c. ⁄

b. d.

2. Find

a. √ c.

b. √ d.

3. Find the equation of the tangent line at the given point.

⁄
a. c.
b. d.

4. Find by implicit differentiation

a. (√ )

b.

c. √ √

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5. Assume that and are differentiable function of . find in terms of

and

a. b.
6. Let be differentiable at and let . Show that
7. What is the equation of a tangent line to the parabola at
8. If √ , find
9. If , find

10. If find
11. Find the relative extreme value of the function on the given interval.
Determine at which numbers in the interval they are assumed.
a.
b. √
⁄
c.

d.

12. Find the critical points of the given function

a. √
⁄
b.
13. Use the first derivative test or the second derivative test to determine the
relative extreme value of the function
a.
b.

c. √ √
d. √
14. For what value of the constant and is a point of inflection of the
curve ?
15. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing and those on which f is
decreasing,
a.

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⁄
b.
c.
16. Let

a. Show that , but that there is no number c in

such that
b. Why does this not contradict Rolle’s Theorem
17. Determine the intervals on which the graph of f is concave upward and the
intervals on which the graph is concave downward
a. √

b.

c.

18. Sketch the graph of the function, indicating all relevant properties listed in
table3.1
a. d.

b. e.

c. √
19. Suppose the distance a car can travel on one tank of gas at a velocity
of v miles per hour is given by
√ ⁄ ⁄
for

What velocity maximizes (and hence minimizes fue)

20. Evaluate the limit
a.

b.

c.
21. A 10 cm ladder is leaning against a house. The base of the ladder is pulled
away from the house at a rate of 0.25m/sec. How fast is the top of the
ladder moving down the wall when the base is

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a. 6 m from the house

b. 8 m from the house
c. 9 m from the house
22. A water tank is in the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius
3m and height 5m. If water is being pumped in to the tank at a rate of
2 , find the rate at which the water level is raising when the water
is 3m deep.

23. Find assuming that y is differentiable wrt x and x is

differentiable wrt y.

24. The radius r of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 3cm/min. Find the rate of
change of the volume when
a) r = 2 cm b) r = 3 cm.

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References

1. James Stewart, Calculus early trancedental, 6th ed., Prentice Hall, 2008
2. Howard Anton,Calculus a new horizon, 6th ed., John wiley and Sons Inc
3. Robert Ellis and Denny Gulick, Calculus with analytic geometry, 6th ed, Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 5th ed, 1993
4. Adams, Calculus: A complete course, 5th ed, Addison Wesley, 2003
5. R. Wrede and M. R. Spiegel, Theory of advanced calculus, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,
2002.
6. A. E. Taylor and W. R. Mann, Advanced calculus, 3rd ed, John-Wiley and Son, INC,
1995.
7. R. T. Smith and R. B. Minton, Calculus concepts and connections, McGram-Hill book
company, 2006
8. D. V. Widder, Advanced calculus, Prentice-Hall, 1979
9. Ross L. Finney et al, Calculus, Addison Wesley, 1995
10. E. J. Purcell and D. Varberg, Calculus with analytic geometry, Prentice-Hall INC.,
1987
11. Lynne, Garner: Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Dellen Publishing Company
12. John A. Tierney: Calculus and Analytic, 4th edition, Allyn and Bacon, Inc. –Boston.
13. Earl W. Swokowski: Calculus with Analytic Geometry, 2nd edition, Prindle, Weber
and Schmidt.
14. Goldstein, L. J., Lay D. C. , and Schneider D. I (1987). Calculus and its applications,
4th, edn, Prentice-Hall, Inc, London
15. Kresying, Advanced Engineering Mathematics.
16. Alan Jeffry , Advanced Engineering Mathematics

CHAPTER-FIVE:

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INTEGRATION

UNIT OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this unit each student will able to:
 Know antidifferentiation
 Understand indefinite and definite integrals.
 Realize and apply techniques of integration.
 Understand the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
 Know properties of indefinite and definite integrals
 Learn about improper integrals.

Introduction

In this chapter we will look integrals. As with derivatives, this

chapter will be devoted almost exclusively to finding and
computing integrals. Applications will be given in the following
chapter. There are really two types of integrals that we’ll be
looking at in this chapter : Indefinite Integrals and Definite
Integrals. The first half of this chapter is devoted to indefinite
integrals and the second half is devoted to definite integrals. As we will see in the second
half of the chapter if we don’t know indefinite integrals we will not be able to do definite
integrals.

