MLK2-1 str.

1
Translation from Polish: Iwona Turnau, prof. Stefan Turnau
Book design: Iwona Duczmal
Ilustrations: Bartłomiej Brosz
Computer generated graphics: Leszek Jakubowski
Photography: Archiwum GWO, Fotolia, Shutterstock
Typesetting (TEX): Łukasz Sitko, Joanna Szyller

ISBN 978-83-8118-375-8
Publisher: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Oświatowe, 80–309 Gdańsk, al. Grunwaldzka 413

This publication is subject to the protection provided by the provisions of the Act
of 4 February 1994 on copyright and neighbouring rights. Any copy or reproduc-
tion of a part or of the whole publication constitutes an unauthorized infringement
of the rights of the author or publisher, unless it is performed in accordance with
the provisions of the aforementioned act.

MLK2-1 str. 2
Table of Contents

Polynomials
Examples of polynomials ..................................................................................... 6
Decomposition of a polynomial into factors ..................................................... 10
Polynomial equations ......................................................................................... 15
Division of polynomials ..................................................................................... 19
Remainder Theorem ........................................................................................... 25
Polynomial equations (continued) ..................................................................... 28

Figures on the plane. Part 1

Angles. Angles in triangles and quadrilaterals .................................................. 35
Basic properties of triangles .............................................................................. 40
Pythagoras’ theorem and inverse of Pythagoras’ theorem ................................ 42
Properties of triangles (continued) .................................................................... 48
Properties of quadrilaterals ............................................................................... 55

Functions
Formulas and graphs of functions ..................................................................... 62
Examples of functions and their properties ...................................................... 67
Exponential and logarithmic functions ............................................................. 73
Exponential and logarithmic equations ............................................................. 78
Applications of exponential and logarithmic functions .................................... 82
Transforming function graphs ........................................................................... 88
Transforming function graphs (continued) ....................................................... 92

Figures on the plane. Part 2

Area of a disc. Length of a circle ....................................................................... 98
Properties of central angles and inscribed angles ........................................... 102
Lines and circles ............................................................................................... 106
Circle circumscribed about a triangle. Circle inscribed in a triangle ............. 111
Properties of polygons. Regular polygons ....................................................... 115

MLK2-1 str. 3
MLK2-1 str. 4
Polynomials
Do you know how many donuts the pastry chef needs
to form a five-layer pyramid, such as in the photo?
How many donuts would he need if the layers were 12?
This problem can be easily resolved using a certain algebraic expression.

Examples of polynomials Decomposition of a polynomial into factors

Polynomial equations Division of polynomials
Remainder Theorem Polynomial equations (continued)

MLK2-1 str. 5
 EXAMPLES OF POLYNOMIALS
Each of the expressions in the adjacent box
Examples of monomials: is the product of a number and the power of
one variable with a natural exponent. We call
4x16 −3m5 these expressions monomials.
√ Note. We also call monomials expressions with
2
y −3 2t 101 3
more variables, e.g. 3x2 y, ab3 , 5 m5 n6 are mono-
3
mials. However, we will not deal with them in
this chapter.

A monomial of degree n ≥ 1 and variable

x is an expression that can be transformed
into the form:
axn , where a ∈ ’, a 6= 0, n ∈ Ž+ .

Note, that any real number other than zero is a zero-degree monomial.
We assume that the number 0 is also a monomial and we call it a zero
monomial. The degree of such monomial is not specified.

Monomials and their sums are called polynomials.

A polynomial of degree n and variable x Examples of polynomials:

is an expression that can be converted to
the form: 4x5 + 11x3 + 7

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ,

−8a3 − 2 a5
3
where the coefficients an , an−1 , ..., a2 , a1 , a0
are real numbers, an 6= 0 and n ∈ Ž. 0,04u8
√
3t 7 − 2 6t 5 + t 4 − 9

The coefficient a0 of a polynomial is called (2x − 1)2

the free term.
2 + m + 2m2
3
EXERCISE A Specify the degree of each polyno-
mial given in the box. 6

6 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 6
 A polynomial that can be written in the
Examples of binomials: form of the sum of two non-zero mono-
mials of different degrees is called a bino-
2x − 1
mial, and the sum of three monomials (of
a3 + 2 different degrees) is called a trinomial.
√
3x5 − 2x
A trinomial, which is a second-degree poly-
3 7
t + t 12 nomial, is called a quadratic trinomial.
4

EXERCISE B a) List the coefficients at the

Examples of trinomials:
highest power of each of the binomials and
3x2 − 2x + 3 trinomials in the box.
2 8 b) Give an example of quadratic trinomial
y + y4 + 1
3 with integer coefficients.
m10 − 2m7 + m6 c) Is the expression (2x − 3)2 a quadratic tri-
√ 5 nomial?
7x − x − x6

Polynomials can be added, subtracted and multiplied. Performing this type

of operation, we get a new polynomial, which is worth ordering, i.e. re-
ducing similar terms and ordering the monomials from highest to lowest
degree.

EXAMPLE 1 Write in the simplest form:

a) the sum of polynomials:

(7 − 5x 5 − 3x 2 ) + (3x 2 − 4x − x 5 ) = 7 − 5x 5 − 3x 2 + 3x 2 − 4x − x 5 = −6x 5 − 4x + 7

b) the difference of polynomials:

(−8p 4 − 2p 6 + 3) − (3 − 5p + 2p 6 ) = −8p 4 − 2p 6 + 3 − 3 + 5p − 2p 6 = −4p 6 − 8p 4 + 5p

c) the product of polynomials:

(3−2t 5 +t)(−5t 2 −t) = −15t 2 −3t +10t 7 +2t 6 −5t 3 −t 2 = 10t 7 + 2t 6 − 5t 3 − 16t 2 − 3t

PROBLEM Put in order the polynomial:

a) (4x + 3x − 2x + 5) + (2x5 − 3x2 + 3x − 5)
5 2

b) (9a6 − 5a3 ) − (9a6 + 5a4 − 4a3 + 2)

c) (3z 5 − 2z)(z 2 − 2z + 3)

The variable of a polynomial can of course be any letter. We will sometimes

denote polynomials with variable x in short W (x), V (x), P (x).

EXAMPLES OF POLYNOMIALS 7

MLK2-1 str. 7
 The value of a polynomial for a given number is obtained by substituting
this number for the variable in the polynomial. For a given polynomial
W (x)), its value for x = 5 will be written as W (5).

2
EXAMPLE 2 Calculate the value of the given polynomial for x = 5 .

a) W (x) = (3x 7 − 9x 3 − 4x) − (3x 7 − 8x 3 + x)

To simplify calculations,
W (x) = 3x 7 − 9x 3 − 4x − 3x 7 + 8x 3 − x = −x 3 − 5x we first put in order the
 3 polynomial W (x).
2 2 2 8 8
 
W 5 = − 5 − 5 × 5 = − 125 − 2 = −2 125

b) V (x) = (25x 2 − 5x + 3)(1 − x) We do not order the poly-

    2  nomial V (x) because it
2 2 2 2

V 5 = 25 × 5 − 5 × 5 + 3 1 − 5 = 3 does not simplify calcula-
tions.

PROBLEM Calculate the value of the given polynomial for x = 1 .

3
a) W (x) = (8x5 + 6x2 + 3) + (−8x5 − 5x2 + x − 3) b) V (x) = (3x − 2)(x3 − 9x2 + 1)

Two polynomials of the same variable are equal when they are of the
same degree, and after ordering each of them, the coefficients at the same
powers are equal.

EXAMPLE 3 Let’s consider polynomials:

U(x) = ax 2 + bx V (x) = 2x 3 − 11x 2 + 12x W (x) = x − 3
For what values of the coefficients a and b the polynomial U(x) − V (x) ) is equal
to the polynomial U(x) × W (x)?

U(x) − V (x) = (ax 2 + bx) − (2x 3 − 11x 2 + 12x) = ax 2 + bx − 2x 3 + 11x 2 − 12x =

= −2x 3 + (a + 11)x 2 + (b − 12)x

U(x) × W (x) = (ax 2 + bx)(x − 3) = ax 3 − 3ax 2 + bx 2 − 3bx = ax 3 + (b − 3a)x 2 − 3bx

U(x) − V (x) = −2x 3 + (a + 11)x 2 + (b − 12)x

U(x) × W (x) = ax 3 + (b − 3a)x 2 − 3bx


 −2 = a

 We compare the coefficients of both polyno-
mials at the respective powers of the vari-
 a + 11 = b − 3a able; we solve a system of equations.

b − 12 = −3b

The numbers a = −2 and b = 3 satisfy each of
Therefrom: a = −2 and b = 3 the three equations of the system.

PROBLEM For what values of the a and b coefficients the product of the polynomi-
als U(x) = 2x − a and V (x) = x3 − x is equal to the polynomial W (x) = bx4 − 5x3 − 2x2 + ax?

8 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 8
PROBLEMS

1. Indicate the polynomials in the box and specify the degree of each.
a) b) c)
7x5 − 5x7 1 0,2t + 6t 3 − 1,4t 10
2 x3 − 5x2 + 4
√
6u3 − 11u−2 + 4 −2x6 − 5 x + 4 −3w 7
√ 105 z 5 1 1
3z + 82 5w 3 + 4w
3

2. Present the given expression in the form axn .

 3 √ 3 2 2
a) − 1 x2 × x3 b) x2 + x2 2 c) 3x × x2 − 1 x5 d) 5x − (3x)
2 2 5 2

3. Present the result of the operation in the form of an ordered polynomial.

4x − 8x3 − 2x5 − 3x + 2 − 8x3 c) x(x7 − x5 ) − x6 (x − x7 − 1)



a)

b) (6x5 + 4x3 − 2x) − 2x(2x2 + x − 1) d) −x(x4 − 8x3 − 5) + 4x4 (3x − 2)

4. Let Pdenote polynomial −4x+5, Q — polynomial x2 −3x+1, and R — polynomial

3
2x − 1. Perform the operations.

a) P − (Q + R) b) 4Q − 3P + 1 R c) R × (P + Q)
2

5. Give examples of two fourth-degree polynomials of which:

a) the sum is a third-degree monomial, b) the product is a binomial.

6. Calculate the value of the polynomial for the given x value.

a) − 1 x3 + 3 x2 − 2x + 4 x2 for x = 2 d) 5x (10x − 3) (2 − 15x) for x = 1
2 7 7 5

b) 5 p3 − 1 2 p2 + 1 p3 + 5 p2 for p = −5 e) 3 (3m − 2) (m + 3) for m = 2

2
6 3 6 3 3
3
c) 0,32t 3 − 0,42t − 1,32t 3 + 1,42t for t = −10 f) a (a − 5) (a − 1) for a = −1

7. The confectioner arranges donuts in pyramids, as

in the photo. Number of donuts in the pyramid with
n layers is:
L(n) = 31 n3 + 12 n2 + 61 n

a) Calculate how many donuts a pyramid sized 12

layers is made of.

b) Justify that L(n + 1) − L(n) = (n + 1)2 .

EXAMPLES OF POLYNOMIALS 9

MLK2-1 str. 9
8. Determine for which values of the coefficients p, q, r polynomial x4 + px3 + qx2 +
+ r x + 1 is equal to the polynomial:
 
a) x2 − 3x + x4 − 13 d) (x − 2) x3 − 3x − 1
2
b) x5 − (7x3 − x4 + x) e) (x2 + 5x − 1)2

c) (x2 − 1)2 f) (x2 − 2x)(x2 + 2x) + 1

9. Give examples of monomials that can be put in place of the letters A and B so
that there is equality of polynomials.
a) A(2x2 + x) = 4x2 + B b) Ax2 (9x + 2) = 5x4 + Bx

DECOMPOSITION OF A POLYNOMIAL
INTO FACTORS
It is known that as a result of multiplication of polynomials we get a
certain polynomial. Sometimes the reverse operation can be performed —
decomposing a polynomial into factors, i.e. presenting it as the product of
other polynomials. We call it factorization.

EXERCISE A What monomials should be written in place of the boxes?

a) x5 + 2x3 = (x2 + ) b) 6x4 − 9x = 3x( − )

EXAMPLE 1 Decompose the polynomial into factors of at most second degree.

a) 6x 3 − 3x 2 + 10x − 5 =
In each of the underlined binomials we take
out the common factor before the parenthe-
2
= 3x (2x − 1) + 5(2x − 1) = sis, so as to obtain the sum of polynomials
that have a common factor. Then this com-
= (2x − 1)(3x 2 + 5) mon factor, i.e. 2x − 1, is taken out.

In each of the underlined binomials, we take

b) 5x 4 − 20x 3 − x 2 + 4x = out the common factor, so as to obtain the
sum of polynomials that have a common
= 5x 3 (x − 4) − x(x − 4) = factor.

The x − 4 binomial is taken out.

= (x − 4)(5x 3 − x) =

In the underlined binomial, we take common

= x(x − 4)(5x 2 − 1)
factor x out.

PROBLEM Factorize the polynomial.

3 2
a) 10x − 4x + 15x − 6 b) 6x4 − 15x3 − 2x2 + 5x

10 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 10
 Some quadratic trinomials can be broken down into factors using the for-
mulas we recall below.

The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a 6= 0, can be represented in the

product form, when ∆ ≥ 0 (∆ = b2 − 4ac).

If ∆ > 0, then the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two solutions:

√ √
−b − ∆ −b + ∆
x1 = x2 =
2a 2a

and equality occurs:

ax 2 + bx + c = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 )

If ∆ = 0, then the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has one solution:

−b
x0 =
2a

and equality occurs:

ax 2 + bx + c = a(x − x0 )2

If ∆ < 0, then the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has no solutions and

the polynomial ax2 + bx + c cannot be broken down into first-degree
factors.

EXAMPLE 2 Decompose the polynomial W (x) into factors of the lowest degree.

a) W (x) = −10x 3 + 25x 2 + 60x = −5x(2x 2 − 5x − 12)

∆ = (−5)2 − 4 × 2 × (−12) = 121

We calculate the determinant ∆ of the trinomial
√ 2x 2 − 5x − 12. Because ∆ > 0, the trinomial is
5 − 121 3
x1 = =− broken down into first-degree factors.
2×2 2
√
5 + 121
x2 = =4
2×2

3 3
    
W (x) = −5x × 2 x − − (x − 4) = −10x x + (x − 4)
2 2

b) W (x) = x 5 − 3x 4 + 4x 3 =
We calculate the determinant ∆ of the trinomial
3 2 x 2 − 3x + 4. Because ∆ < 0, this trinomial does
= x (x − 3x + 4) not break down into first-degree factors.

∆ = 9 − 4 × 1 × 4 = −7 < 0

PROBLEM Break down the polynomial W (x) into factors of possibly lowest degree.
a) W (x) = −4x + 14x4 − 6x3
5
b) W (x) = −x4 + 4x3 − 7x2

DECOMPOSITION OF A POLYNOMIAL INTO FACTORS 11

MLK2-1 str. 11
 Below we recall the abridged multiplication formulas. They can be used to
factorizing polynomials.

Abridged multiplication formulas

(a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 (a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3

(a − b)2 = a 2 − 2ab + b 2 (a − b)3 = a 3 − 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 − b 3

a 2 − b 2 = (a − b)(a + b) a 3 − b 3 = (a − b)(a 2 + ab + b 2 )

a n − b n = (a − b)(a n−1 + a n−2 b + a n−3 b 2 + . . . + ab n−2 + b n−1 )

EXERCISE B Justify that the formulas for the difference of squares and the dif-
ference of cubes result from the formula for factorizing the difference an − bn .

EXAMPLE 3 Decompose the polynomial into factors of the lowest degree pos-
sible.

a) 4x 2 − 6x + 9 = (2x − 3)2 We use the formula a 2 − 2ab + b 2 = (a − b)2 .

b) x 4 − 25 = (x 2 − 5)(x 2 + 5) =
We use the formula
√ √
= (x − 5)(x + 5)(x 2 + 5) a 2 − b 2 = (a − b)(a + b) twice.

c) x 5 + x 4 + x 3 − 8x 2 − 8x − 8 = We take out the common factor in each of

the underlined trinomials.
3 2 2
= x (x + x + 1) − 8(x + x + 1) =
We take out the common factor (x 2 + x + 1).
= (x 2 + x + 1)(x 3 − 8) =
We use the formula a 3 − b 3 = (a − b)(a 2 + ab +
+b 2 ).
= (x 2 + x + 1)(x − 2)(x 2 + 2x + 4)
We check whether the second-degree fac-
∆1 = 1 − 4 < 0 ∆2 = 4 − 16 < 0 tors obtained can be broken down into first-
degree factors.

d) x 4 − 10x 2 + 25 = (x 2 )2 − 2 × 5x 2 + 52 = We use the formula a 2 − 2ab + b 2 = (a − b)2 ,

2 √ √ 2 and then the formula a 2 − b 2 = (a − b)(a + b).
= (x 2 − 5) = (x − 5)(x + 5) =


√ 2 √ 2
= (x − 5) (x + 5)

PROBLEM Factorize the polynomial.

2
a) 25x + 10x + 1 b) 81x4 − 1 c) 8x5 + 8x3 − x2 − 1 d) x4 − 6x2 + 9

12 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 12
 In the examples discussed so far, the factors appearing in the polynomial
decomposition did not have a degree higher than 2. It turns out that each
polynomial can be broken down into factors of at most second degree.

Good to know!

Already in the eighteenth century, the statement was known:

Each polynomial can be broken down into factors of at most second degree.

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) gave the first proof of this claim in his
doctoral dissertation. He was only 22 years old. Gauss is considered, along
with Archimedes and Newton, to be one of the greatest mathematicians
of the world (he was called the prince of mathematicians). He dealt with
almost all branches of mathematics, as well as physics and astronomy.