5.1- Antiderivatives; indefinite integrals

In the past chapter we’ve been given a function, , and asking what the derivative of this
function was. Starting with this section we are not going to turn things around. We now
want to ask what function we differentiated to get the function .
Definition 5.1

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Question: What function did we differentiate to get the following function.

Solution :

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Theorem 5.2 : If F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x) on an interval I, then for any constant C
the function F(x) + C is also an antiderivative of f(x) on that interval. Moreover, each
antiderivative of f(x) on the interval I can be expressed in the form F(x) + C by choosing
the constant C appropriately.

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Proof: Exercise
The process of finding antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation or integration

EXAMPLE 3: Find the general antiderivative of each of the following functions.

Definition 5.3

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Note that often we will just say integral instead of indefinite integral (or definite integral
for that matter when we get to those). It will be clear from the context of the problem that
we are talking about an indefinite integral (or definite integral).
The process of finding the indefinite integral is called integration or integrating f(x). If
we need to be specific about the integration variable we will say that we are integrating
f(x) with respect to x.

EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate the following indefinite integral.

A couple of warnings are now in order. One of the more common mistakes that students
make with integrals (both indefinite and definite) is to drop the dx at the end of the integral.
This is required! Think of the integral sign and the dx as a set of parenthesis. You already
know and are probably quite comfortable with the idea that every time you open a
parenthesis you must close it. With integrals, think of the integral sign as an “open
parenthesis” and the dx as a “close parenthesis”.
If you drop the dx it won’t be clear where the integrand ends. Consider the following
variations of the above example.

You only integrate what is between the integral sign and the dx.
Knowing which terms to integrate is not the only reason for writing the dx down. In the
Substitution Rule section we will actually be working with the dx in the problem and if we
aren’t in the habit of writing it down it will be easy to forget about it and then we will get

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the wrong answer at that stage. The moral of this is to make sure and put in the dx! At this
stage it may seem like a silly thing to do, but it just needs to be there, if for no other reason
than knowing where the integral stops.
On a side note, the dx notation should seem a little familiar to you. We saw things like this
a couple of sections ago. We called the dx a differential in that section and yes that is
exactly what it is. The dx that ends the integral is nothing more than a differential. The next
topic that we should discuss here is the integration variable used in the integral. Actually
there isn’t really a lot to discuss here other than to note that the integration variable doesn’t
really matter. For instance,

Changing the integration variable in the integral simply changes the variable in the answer.
It is important to notice however that when we change the integration variable in the
integral we also changed the differential (dx, dt, or dw) to match the new variable. This is
more important that we might realize at this point.
Another use of the differential at the end of integral is to tell us what variable we are
integrating with respect to. To see why this is important take a look at the following two
integrals.

The first integral is simple enough.

The second integral is also fairly simple, but we need to be careful. The dx tells us that we
are integrating x’s. That means that we only integrate x’s that are in the integrand and all
other variables in the integrand are considered to be constants. The second integral is then,

So, it may seem silly to always put in the dx, but it is a vital bit of notation that can cause
us to get the incorrect answer if we neglect to put it in.

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Now, there are some important properties of integrals that we should take a look at.

Properties of the Indefinite Integral

Not listed in the properties above were integrals of products and quotients. The reason for
this is simple. Just like with derivatives each of the following will NOT work.

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With derivatives we had a product rule and a quotient rule to deal with these cases.
However, with integrals there are no such rules. When faced with a product and quotient in
an integral we will have a variety of ways of dealing with it depending on just what the
integrand is.
We can now answer this question easily with an indefinite integral.

EXAMPLE 5: If f ' x   x 4  3x  9 then find f x 

Computing Indefinite Integrals

The table below shows list of indefinite integrals of some functions

EXAMPLE 6: Find the general indefinite integral

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Solution:

cos 
EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate  d
sin 2 
Solution:

t 2  2t 4
EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate  dt
t4
Solution:

Activity:
Evaluate each of the following indefinite integrals

Evaluate each of following integrals

5.2- Techniques of integration

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Objectives:
By the end of this section, students will be able to:
 Evaluate indefinite integrals using integration by substitution
 Find indefinite integrals using integration by parts & by partial fraction
 Determine the value of trigonometric integrals
 Apply integration by trigonometric substitution to calculate integrals

Over view: In this section, we are going to discuss Integration by substitution, by parts and by
partial fraction, Trigonometric integrals, Integration by trigonometric substitution.That is we
develop techniques for using the basic integration formulas
To obtain indefinite integrals of more complicated functions. Integration is not as
Straightforward as differentiation; there are no rules that absolutely guarantee obtaining an
indefinite integral of a function. Therefore we discuss a strategy for integration.