PROBLEMS
1. Take out the common factor.
a) x5 − x3 d) 15x5 − 20x3 + 5x2

b) x4 − x3 + x2 e) −9x6 + 18x4 − 12x3

c) 4x7 + 8x6 f) 14x8 − 21x7 − 28x5

2. Present as the product of two polynomials.

a) x3 + 4x2 + x + 4 d) 2x3 + 5x2 − 2x − 5

b) 6x3 − 5x2 + 6x − 5 e) 3x4 − 4x3 − 3x + 4

c) x3 − 1 x2 + x − 1 f) −7x3 − 6x2 + 7x + 6
2 2

3. Factorize the polynomial.

a) x3 + 5x2 + 3x + 15 d) −15x3 + 6x2 − 5x + 2
√ √
b) 2x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 9 e) 5x3 − 7x2 + 10x − 2 7
√ 3 √ 2 √ √
c) 2x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 6 f) 2x − 3x + 5 2x − 5 3

4. Factorize the polynomial (use the abridged multiplication formulas)

a) x2 − 16 d) 1 x2 + 1 x + 1
9 3 4
2 3
b) 4x − 5 e) x − 27

c) x2 − 6x + 9 f) x3 − 1

DECOMPOSITION OF A POLYNOMIAL INTO FACTORS 13

MLK2-1 str. 13
5. Factorize the polynomial.
a) x4 − 25 c) 4x4 − 9 e) x4 − 2x2 + 1 g) 1 x3 − 8
27

b) 49x4 − 1 d) x7 − 100x5 f) (x + 3)2 + 2(x + 3) + 1 h) 64x10 − x7

81

6. Factorize the polynomial.

a) −3x4 − 7x3 + 6x2 + 14x e) 2x6 + 5x5 − 2x2 − 5x

b) −x6 − 3x5 + 2x4 + 6x3 f) 15x6 − 10x5 − 45x4 + 30x3

√ √
c) −2x5 + 5x4 + 8x3 − 20x2 g) 3x4 + 2 5x3 − 9x2 − 6 5x
√ √ √ √
d) −10x5 − 20x3 + 80x2 + 160 h) −6 6x4 − 3 5x3 + 2 6x2 + 5x

7. Factorize the polynomial.

a) 3x5 + x4 + 2x3 − 3x2 − x − 2 d) 2x5 + x4 + 3x3 − 2x2 − x − 3

b) x5 − x4 + x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 5 e) x5 + 2x4 + 2x3 − 8x2 − 16x − 16

√ √
c) x5 + x4 − 2x3 − 8x2 − 8x + 16 f) x5 − 5x4 + x3 − x2 + 5x − 1

8. a) Decompose the polynomial x3 + 5x2 + 3x + 15 into factors, and then justify that
it assumes positive values only for x > −5.
b) Decompose the polynomial 4x3 − 8x2 + 3x − 6 into factors, and then determine
for which values x this polynomial takes negative values.
c) Decompose the polynomial −12x5 + 6x4 − 2x + 1 into factors, and then justify that
for negative values of x the polynomial assumes positive values.

9. Find the number to be entered in the box, and then break down the polynomial
obtained into factors.

a) 3x4 + 2x3 + 4x2 + 2x + 1 = 3x4 + 2x3 + x2 + x2 + 2x + 1

b) 5x4 − 7x3 + 8x2 − 7x + 3 = 5x4 − 7x3 + x2 + 5x2 − 7x + 3

c) −2x4 − 7x3 + 13x2 − 7x + 15 = −2x4 − 7x3 + 15x2 + x2 − 7x + 15

d) −9x4 + 6x3 − 9x2 + 4x − 2 = −9x4 + 6x3 − 3x2 + x2 + 4x − 2

10. Factorize the polynomial.

a) 2x4 + x3 + 3x2 + x + 1 c) x4 − 2x3 − x2 − 4x − 6

b) 3x4 + 2x3 + 4x2 + 2x + 1 d) x4 + x3 − 3x2 − 4x − 4

14 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 14
 POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
Each of the equations in the box next to it
Examples of can be transformed so that on one side of
polynomial equations: the equation there is a polynomial, and on
the other — number 0.
7x2 = 4x

−15x + 6 = 6x The equation that can be written in the form

W (x) = 0, where W (x) is a polynomial of de-
(3x + 2)2 = 9x(x − 2) gree n, is called a polynomial equation of
degree n.
−3x2 + 5x − 2 = 0

5x3 − 2x2 + 15x − 6 = 0 The number, which is the solution to the

polynomial equation W (x) = 0, is called the
−6x2 (x2 − 3) = 2x2 + 5 root of the polynomial W (x) or the root of
the equation.

EXERCISE A a) Find the first-degree polynomial equations in the box above and
calculate their roots.
b) Find the second-degree polynomial equations in the box above and calculate
their roots.

Methods of finding the roots of a first-degree polynomial equations have

already been discussed in elementary school. You also know how to solve
second-degree polynomial equations.

We will now show how to find the roots of some higher degree polynomi-
als.

EXERCISE B Give numbers that satisfy the equation:

a) (x + 1)(x − 6) = 0 b) (x − 2)4 = 0 c) 3x(x − 1)(2x − 4) = 0

It is quite easy to solve the polynomial equation

W (x) = 0, when the polynomial W (x) is present- a×b=0
ed in the product form. It is enough to take ⇑
advantage of the fact that the product of fac- ⇓
tors is equal to zero if any of the factors is a = 0 or b = 0
equal to zero.

Note. When solving polynomial equations, decomposing a polynomial into factors

of the lowest degree is not necessary. It is enough to break down the polynomial
into factors whose roots we can calculate.

POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS 15

MLK2-1 str. 15
 EXAMPLE 1 Solve the equation.

a) x 5 − 6x 4 = 40x 3 We transform the equation into the form W (x) = 0.

x 5 − 6x 4 − 40x 3 = 0 We decompose the polynomial W (x) into factors.

x 3 (x 2 − 6x − 40) = 0

x3 = 0 or x 2 − 6x − 40 = 0

x =0 ∆ = (−6)2 − 4 × 1 × (−40) = 196

√
∆ = 14

6 − 14 6 + 14
x1 = 2
= −4 x2 = 2
= 10
Roots are numbers: −4, 0
x = 0 or x = −4 or x = 10 and 10.

b) x 3 − 6x 2 − 3x + 18 = 0

x 2 (x − 6) − 3 (x − 6) = 0

(x − 6) x 2 − 3 = 0

x − 6 = 0 or x 2 − 3 = 0

x =6 or x 2 = 3
√ √
x = 3 or x = − 3
√ √ √
Roots are numbers: − 3,
√
x = 6 or x = 3 or x = − 3 3 and 6.

c) 4x 6 = x 2

4x 6 − x 2 = 0

x 2 (4x 4 − 1) = 0

x 2 (2x 2 − 1)(2x 2 + 1) = 0

x2 = 0 or 2x 2 − 1 = 0 or 2x 2 +1 = 0
x =0 1 contradictory
x2 = 2 equation
r r
1 1
x= 2
or x = − 2
√
√ √ Roots are numbers: − 2
2 2 √ 2 ,
x = 0 or x = 2 or x = − 2 0 and 2
2 .

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

a) 2x − 5x − 3x2 = 0
4 3
b) 2x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 3 = 0 c) 15x3 = 9x

16 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 16
 EXAMPLE 2 Solve the equation.

x 4 − 7x 2 + 12 = 0 For x 2 we substitute t and solve

the equation obtained with un-
known t.
x2 = t t 2 − 7t + 12 = 0
√
∆ = 72 − 4 × 12 = 1 ∆=1
7−1 7+1
t1 = 2
=3 t2 = 2
=4 We solve the equations x 2 = t1
and x 2 = t2 .
x2 = 3 or x2 = 4
√ √
x = 3 or x = − 3 or x = 2 or x = −2 √ √
Roots are: −2, − 3, 2 and 3.

PROBLEM Solve the equation: x4 − 9x2 + 20 = 0.

Let us now consider what the relationship between the degree of a polyno-
mial and the number of roots of this polynomial may be.

It is known that the first-degree polynomial has one root (each equation of
the form ax + b = 0, where a 6= 0, has one solution). It is also known that a
second-degree polynomial can have two roots or one or no root at all.

EXERCISE C a) Each of the following three polynomials is a third-degree polyno-

mial. Determine how many roots these polynomials have.
U(x) = x(x − 2)(x + 3) V (x) = (x + 1)(x2 − 3x + 5) W (x) = x(x + 5)2
b) Give an example of a fourth-degree polynomial that has no roots, and a
fifth-degree polynomial that has only one root.

Note that:
• A n-th degree polynomial has at most n roots (such a polynomial can be
broken down into at most n first-degree polynomials).
• Because each polynomial can be decomposed into factors of at most
second-degree, so in the case of an odd-degree polynomial, at least one
factor must be of first degree. Therefore, an odd-degree polynomial must
have at least one root.

Therefore, for example, a third-degree polynomial always has some root,

but it can’t have more than three. The fourth-degree polynomial may not
have roots, but if it has roots, it must be no more than four.

EXERCISE D Give an example of a polynomial of the lowest degree possible,

which has six roots.

POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS 17

MLK2-1 str. 17
PROBLEMS
1. Solve the equation.
2
a) (x + 5) x2 − 7 = 0 d) (5x + 2) 3x2 + 4 = 0

3
b) (2x − 3) x3 + 1 = 0 e) 2x3 + 54 (3x − 1) = 0

2  
c) x2 − 6 x3 − 8 = 0 f) 2x2 − 1 5x3 − 1 = 0



25

2. Find all numbers satisfying the equation.

 
a) (2x + 1)(x + 5)(3x − 2) = 0 d) x 3x2 − 1 (9x2 + 1) = 0
3
2
b) (x − 3)(2x + 5)(4 − 3x) = 0 e) (2x + 1)(4x2 − 8x)(−8x + 6) = 0
2

c) (x + 5)(x3 − 8)(x2 − 5) = 0 f) x3 (x3 − 1)(1 + x3 ) = 0

3. Without solving the equation determine if it has solutions.

a) x4 + 1 = 0 b) 3x2 + x4 = 0 c) 3x2 + 4x8 + 2 = 0

4. Solve the equation.

a) 6x3 + 6x2 − 3x − 3 = 0 e) 2x5 − 8x3 + 16x2 − 64 = 0

b) 2x5 − 18x3 + 2x2 − 18 = 0 f) 3x5 − 12x3 − 12x2 + 48 = 0

c) 4x3 − 14x2 + 6x − 21 = 0 g) 5x5 + x3 − 6 = 30x2

d) 3x5 − 2x4 − 27x + 18 = 0 h) 5 = 3x + 5x4 − 3x5

5. Solve the equation.

a) 2x5 = 3x4 e) x3 (x + 7) = x3

b) 5x7 = 10x4 f) 2x2 (3x − 1) = 3x2

c) x6 = 5x2 g) x2 (x + 5) = 4 (x + 5)

d) x4 (x − 6) − x4 = 0 h) x3 x2 − 9 = 27 x2 − 9

6. Solve the equation.

a) x4 − 13x2 + 36 = 0 d) x5 + x3 − 12x = 0

b) x4 − 9x2 + 20 = 0 e) 2x5 + 5x3 − 12x = 0

c) 4x4 − 5x2 + 1 = 0 f) 2x7 − x4 − x = 0

7. Solve the equation (try to do it the simplest way).

a) (2x − 1)2 = 100 b) (5 − x)3 = −8 c) 3(2x2 − 7)2 = 27

18 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 18
 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS
It is known that if a given natural number a is the product of some two
numbers, as a result of dividing number a by one of these numbers, we
get the second one. For example, the equality:

4503 = 57 × 79
we can express as:
4503 ÷ 57 = 79

This means that the number 4503 is divisible by 57 (and also by 79). We
will understand polynomials’ division in a similar way.

You already know that polynomials can be broken down into factors. For
example, the polynomial W (x) = 2x3 −4x2 +3x−6 can be written as a product:

2x3 − 4x2 + 3x − 6 = (x − 2)(2x2 + 3)

The above equality can be written differently:

(2x3 − 4x2 + 3x − 6) ÷ (x − 2) = 2x2 + 3

We say then that the polynomial W (x) is divisible by the polynomial x − 2.

The result of dividing the W (x) polynomial by x − 2 is 2x2 + 3 polynomial.
Note. The polynomial W (x) is also divisible by the 2x2 + 3 polynomial.

We say that the polynomial W (x) is divisible by the non-zero polyno-

mial P (x), if there is such a Q(x) polynomial that:
W (x) = P (x) × Q(x)
This equality can also be written in the form:
W (x) ÷ P (x) = Q(x)

Note that after decomposing a given polynomial into factors, it is easy to

indicate polynomials by which it is divisible and give the results of such
division.

EXERCISE A Decompose the polynomial x5 − 4x3 + x2 − 4 into factors, and then

determine the division result.

a) (x5 − 4x3 + x2 − 4) ÷ (x − 2) b) (x5 − 4x3 + x2 − 4) ÷ (x2 − 4)

We will now show a method that allows you to find the result of divid-
ing two polynomials without having to break down the first of them into
factors. This method resembles the division algorithm of natural numbers.

DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS 19

MLK2-1 str. 19
 The result of the division W (x) ÷ P (x), where W (x) = 2x3 − x2 − 16x + 3
and P (x) = x − 3, can be found as follows:

EXERCISE B Make sure the result is correct — multiply the polynomial x − 3 by

the polynomial 2x2 + 5x − 1.

20 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 20
 Note that when performing the division, we calculated the differences of
some polynomials. When we do such operations, it is easy to make a mis-
take, so it is worth slightly change the way of writing.

EXAMPLE 1 Divide the polynomial W (x) = 3x 3 + 16x 2 + 3x − 10 by the binomial

x + 5 and write the polynomial W (x) as a product.
3x 2 + x − 2
(3x 3 + 16x 2 + 3x − 10) ÷ (x + 5)
−3x 3 − 15x 2
x 2 + 3x − 10
−x 2 − 5x
−2x − 10
2x + 10
0 W (x) = (x + 5)(3x 2 + x − 2)

PROBLEM Perform the division (5x3 − 17x2 + 7x − 3) ÷ (x − 3).

Similarly to dividing natural numbers, also by dividing a polynomial by

another polynomial we can get a remainder different from 0.

Numbers Polynomials
211 2
2x + x + 1
2745 ÷13 (2x3 + 7x2 + 4x + 5) ÷ (x + 3)
− 26 −2x3 − 6x2
14
− 13 x2 + 4x + 5
−x2 − 3x
15
− 13 x+5
−x − 3
2 ←− remainder
2 ←− remainder

Result of division: Result of division:

2745 ÷ 13 = 211 remainder 2 (2x3 + 7x2 + 4x + 5) ÷ (x + 3) = 2x2 + x + 1 remainder 2
So: So:
2745 = 211 × 13 + 2 2x + 7x + 4x + 5 = (x + 3)(2x2 + x + 1) + 2
3 2

The remainder is smaller from The degree of the remainder is smaller than
the number we divide by. the degree of the polynomial we divide by.

DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS 21

MLK2-1 str. 21
 EXAMPLE 2 Perform the division W (x) ÷ P(x), where W (x) = x 5 − 4x 4 − 3x 2 +
+14x − 3, P(x) = x − 4.

x 4 − 3x + 2
(x 5 − 4x 4 − 3x 2 + 14x − 3) ÷ (x − 4)
−x 5 + 4x 4
−3x 2 + 14x − 3
3x 2 − 12x
2x − 3 As the result of division
−2x + 8 W (x) ÷ P(x) we receive x 4 − 3x + 2
5 remainder 5.

(x 5 − 4x 4 − 3x 2 + 14x − 3) ÷ (x − 4) = x 4 − 3x + 2 remainder 5
So:
x 5 − 4x 4 − 3x 2 + 14x − 3 = (x − 4)(x 4 − 3x + 2) + 5 W (x) = P(x) × (x 4 − 3x + 2) + 5

PROBLEM Perform the division (2x3 + x2 − 12x + 5) ÷ (x + 3).

Note that the remainder of dividing any W (x) polynomial by the binomial
x − a is always a number. When this remainder is 0, we say that W (x) is
divisible by the binomial x − a.

PROBLEMS
1. Give examples of three polynomials by which the polynomial W (x) is divisible.
a) W (x) = −(3x + 2)4 (2x + 5)3

b) W (x) = 1 (2x − 1)5 (4x − 1) x2 + 2

3

2. Perform the division.

x3 − 8x2 + 17x − 10 ÷ (x − 5) −4x4 + 12x3 − 5x2 + 17x − 6 ÷ (x − 3)



a) d)

3x3 + 8x2 − 18x − 8 ÷ (x + 4) x5 + 9x4 + 14x3 + x + 7 ÷ (x + 7)

b) e)

x4 − 2x3 + x2 + x − 1 ÷ (x − 1) −x5 − 2x4 + 5x2 + 17x + 14 ÷ (x + 2)

c) f)

3. Find a polynomial W (x) such that there is the given equality.

a) (x + 2) × W (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 + 7x − 6

b) W (x) × (x − 3) = 5x4 − 17x3 + 6x2 − x + 3

c) 10x2 + (x − 5) × W (x) = 3x4 − 13x3 − x + 5

d) 7 2x2 + x − (x + 4) × W (x) = 4 − 3x3

22 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 22
 4. Next, five different polynomials are written. One
1 3x4 + 2x − 3
of them is the result of the given division. Without
2 3x4 − 3x − 6 dividing, indicate which one.

a) 3x4 + 9x3 − 2x2 − 9x − 9 ÷ (x + 3)

3 3x3 + 2x + 3
b) 3x5 − 9x4 + 3x2 − 11x + 6 ÷ (x − 3)


4 3x3 − 2x − 3
c) 3x5 + 3x4 − 3x2 − 9x − 6 ÷ (x + 1)

5 3x4 + 3x − 2
d) 3x5 − 3x4 + 2x2 − 5x + 3 ÷ (x − 1)

5. What numbers should be inserted in place of the boxes?

3x3 + x2 + ÷ (x + 2) = x2 + 1


a) x+
x4 + x3 + x2 − 15x ÷ (x − 3) = −2x3 +


b) x

6. Perform the division with remainder.

x3 − 4x2 + 10x ÷ (x − 1) −4x4 + 17x3 − 4x2 + 2x − 5 ÷ (x − 4)



a) d)

2x3 + 7x2 + 2x − 1 ÷ (x + 3) x5 + x4 − 2x2 + x + 10 ÷ (x + 1)

b) e)

3x4 + 4x3 − 9x2 − 11x − 4 ÷ (x + 2) 3x5 − 13x4 − 10x3 − x2 + 7x − 6 ÷ (x − 5)

c) f)

7. Find the polynomial W (x) satisfying the given condition.

a) By dividing W (x) by x − 4, we get the 3x − 2 polynomial and the remainder −2.
b) By dividing W (x) by x + 5, we get the polynomial x2 − 5 and the remainder 7.

8. Give an example of a fourth-degree polynomial for which the remainder of its

division by the polynomial x + 2 is equal to 10.