5.2.1: Integration by substitution, by parts and by partial fraction

Integration by substitution method

Our antidifferentiation formulas don’t tell us how to evaluate integrals such as

 2x x 2 1 dx ,  sin 3x dx but powerful method for changing the variable

of integration so that these integrals (and many others) can be evaluated by using the basic
integration formulas which are given in section 5.1.

Theorem 5.4 : The substitution Rule

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2. Integrate with respect to u.

3. Replace u by g(x) in the result.

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The success of the substitution method depends on finding a substitution that changes
an integral we cannot evaluate directly into one that we can. If the first substitution fails,try
to simplify the integrand further with an additional substitution or two. Alternatively, we
can start fresh. There can be more than one good way to start,as in the next example.

Solution:

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Integration by Parts

 xe  ln x dx
x
If we try to evaluate integrals of the type dx , and by using the method of

substitution we obviously fail. But don’t worry the next theorem will enable us to evaluate
not only these, but also many other types of integrals.

Every differentiation rule has a corresponding integration rule. For instance, the
Substitution Rule for integration corresponds to the Chain Rule for differentiation. The rule
that corresponds to the Product Rule for differentiation is called the rule for integration by
parts.

Integration by parts is a technique for simplifying integrals of the form  f xg xdx It is
useful when ƒ can be differentiated repeatedly and g can be integrated repeatedly without
difficulty.
Theorem 5.5 : Integration by parts

If and are differentiable and f ' and g ' are continous then

Proof:

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Example 6 : A Reduction Formula

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Example 7 : Using a reduction formula evaluate

Solution: From the result in example 6

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Integration by Partial fraction

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Note : we can determine the constants that appear in partial fractions using different
methods such as differentiation method and assigning numerical Values to x
Example 6 : Find A, B, and C in the equation using differentiation method

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Example 7: Find A, B, and C in the equation using assigning numerical value for x

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Exercise

I- Evaluate the following integrals using integration by substitution

5. 
1
1ln x4dx 6.  tan x dx
x
7.  sec x dx
II- Evaluate the following integrals using integration by Parts

III- Evaluate the following integrals using integration by Partial fractions

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5.2.2 Trigonometric Intergals

In this subsection we use trigonometric identities to integrate certain combinations of

trigonometric functions. We start with powers of sine and cosine.Trigonometric integrals
involve algebraic combinations of the six basic trigonometric functions. In principle, we
can always express such integrals in terms of sines and cosines,but it is often simpler to
work with other functions, as in the integral

The general idea is to use identities to transform the integrals we have to find into integrals
that are easier to work with.

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Example 5 Evaluate
∫

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EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate
∫

EXAMPLE 8 Evaluate
∫

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EXAMPLE 9 Evaluate

Exercise:

Evaluate the following integrals

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5.2.3. Integration by Trigonometric Substitution

The functions in these substitutions have inverses only for selected values of  . For
reversibility,

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( )

√
( )

( ) √

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EXAMPLE 4 :Evaluate

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Exercise

Evaluate the following Integrals

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5.3- Definite Integrals; Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Objectives:
By the end of this section, students will be able to:
 Define Definite Integral
 Evaluate definite integral
 Apply properties of definite integrals to calculate integrals
 State fundamental theorem of calculus and apply it.

Over view: In this section we will formally define the definite integral and give many of the
properties of definite integrals ,then we will present Fundamental Theorem of Calculus ,which is
central theorem of integral calculus. Let’s start off with the definition of a definite integral.

Definite Integral

The number “a” that is at the bottom of the integral sign is called the lower limit of the
integral and the number “b” at the top of the integral sign is called the upper limit of the
integral. Also, despite the fact that a and b were given as an interval the lower limit does

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not necessarily need to be smaller than the upper limit. Collectively we’ll often call a and b
the interval of integration.

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Formulas

EXAMPLE 4: Using the formulas and properties from above determine the value of the
following summation.

Solution:
The first thing that we need to do is square out the stuff being summed and then break up
the summation using the properties as follows,

EXAMPLE 5: Using the definition of the definite integral compute the following.

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We can now compute the definite integral.

Properties of Definite Integral

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EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate each of the following.

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EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate the definite integral.

EXAMPLE 8:

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EXAMPLE 9

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EXAMPLE -10 : Differentiate each of the following

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Using the chain rule as we did in the last part of this example we can derive some general
formulas for some more complicated problems.