9. a) The remainder of the division of the polynomial W (x) = 2x3 − x2 − 11x − 4 by

the binomial P (x) = x − 2 is equal to −14. What number should the free term of the
polynomial W (x) be replaced by so as the obtained polynomial were divisible by
the P (x) binomial?
b) The remainder of the division of the polynomial V (x) = 5x4 + 15x3 − 2x2 − 2x + 7
by the binomial Q(x) = x + 3 is −5. How should the free term of the V (x) polynomial
be changed so as the obtained polynomial were divisible by the Q(x) binomial?

10. a) Given are polynomials:

W1 (x) = 2x3 − 11x2 − 4x − 2 W2 (x) = 3x4 − 15x3 + 4x − 16

Divide each of these polynomials by x − 5 binomial, then divide the W1 (x) + W2 (x)
polynomial by the x − 5 binomial.
b) Prove that if the remainder of division of the polynomial W (x) by x − a is r1 and
the remainder of division of the polynomial V (x) by x − a is r2 , then the remainder
of division of the polynomial W (x) + V (x) by x − a is equal r1 + r2 .

DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS 23

MLK2-1 str. 23
Horner’s scheme

By dividing a fourth-degree polynomial by the x − p binomial, we get a third-degree

polynomial and the remainder r (the remainder can be 0).

So we can write the equality:

a4 x4 + a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = (x − p)(b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 ) + r

Transforming the right-hand side of this equality, we get:

b3 x4 + (b2 − pb3 )x3 + (b1 − pb2 )x2 + (b0 − pb1 )x + r − pb0

From equality of polynomials it follows that:

a4 = b3 a3 = b2 − pb3 a2 = b1 − pb2 a1 = b0 − pb1 a0 = r − pb0

Hence:
b3 = a4 b2 = pb3 + a3 b1 = pb2 + a2 b0 = pb1 + a1 r = pb0 + a0

Similar relationships would be obtained by dividing any polynomial by the binomial

x − p. Therefore, looking for the result of such a division, we can use a simplified
method called the Horner’s scheme.
It is shown below by dividing the −x4 −4x3 +2x2 −25 polynomial by the x+4 binomial.
William Horner was a British mathematician who popularized this method.

By dividing the polynomial −x4 − 4x3 + 2x2 − 25 by the x + 4 binomial we get the
polynomial −x3 + 2x − 8 and the remainder 7, i.e.:

(−x4 − 4x3 + 2x2 − 25) = (x + 4)(−x3 + 2x − 8) + 7

11. Write down any fifth-degree polynomial. Then divide it by the x + 2 binomial.
Perform this division in two ways: using the method we learned earlier and the
Horner’s scheme shown above.

24 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 24
12. Perform the division using Horner’s scheme.
x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 8 ÷ (x − 2) x5 − 9x3 + 2x + 5 ÷ (x + 3)



a) d)

x4 + x3 + x2 + 4x + 3 ÷ (x + 1) 5x5 − 7x4 − x3 + 4x2 + 3x ÷ (x − 1)

b) e)
2x4 − 8x3 + 5x − 20 ÷ (x − 4) −3x4 + 2x − 3 ÷ (x + 2)



c) f)

REMAINDER THEOREM
We already know that by dividing any polynomial W (x) by the binomial
x − a, we get a certain polynomial Q(x) and the remainder R, which is a
number. The polynomial W (x) can be written as:
W (x) = (x − a) × Q(x) + R

When R = 0, then the equality occurs:

W (x) = (x − a) × Q(x)

Then W (a) = 0, i.e. a is the root of the polynomial W (x).

The general property of polynomials that connects the root of a polynomi-

al to the division of this polynomial by a certain binomial is expressed by
the Remainder Theorem.

Remainder Theorem
Number a is the root of a polynomial W (x)
if and only if when
this polynomial is divisible by the x − a binomial.

Note. The above theorem can be written as follows:

W (a) = 0 ⇐
⇒ W (x) ÷ (x − a) = P (x) , where P (x) ) is a certain polynomial.

Proof
Note that for any number a polynomial W (x) can be written in the form:

W (x) = (x − a) × P (x) + R,
where P (x) is a certain polynomial and R — a certain number.
Therefore:
W (a) = (a − a) × P (a) + R = 0 × P (a) + R = R

We have therefore obtained the equality:

W (a) = R

REMAINDER THEOREM 25

MLK2-1 str. 25
 By using this equality, we will prove two implications.

1. Suppose the number a is a root of the polynomial W (x), i.e. W (a) = 0.

Because W (a) = R, therefore R = 0. It follows that the polynomial W (x) is
divisible by the binomial x − a.

2. Suppose now that the polynomial W (x) is divisible by x − a, i.e. R = 0.

Because W (a) = R, therefore W (a) = 0. It follows that a is a root of polynomial
W (x).

EXERCISE A A polynomial W (x) = x4 +x3 −7x2 −x+6 is given. Using the Remainder
Theorem, determine by which of the given binomials it is divisible.
x−1 x+1 x−2 x+2

Analyzing the proof of Remainder Theorem, it can be seen that, by the

way, the following property of polynomials has been justified:

The remainder of division of polynomial W (x)

by x − a binomial
is equal to W (a).

EXERCISE B Determine the remainders from dividing the given polynomials by

x − 2.
A(x) = x3 − x2 + 3x − 5

B(x) = 1 x5 − x2 − 7x + 1
4

C(x) = x4 − 6x3 + 5x2 + 12

Suppose we are to solve the polynomial equation W (x) = 0 and we know

that number p is a root of the polynomial W (x).

The Remainder Theorem implies that the polynomial W (x) is divisible by

x − p. So, there exists a polynomial Q(x) of degree lower than W (x), such
that:
W (x) = (x − p) × Q(x)

The equation W (x) = 0 can be written as:

(x − p) × Q(x) = 0

To determine if the W (x) polynomial has any other roots, you can solve
the lower-degree equation: Q(x) = 0.

26 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 26
 EXAMPLE Check that number 1 is a solution to the given equation, and find
other solutions to this equation.

x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 = 0

We check if number 1 meets the equation

13 − 3 × 12 + 2 = 1 − 3 + 2 = 0 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 = 0.

x 2 − 2x − 2
(x 3 − 3x 2 + 2) ÷ (x − 1)
−x 3 + x 2
−2x 2 + 2 We divide the polynomial x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 by the
2x 2 − 2x binomial x − 1, to decompose the polynomial
into factors.
−2x + 2
2x − 2
0

x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 = (x − 1)(x 2 − 2x − 2)

We write the equation in a different form and

(x − 1)(x 2 − 2x − 2) = 0 solve it.

x =1 or x 2 − 2x − 2 = 0

∆ = 4 − 4 × (−2) = 12
√ √ √
∆ = 12 = 2 3
√ √
2−2 3
x1 = 2
=1− 3
√ √
2+2 3
x2 = 2
=1+ 3

√ √
Ans. The equation has three solutions: x1 = 1 − 3, x2 = 1 + 3, x3 = 1.

PROBLEM Check that 2 is a root of the polynomial W (x) = x3 − 7x + 6, and then

solve the equation W (x) = 0.

Curiosity

In Poland, the Remainder Theorem is called Bézout’s theorem. Étienne

Bézout (1730 –1783) was a French mathematician. He did algebra, but he
is known mainly as the author of excellent textbooks, praised as exception-
ally clear. Bézout’s Cours de mathématiques, translated into English, was
for many years a basic textbook at Harvard University. The Remainder The-
orem was neither formulated nor proved by Bézout — it was already known
by then.

REMAINDER THEOREM 27

MLK2-1 str. 27
PROBLEMS
1. Is the W (x) polynomial divisible by the V (x) binomial?
a) W (x) = 5x14 − 6x + 1, V (x) = x − 1

b) W (x) = 3x7 − x3 + x2 + 1, V (x) = x + 1

c) W (x) = x3 + 3x2 + x − 10, V (x) = x + 2

d) W (x) = x4 − 1 x3 − 4x2 + 1, V (x) = x − 1

2 2

2. Without performing the division determine what is the remainder of division of

the polynomial W (x) by the binomial P (x).
a) W (x) = 3x5 − 2x3 + 4 P (x) = x − 1 b) W (x) = −5x3 − 3x2 + 6 P (x) = x + 2

3. a)For what value of a the polynomial 5x5 − ax3 + 3x2 − 6x is divisible by the
binomial x − 2?
b) For what value of p the polynomial px5 − px3 − 1 x + 2 is divisible by the binomial
2
x + 2?

4. Check that the given number is the root of the equation, and then find its
remaining roots.

a) 2x3 − x2 − 8x + 4 = 0, 2 d) 4x3 − 4x2 − 15x + 18 = 0, −2

b) 6x3 − 29x2 − 6x + 5 = 0, 5 e) x4 − x3 − 14x2 + 2x + 24 = 0, −3

c) x3 + 7x2 − 5x − 75 = 0, 3 f) x4 + 8x3 + 19x2 + 32x + 60 = 0, −5

POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS (CONTINUED)

To use the Remainder Theorem in solving a polynomial equation, you must

know at least one number that satisfies this equation. Even when such a
number exists, it is generally difficult to find.

EXERCISE A Take a look at the equations below and without solving them, an-
swer which of them we can say that there are certainly no solutions that are
integers.
√
x3 + 3x + 1 = 0 y3 − y2 + y − 1 = 0 z3 + z2 + z − 2 = 0
2

28 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 28
 We will now try to discover what conditions would have to be met so that
one of the solutions of the polynomial equation with integer coefficients
could be an integer number.

Let’s consider, for example, a polynomial:

W (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6

The roots of this polynomial satisfy the equation:

x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = 0

That we can write in the form:

x(x2 − 2x − 5) = −6

Suppose the integer c is a solution to this equation. So, there is equality:

c(c 2 − 2c − 5) = −6

From this equality it follows that number −6 is the product of two integers:
number c and the number c 2 − 2c − 5.

Number c has to be a divisor of −6 then also of 6, which is the free term

of the polynomial under consideration.

Number 6 has eight integer divisors:

1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, 6, −6

To determine what integers are solutions of the equation it is enough to

check which of the eight divisors meet it.

For x = 1 we have:
W (1) = 13 − 2 × 12 − 5 × 1 + 6 = 0

So, 1 is a solution of the given equation.

For x = −1 we have:
W (−1) = (−1)3 − 2 × (−1)2 − 5 × (−1) + 6 6= 0

So, −1 is not a solution of that equation.

For x = 2 we have:
W (x) = 23 − 2 × 22 − 5 × 2 + 6 6= 0
so, 2 is not its solution.

Continuing in this way we will find all integer solutions of the considered
equation.

EXERCISE B Check if the equation x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = 0 has integer solutions

other than x = 1.

POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS (CONTINUED) 29

MLK2-1 str. 29
 To solve a polynomial equation with integer coefficients, we can use the
following theorem:

Integer Root Theorem

Suppose in a polynomial equation:

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 = 0
all coefficients an , an−1 , . . . , a0 are integers and a0 6= 0. If a solution
to this equation is an integer, then it has to be a divisor of the free
term a0 .

Proof

Let’s assume that integer number c is a solution of the equation

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 = 0,

where the numbers an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 are integers and a0 6= 0.

So the equality is met:

an c n + an−1 c n−1 + . . . + a1 c + a0 = 0

We can write it the form

c an c n−1 + an−1 c n−2 + . . . + a1 = −a0

The number an c n−1 + an−1 c n−2 + ... + a1 is integer (because we assumed that all
coefficients are integers). It follows that the number a0 is divisible by c.

We have shown that the number c is a divisor of the number a0 .

EXERCISE C a) Show that the equation x5 + 2x − 11 = 0 has no solutions that are

integers.
b) Find all the integer solutions to the equation x4 + x3 − x2 + x − 2 = 0.
c) Show that the solution to the equation x2 − 1 x − 3 = 0 is 2, although 2 is
2
not a divisor of the free term. Explain why this is not contrary to the above
statement.
d) Transform the equation x3 + 4 x2 + 2 x + 1 = 0 so that all coefficients of the
5 3 3
equation are integers, then check whether the equation has an integer root.

Using the above theorem, some equations of the type W (x) = 0, in which
the polynomial W (x) has integer coefficients can be solved.

30 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 30
 EXAMPLE Solve the equation.

x 3 − 4x 2 + 8 = 0

Divisors of the free term of the polynomial W (x) = x 3 − 4x 2 + 8 are:

1, −1, 2, −2, 4, −4, 8, −8

W (1) = 1 − 4 + 8 6= 0 Numbers 1 and −1 do not meet the equation

x 3 − 4x 2 + 8 = 0.
W (−1) = −1 − 4 + 8 6= 0
W (2) = 23 − 4 × 22 + 8 = 0 Number 2 satisfies the equation.

x2 − 2x − 4
(x 3 − 4x 2 + 8) ÷ (x − 2)
−x 3 + 2x 2
−2x 2 + 8 We divide the polynomial x 3 − 4x 2 + 8 by the
binomial x − 2.
2x 2 − 4x
−4x + 8
4x − 8
0

x 3 − 4x 2 + 8 = (x − 2)(x 2 − 2x − 4)

We write the equation x 3 − 4x 2 + 8 = 0 in a

(x − 2)(x 2 − 2x − 4) = 0 different form and solve it.

x = 2 or x 2 − 2x − 4 = 0

∆ = 4 − 4 × (−4) = 20
√ √
∆=2 5
√ √
2−2 5
x1 = 2
=1− 5
√ √
2+2 5
x2 = 2
=1+ 5

√ √
Ans. The equation has three roots: x1 = 1 − 5, x2 = 1 + 5 and x3 = 2.

PROBLEM Solve the equation: x3 + 4x2 − 11x − 30 = 0.

Note. If using the Integer Root Theorem, we don’t find any solution to the poly-
nomial equation, it obviously doesn’t mean that the equation has no solutions.
For example, the equation x4 − 2x2 − 3 = 0 has no integer solutions, yet it has two
√ √
solutions: x = 3 and x = − 3.

POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS (CONTINUED) 31

MLK2-1 str. 31
 Curiosity

At the beginning of the year 1535 a mathematical duel began. Its partici-
pants were two Italians — Mario Fior and Niccolò Fontana, known by the
nickname Tartaglia. Such scientific competitions were very popular then,
because thanks to them the winner’s fame (and income) grew.

The competition consisted in that within 30 days both participants were to

solve dozens of problems prepared by the opponent. Fior had already won
many tournaments before, because he knew several third-degree equations
that only he seemed to be able to solve. All Fior’s problems concerned
third degree equations. A week before the deadline, Tartaglia discovered
a method for solving this type of equation and won the tournament.

Many scholars wanted to know the Tartaglia’s method, but he did not
want to reveal it to anyone. One of the Italian mathematicians — Giro-
lamo Cardano — asked Tartaglia for so long to show his method that he
finally agreed — but on condition that Cardano will not disclose it to any-
one. A few years later, Cardano learned that the Tartaglia’s method had
been previously discovered by Scipione del Ferro. He decided then that his
promise to Tartaglia was no longer valid for him, and he dishonestly pub-
lished the method under his own name. Since then, the formula for solving
the cubic equation is called Cardano’s formula.

PROBLEMS
1. Find all integer roots of the polynomial.
a) x3 − 2x2 − 2x − 3 d) 3x4 + x3 − x2 − x − 2

b) x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 8 e) x5 − x4 − 2x2 − 4x

c) 2x3 + 8x2 + 8x + 6 f) x6 − 4x5 − 6x4 + 4x3 + 5x2

2. Prove that the polynomial W (x) has no integer roots.

a) W (x) = 5x5 + 3x2 − 1 c) W (x) = 2x3 + 5x + 3

b) W (x) = x4 − x2 − 2 d) W (x) = 3x4 + x + 5

3. One of the roots of the polynomial is an integer. Find this number and other
roots of the polynomial.

a) 10x3 − x2 − 7x − 2 d) x3 + 3x2 + x − 2
b) −12x3 − 11x2 + 2x + 1 e) 4x3 − 12x2 + 9x − 2

c) x3 + x2 − 5x + 3 f) x3 − x2 − 17x − 15

4. For what natural values of n the equation xn + x + 2 = 0 has integer solutions?

Find these solutions.

32 POLYNOMIALS

MLK2-1 str. 32
Figures
on the plane. Part 1
Geometry in Greek means „measuring the Earth”.
This domain of science originates from measuring farmlands.
But for thousands of years already people are occupied
with geometry not for its application but for pure curiosity.

Angles. Angles in triangles and quadrilaterals Basic properties

of triangles Pythagoras' theorem and inverse of Pythagoras' theorem
Properties of triangles (continued) Properties of quadrilaterals

MLK2-1 str. 33
Some introductory remarks

Geometric figures are abstract objects, so when we say, for example, draw a straight line,
draw a triangle, we mean drawing a model of the figure being considered.
Points are labelled with capital letters. We can name lines with lowercase letters or with a
pair of uppercase letters. We usually denote rays with a pair of capital letters, where the
first of them is the point where the ray starts (confusingly called the endpoint).

Line segments can be labelled with lower

case letters. We assume that a lowercase
letter can also mean the length of a seg-
ment.
Line segments are also labelled with two
|AB| = 2,4 cm
capital letters, e.g. AB, but the length of
the line segment named in this way is writ-
ten as: |AB|.

With the symbol k we write that lines or

line segments are parallel, and with the
symbol ⊥ we write that lines or line seg- akb
ments are perpendicular. AB ⊥ CD

We call polygons by several capital letters.

Letters mean subsequent vertices of the
polygon.

triangle ABC pentagon KLMNO

When we say that the length of the segment is 4, it means that the segment is 4 times
longer than a certain segment taken as a unit of length. When we say that the area of the
figure is equal to 12, it means that the area of this figure is 12 times larger than the area
of a certain square taken as a unit of area.

Angles are most often labelled with lower-case letters of the Greek alphabet:
α (alpha) β (beta) γ (gamma) δ (delta) ϕ (phi) χ (chi) ψ (psi) ω (omega)

We assume that a Greek letter can also mean the angle’s measure.