Next, we can get a formula for integrals in which the upper limit is a constant and the lower
limit is a function of x. All we need to do here is interchange the limits on the integral
(adding in a minus sign of course) and then using the formula above to get,

Finally, we can also get a version for both limits being functions of x. In this case we’ll
need to use Property 5 above to break up the integral as follows,

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EXAMPLE -11 : Differentiate the following integral

Computing Definite Integrals

EXAMPLE -12 : Evaluate each of the following

Solution:

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EXAMPLE -13 : Evaluate the following definite integral

EXAMPLE -13 : Evaluate the following definite integral

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Exercise

1. In each part, evaluate the integral,given that

2.

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5.4- Improper Integrals

Objectives:
By the end of this section, students will be able to:
 Define Improper Integral
 Evaluate Improper integral

Over view: In this section we will formally define the improper integral and evaluate improper
integrals.

we define the integral of f (not necessarily a positive function) over an infinite interval as
the limit of integrals over finite intervals.

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Therefore,

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Exercise

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SUMMARY OF CHAPTER-FIVE

1.The table below shows list of Basic Integration formulas

2. To find an integral of a function we can follow the following strategies

 Simplify the Integrand if Possible

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 Look for an Obvious Substitution

 Classify the Integrand According to Its Form (Trigonometric functions,
Rational functions, Integration by parts., Radicals.)

Miscellaneous Exercises

Evaluate the integral

References

1. James Stewart, Calculus early trancedental, 6th ed., Prentice Hall, 2008

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2. Howard Anton,Calculus a new horizon, 6th ed., John wiley and Sons Inc
3. Robert Ellis and Denny Gulick, Calculus with analytic geometry, 6th ed, Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, Publishers, 5th ed, 1993
4. Adams, Calculus: A complete course, 5th ed, Addison Wesley, 2003
5. R. Wrede and M. R. Spiegel, Theory of advanced calculus, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2002.
6. A. E. Taylor and W. R. Mann, Advanced calculus, 3rd ed, John-Wiley and Son, INC,
1995.
7. R. T. Smith and R. B. Minton, Calculus concepts and connections, McGram-Hill book
company, 2006
8. D. V. Widder, Advanced calculus, Prentice-Hall, 1979
9. Ross L. Finney et al, Calculus, Addison Wesley, 1995
10. E. J. Purcell and D. Varberg, Calculus with analytic geometry, Prentice-Hall INC.,
1987
11. Lynne, Garner: Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Dellen Publishing Company
12. John A. Tierney: Calculus and Analytic, 4th edition, Allyn and Bacon, Inc. –
Boston.
13. Earl W. Swokowski: Calculus with Analytic Geometry, 2nd edition, Prindle,
Weber and Schmidt.
14. Goldstein, L. J., Lay D. C. , and Schneider D. I (1987). Calculus and its
applications, 4th, edn, Prentice-Hall, Inc, London
15. Kresying, Advanced Engineering Mathematics.
16. Alan Jeffry , Advanced Engineering Mathematics

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APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION

Area
Let f be a non-negative continuous function on [a, b], then the area of the region R
bounded by f and the x-axis between x =a & x = b (as shown in the fig. below) is given by:

∫ …………………………….(*)

Example:
1) Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of the function
and the x-axis between x=0 & x=3.
Solution: The region R is the shaded region as shown below.

Now let R1, R2 and R3 be the sub-regions b/n x=0 and x=1, x=1 and x=2, and x=2 and
x=3, respectively. Then, using (*):

Where,

∫ ∫ |

∫ |

Since the sub-region R2 is below the x- axis, the negative sign is important. Similarly,

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∫ | .

Thus, area of the region is:

.

We can see that the area of a region bounded by a continuous curves y = f(x), y = g(x) and
the lines x = a, x = b such that for all x in [a, b] is:

∫ ……………………(*)

Example 2: Find area of the region enclosed by the parabolas and .

Solution: The sketch of the region is shown below. So, using (**):

∫ ∫ ∫

| .

Note that the intersection points can be obtained as: .

Solving this equation for x, we get , then , as indicated in
the graph above.
Example 3: Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = sin x and y = cos x,
between x = 0 & x = .

Solution: The region R with its parts is as shown below:

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The points of intersection occur when sin x = cos x, that is, when (since ).

Observe that cos x sin x when but cos x sin x when . Therefore,

area of the region is:

∫ ∫

| | √ .

Exercise:

1. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graph of f(x) = sin x and the x-axis
between and .

2. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant which is enclosed by the y-axis and
the curves of f(x) = cos x and g(x) = sinx.
3. Determine the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of and

4. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs and the line .