We can also name angles with three cap-

ital letters, of which the middle letter
always indicates the vertex of the angle.
E.g. ¾ AOB is an angle with the vertex
O. The measure of the angle ¾ AOB is α = 24◦ ¾ AOB
|¾ AOB|. |¾ AOB| = 24◦

34 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 34
 ANGLES. ANGLES IN TRIANGLES
AND QUADRILATERALS
Let’s recall that two rays with a common
endpoint divide the plane into two angles;
the rays are the arms of both angles. If
these arms are not on one line, then one
of the angles is a convex angle and the
other is a non-convex one. The sum of
their measures is 360◦. β = 360◦ − α
D E
The angle is convex when its measure belongs to the set 0◦ ; 180◦ ∪ {360◦}.

The right angle The straight angle The complete angle

has 90◦. has 180◦. has 360◦.

The α angle
 is acute,
 The α angle
 is obtuse,
 The α angle is non-convex,

when α ∈ 0◦ ; 90◦ . when α ∈ 90◦ ; 180◦ . when α ∈ 180◦ ; 360◦ .

EXERCISE A How many non-convex angles can

be indicated in the figure beside?

Good to know!

Figure F is called non-convex (or concave) when there is a line segment

with ends belonging to figure F , that is not included in this figure. If each
of the line segments with the ends belonging to figure F is contained in
this figure, then this figure is called convex.

Examples of non-convex figures Examples of convex figures

ANGLES. ANGLES IN TRIANGLES AND QUADRILATERALS 35

MLK2-1 str. 35
 EXERCISE B What measures have angles,
which are labelled with letters ϕ, χ
and ψ in the picture?

Supplementary angles
Angles that have a common arm and
together form the straight angle are
called supplementary angles. The sum
of supplementary angles’ measure is
γ = 180◦ − δ
180◦.

When the arms of one angle are exten-

Vertical angles
sions of the arms of the other angle,
such angles have equal measures and
we call them vertical angles. Two in-
tersecting lines form two pairs of ver-
tical angles.

EXERCISE C Draw two intersecting lines and indicate in this drawing two pairs
of vertical angles and four pairs of supplementary angles.

The line that intersects two parallel

lines is inclined to each of them at the
same angle.
The opposite is also true: if a line
crosses two other lines and each of
them at the same angle, the two lines
must be parallel.

EXERCISE D The lines m and n in the draw-

ing are parallel. What measures have angles
labelled with letters?

If two lines are crossed by a third line, we can indicate four pairs of angles,
which we call corresponding, and four pairs of angles called alternate.

36 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 36
 In each of the drawings below, a line intersects two parallel lines, so the
two marked angles have equal measures.

Corresponding angles Alternate angles

We can use the recalled knowledge to prove the theorem about the angles
of a triangle.

Theorem
The sum of the angle measures
of a triangle is 180◦.

Proof
Let α, β and γ stand for the angles of triangle KLM. We will show that
α + β + γ = 180◦.

Through the vertex M of the KLM triangle

we draw a line parallel to the line KL. Let’s
denote by δ and ϕ the angles that together
with the angle γ form a straight angle, i.e.
δ + ϕ + γ = 180◦

The line KM intersects two parallel lines, so α = δ, because these are alternate
angles. Similarly, β = ϕ.
Thus: α + β + γ = δ + ϕ + γ = 180◦.

EXERCISE E In an isosceles triangle one of the angles has 70◦. What measures
the other angles of the triangle have?

ANGLES. ANGLES IN TRIANGLES AND QUADRILATERALS 37

MLK2-1 str. 37
 Because any quadrilateral can be divided
by one of the diagonals into two trian-
gles, so the sum of the angle measures
of both these triangles is the sum of the
quadrilateral’s angles measures. The follow-
ing statement is therefore true:

Theorem
The sum of the quadrilateral’s
angles measures is 360◦.

By using the properties of the corresponding or alternate angles, the fol-

lowing properties of the trapezoid and the parallelogram can be justified.

Theorem
In the trapezoid, the sum
of measures of the angles lying
at the same arm is 180◦.

EXERCISE F Write a proof of the trape-

zoid’s angles measures theorem, modeled
on the proof of the triangle’s angles theo-
rem. Use the picture beside

Theorem
In the parallelogram, the opposite angles
have the same measures, and the sum
of measures of the angles lying
at the same side is equal to 180◦. α + β = 180◦

EXERCISE G In the drawing, the lines a

and b as well as m and n contain the
sides of a parallelogram, i.e. a k b and
m k n. Identify angles that have the same
measure as angle α, and angles that have
the same measure as angle β. Using this
drawing, prove the above theorem.

38 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 38
PROBLEMS
1. Using the information under the figure, calculate the angle measures α and β.

2. The T , O, P
points in the picture lie on one line
and |¾ SOR| = 50◦, |¾ T OR| = 110◦. Calculate the
non-convex angle’s P OS measure.

3. Look at the picture next to. Justify that

points A, B, C do not lie on one line.

4. The lines marked in blue are parallel. Calculate the angles labelled with letters.

5. What measures have the angles of the triangle marked in blue?

6. The sun’s rays fall at an angle of

50◦ to the earth’s surface. The verti-
cal stick casts a shadow. At what an-
gle should the stick be tilted towards
the shadow so that the stick and its
shadow have the same length?

ANGLES. ANGLES IN TRIANGLES AND QUADRILATERALS 39

MLK2-1 str. 39
7. Look at the picture beside. The CD line segment
divides the isosceles triangle ABC (|AB| = |AC|) into
two isosceles triangles (|CD| = |AD| = |CB|). What is
the angle measure of α?

8. PointsA, B and C are not collinear. The measure of the angle adjacent to the
ABC angle is twice as large as the BAC angle measure. Justify that the triangle
ABC is an isosceles triangle.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES

EXERCISE A a) In the triangle ABC |AB| = 12, |BC| = 14, |AC| = 22. Which angle
of this triangle is the largest?
b) In the KLM triangle data are | ¾ KLM| = 71◦ and | ¾ LKM| = 66◦. Which side
of this triangle is the longest?

In the previous chapter, we talked about the sum of measures of triangle’s

angles. It is also worth remembering that in the triangle the longest side
is opposite the largest angle, and the shortest side is opposite the smallest
angle.

Now we will recall two important properties of triangles.

EXERCISE B The two sides of the triangle are 5 cm and 2 cm long. Can the third
side of the triangle be 7 cm long? Can it be 2 cm long?

Triangle Inequality Theorem

The sum of the lengths of any
two sides of a triangle is greater
than the length of the third side.
a+b >c b+c >a a+c >b

Note. If three line segments of different lengths are given, then to determine if a
triangle can be constructed from them, it is enough to check whether the sum of
the lengths of the two shorter ones is greater than the length of the third side.

EXERCISE C Given are line segments with lengths a = 2, b = 5, c = 8, d = 9.

Choose three of them, which can be sides of the same triangle.

40 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 40
 The area of a triangle is equal to half
A = a×h the product of the length of a side and
2 the length of the height drawn to the
line containing that side.

PROBLEMS
1. a) Which side of the ABC tri-
angle’s sides is the longest and
which side is the shortest?
b) Which of the KLM triangle’s
angles is the largest and which
is the smallest?

2. a)The sides of the triangle ABC have the following lengths: |AB| = 17, |BC| = 12,
|AC| = 15. Which angle of this triangle is the largest and which — the smallest?

b) In triangle ABC, angles have measures: |¾ BAC| = 50◦, |¾ CBA| = 85◦. Which side
of this triangle is the longest and which side is the shortest?

3. Check if a triangle can have sides of length:

a) 2 dm, 15 cm, 32 cm
b) 6 mm, 4 cm, 3 cm
√ √
c) 6, 3 2, 7 − 3
√ √ √
d) 8, 18, 50

4. Calculate the areas of the triangles drawn. Assume that the side of the grille is 1.

5. The heights of a triangle are 12, 11 15 and 12 13 12

long. The perimeter of this
triangle is 42. Calculate the lengths of all its sides.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES 41

MLK2-1 str. 41
 PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM AND
INVERSE OF PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM

Pythagoras’ Theorem
In a right-angled triangle, the sum
of squares of the lengths of catheti is equal
to the square of the length of hypotenuse.
a2 + b2 = c 2

Proof
Let a and b be the lengths of the catheti (currently also, legs) of a right-angled
triangle, and c is the hypotenuse’s length. We will prove that a2 + b2 = c 2 .
We build a square on the hypotenuse c (see first
figure). Then we add three identical right-angled
triangles with sides a, b and c to the three sides of
the square (see the second drawing).
Since the angle of the square with side c and the
adjacent two acute angles of the triangles form a
straight angle, the figure obtained is a quadrilateral,
and more precisely — a square with the side a + b.
The area of this square is: P = (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
Because the resulting square consists of four trian-
gles and a square with side c, its area can also be
calculated as follows:

P = 4 × a × b + c 2 = 2ab + c 2
2

Therefore, we can write the equality:

a2 + 2ab + b2 = 2ab + c 2

Hence: a2 + b2 = c 2

From history

Pythagoras of Samos (572 – 497 B.C.) can incarnate even into a plant. They
lived in Greece at a time when also conducted scientific activities.
Buddha taught in India and Confu- It is not known whether Pythago-
cius in China. Pythagoras was not ras’ theorem was proved for the first
only a mathematician, but also a time by Pythagoras himself or by
philosopher. The philosophy school any of his students. It is certain,
he founded proclaimed, among oth- however, that it was known before,
ers, faith in reincarnation. Pythago- because examples of its use have al-
reans believed that the soul of man ready been found in Egyptian papyri.

42 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 42
 Good to know!