6.1. Volume
In section, we will apply integral calculus to determine the volume of a solid region by
considering cross sections.
Suppose a region rotates about a straight line, then a solid figure called a solid of
revolution, is formed. The volume of such a solid is said to be a volume of revolution and
the line about which the region rotates is an axis of symmetry.

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Now consider the solid of revolution generated by revolving the region between the curve
and the x-axis from to as shown below.

Every cross section which is perpendicular to the x-axis at x a circular region with radius, r =
f(x). Thus, the area of the cross section A(x) is .
Thus, we define the volume of revolution V as by:

∫ ∫ ……………………..( )
Example 1: Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the region
under the curve √ from 0 to 1.
Solution: The region and the solid figure rotated about the x-axis from 0 to 1 are shown in
fig.(a) and fig.(b) below.

Now, the area of the cross section is √ . So, using ( ), the

volume of revolution V is given by:

∫ ∫ | .

Note that if f and g are continuous, non-negative on [a, b] such that for all x in
[a, b]. let R be a region bounded by f(x) and g(x), on [a, b] as in the following figure. Then,
the volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving the region R about the x-axis is
given by:

∫ , where ( ) ( ) .

By: GEBRE GEBRETSADIK AKSUM UNIVERSITY

195
CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

Example 2: The region R enclosed by the curves and is rotated about the x-
axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid.
Solution:

The curves y = x and y = x2 intersect at the points (0,0) and (1, 1). The region and solid of
rotation are shown in the fig. above. The cross-section in the plane has the shape of annular
ring with inner radius x2 and outer radius x. So, .
Therefore, we have

∫ ∫ |

Consider again the case where a region R is rotated about the y-axis: where, either R is a
region bounded by the curve x = u(y) and the y-axis, between the lines y = c & y = d or R is a
region between two curves v(y) and w(y) on [c, d] as in following figures:

Then the corresponding volume of revolution is given by:

∫ and ∫ respectively.

By: GEBRE GEBRETSADIK AKSUM UNIVERSITY

196
CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

Example 3: Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by y = x3, y
= 8, and x = 0 about the y-axis.
Solution: The rotation of the region is shown as:

Here, u(y) = x = √ . So, the area of the cross-section is . Thus, the

volume V of revolution is:

∫ ∫ .

Exercises:

1. Find the volume of solid of revolution about the x-axis generated by revolving the
area between the lines y = x and y = 4 from x = 1 to x = 3.
2. Find the volume of the solid of revolution about the y-axis generated by revolving the
region enclosed by the curve x = √ and the y-axis from y = 0 to y = 4.
3. The area bounded by the graph of y = x2+1 and the line y = 4 rotates about the y –
axis, find the volume of the solid generated.
4. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the curves y2
= x and x = 2y about y-axis.

References

1. James Stewart, Calculus early trancedental, 6th ed., Prentice Hall, 2008
2. Howard Anton,Calculus a new horizon, 6th ed., John wiley and Sons Inc
3. Robert Ellis and Denny Gulick, Calculus with analytic geometry, 6th ed,
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 5th ed, 1993
4. Adams, Calculus: A complete course, 5th ed, Addison Wesley, 2003
5. R. Wrede and M. R. Spiegel, Theory of advanced calculus, 2nd ed., McGraw-
Hill, 2002.
6. A. E. Taylor and W. R. Mann, Advanced calculus, 3rd ed, John-Wiley and
Son, INC, 1995.

By: GEBRE GEBRETSADIK AKSUM UNIVERSITY

197
CALCULUS I MATH 2041 GEBRE G.

7. R. T. Smith and R. B. Minton, Calculus concepts and connections, McGram-

Hill book company, 2006
8. D. V. Widder, Advanced calculus, Prentice-Hall, 1979
9. Ross L. Finney et al, Calculus, Addison Wesley, 1995
10. E. J. Purcell and D. Varberg, Calculus with analytic geometry, Prentice-Hall
INC., 1987
11. Lynne, Garner: Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Dellen Publishing Company
12. John A. Tierney: Calculus and Analytic, 4th edition, Allyn and Bacon, Inc. –
Boston.
13. Earl W. Swokowski: Calculus with Analytic Geometry, 2nd edition, Prindle,
Weber and Schmidt.
14. Goldstein, L. J., Lay D. C. , and Schneider D. I (1987). Calculus and its
applications, 4th, edn, Prentice-Hall, Inc, London
15. Kresying, Advanced Engineering Mathematics.
16. Alan Jeffry , Advanced Engineering Mathematics

By: GEBRE GEBRETSADIK AKSUM UNIVERSITY

198