Here’s another wording for Pythagorean Theorem:

In a right-angled triangle, the sum of areas of

the squares built on the legs is equal to the
area of the square built on the hypotenuse.

The theorem in this version can be proved

by dividing the two smaller squares into such
parts that they can be made into the larg-
er square. There are many such proofs of
Pythagoras’ theorem (squares can be divided
in various ways). One of them is shown in
the picture beside. A book The Pythagorean
Proposition by E. S. Loomis is a collection of
370 (sic!) different proofs.

EXAMPLE The size of the TV screen is determined by giving the length of

its diagonal (in inches). What dimensions in centimeters does the 24-inch screen
have if the ratio of its width to height is 4 : 3? (1 inch = 2,54 cm)

We make an auxiliary drawing; 4 : 3 ratio means that if for a

certain x the screen’s width is 4x, then the screen’s height
is 3x.

(4x)2 + (3x)2 = 242

16x 2 + 9x 2 = 242 We use the Pythagorean theorem (we must remember that
we get the result in inches).
25x 2 = 242

242
x 2 = 25 The letter x means the length of a certain line segment,
i.e. it is a positive number, so a negative solution to the
24 quadratic equation (− 24 ) we do not take into account.
x= 5 5

24 24
Screen’s height = 3 × inches = 3 × × 2,54 cm ≈ 36,6 cm
5 5
24
Screen’s width = 4 × × 2,54 cm ≈ 48,8 cm
5

Ans. The TV screen has dimensions (approximately) of 48,8 cm × 36,6 cm.

PROBLEM One of the legs of a right-angled triangle is twice as long as the other.
The hypotenuse has a length of 10. Calculate the legs’ lengths of this triangle.

PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM AND INVERSE OF PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM 43

MLK2-1 str. 43
 EXERCISE A The triangle in the picture is equilateral. The
height divides triangle into two right-angled triangles.
a) Write the equality resulting from Pythagorean Theorem
for one of these triangles and solve it for h.
b) What is the area of an equilateral triangle with side a?

EXERCISE B Triangle in the drawing is a right-angled

isosceles triangle. Write the equality resulting from Pytha-
gorean Theorem for this triangle and solve it for b.

The formulas for calculating the height and area of an equilateral triangle
and the length of the diagonal of a square can always be easily obtained
using Pythagoras’ Theorem.

√
a 3
h =
2 √
a2 3
√ d =a 2
A=
4

EXERCISE C One diagonal of a diamond divides it into two equilateral triangles.

What is the ratio of the diagonals’ lengths of this diamond?

EXERCISE D The sentences given are: implication and reverse implication.

Which of these sentences are true?
a) If one of the angles of a triangle is right, then two angles of this triangle are
acute.
If two angles of a triangle are acute, then one of the angles of this triangle is
right.
b) If the triangle is equilateral, then each angle of this triangle is 60◦.
If each triangle’s angle is 60◦, then the triangle is equilateral.

Note that the Pythagorean theorem can be formulated in the form of the
following implication:
If
the triangle is right-angled,
then
the sum of squares of lengths of the two shorter sides
is equal to the square of length of the third side.

We will now substantiate that the reverse implication is also true.

44 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 44
 Inverse Pythagoras’ theorem
If the sum of squares of lengths of two sides of a triangle
is equal to the square of length of the third side,
then this triangle is a right-angled triangle.

Proof
Let’s assume that the sides’ length of the triangle are a, b and c and that
a2 + b2 = c 2 . Let α be the angle between sides a and b and a ≥ b. Using the
indirect method, we will prove that α = 90◦.

Suppose α is not a right angle. It can therefore be acute or obtuse.

1. Assume that angle α is an acute an-

gle and a ≥ b. Then we have the situation
as shown in the picture. From Pythagoras’
Theorem we get:

h2 = b2 − x2 and h2 = c 2 − (a − x)2
Hence:
b2 − x2 = c 2 − a2 + 2ax − x2

So:
a2 + b2 = c 2 + 2ax, where 2ax > 0

Therefrom:

a2 + b2 > c 2

The inequality obtained is contrary to the equality assumed at the beginning:

a2 + b2 = c 2 . So α cannot be an acute angle.
We assumed that a ≥ b. For b > a, the proof would be analogous.

2. Suppose α is an obtuse angle. This sit-

uation is illustrated in the figure opposite.
Pythagoras’ Theorem indicates that:
h2 = b2 − x2 and h2 = c 2 − (x + a)2
Hence:
b2 − x2 = c 2 − x2 − 2ax − a2

So:
a2 + b2 = c 2 − 2ax, where 2ax > 0
Therefrom:
a2 + b2 < c 2

This inequality is contrary to the assumption. So α cannot be an obtuse angle.

Since angle α cannot be either acute or obtuse, it must so be the right angle.

PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM AND INVERSE OF PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM 45

MLK2-1 str. 45
PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the length of the side labelled with a letter.

2. Calculate the length of the side labelled with a letter.

3. Which of the figures in the drawing next

to it has a larger perimeter — the triangle or
the parallelogram? How much bigger?

4. In an isosceles triangle, the arm is three

times longer than the base. Calculate the ra-
tio of the height going toward the base, to
the length of this base.

5. Write a formula that allows calculating:

a) the length of the side a of the equilateral triangle when the area A of this
triangle is given,
b) the perimeter d of the equilateral triangle when the height h of this triangle is
given,
c) the area A of the equilateral triangle when the height h of this triangle is given,
d) the perimeter d of the equilateral triangle when the area A of the triangle is
given.

Worth remembering!

The isosceles right-angled triangle is half the

square, and the one with 30◦ and 60◦ acute
angles is half the equilateral triangle.

The figures show the relationships between

the side lengths in such triangles.

46 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 46
6. Can a box in the shape of a 30 cm × 1 m × 1,5 m be moved through a square-
shaped window with a side of 95 cm? Justify the answer.

7. Check if the triangle whose sides have the specified lengths is a right-angled
triangle.
√ √ p √
a) 20, 26, 32 d) 2 2, 3 + 2, 3 + 6 2
√
b) 3 7, 12, 9 e) 3 dm, 3,6 dm, 20 cm
√ √ √
c) 3 5, 6 2, 3 13 f) 1,2 m, 5 dm, 130 cm

8. From among the line segments drawn, select three of which you can build a
right-angled triangle. (Note. The task has five solutions.)

Good to know!

Three natural numbers that can be the Here is a general method for finding
sides of a right-angled triangle are called Pythagorean triples:
the Pythagorean triple. Here are exam- We choose positive natural numbers p,
ples of such triples: q, such that p > q > 0, and calculate a, b
3, 4, 5; 5, 12, 13; 40, 198, 202. and c according to the formulas:
Already 3.500 years ago, the Babylonians a = p2 − q 2 b = 2pq c = p2 + q 2
knew many such triples. It turns out that The numbers thus obtained meet the
there are infinitely many of them. condition:
a2 + b2 = c 2

9. a) Find some Pythagorean triples using the method described above.

b) Justify that the numbers a, b and c calculated from the formulas given above
meet the condition a2 + b2 = c 2 .
c) Find the Pythagorean triple with the largest number being 20.
d) Find the Pythagorean triple with the largest number being 34.

PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM AND INVERSE OF PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM 47

MLK2-1 str. 47
 PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES (CONTINUED)

We say about two polygons that they

are congruent if the subsequent sides
of one polygon have the same lengths
as the corresponding sides of the other
polygon and the angles between the cor-
responding sides have equal measures.

To determine if two triangles are congruent, you do not need to check that
all the relevant sides have equal lengths and that all relevant angles have
equal measures. You can use Rules of Congruence for Triangles, which we
remind below.

Rules of congruence for triangles

SSS (side-side-side) rule
If the sides of one triangle have the same
lengths as the corresponding sides of the oth-
er triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

SAS (side-angle-side) rule

If two sides of one triangle have the same
lengths as the corresponding sides of the oth-
er triangle and the angles between these sides
have equal measures, then the triangles are
congruent.

ASA (angle-side-angle) rule

If a side of one triangle has the same length
as the side of the other triangle, and the an-
gles of one triangle at this side have measures
equal to the measures of corresponding an-
gles of the other triangle, then the triangles
are congruent.

EXERCISE A Which of the of congruence rules of triangles show that the drawn
triangles are congruent?

By using the rules of congruence of triangles, some geometrical properties

can be proved.

48 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 48
 Let us remind you that the perpendicular bisector of a line segment is
perpendicular to it and passes through its center.

Theorem
A point belongs to the perpendicular bisector |P A| = |P B|
of a line segment if and only if
it is equidistant from its ends.

Proof
We will show that if point P lies on the perpendicular bisector of line segment
AB, then |P A| = |P B|.
Let S be the center of segment AB and P 6= S. Tri-
angles ASP and BSP have a common side SP . In
addition, |AS| = |SB| and the angle with vertex S in
both triangles is right. Thus, from the SAS rule, these
triangles are congruent. Therefore, |P A| = |P B|.
When P = S, of course also |P A| = |P B|.

Now, we will show that if point K is equidistant from the ends of the line
segment AB, it lies on the perpendicular bisector of this line segment.
Let S be the center of the line segment AB and K 6= S.
Triangles ASK andhave corresponding sides of the
same length, so the SSS rule implies that these tri-
angles are congruent. Therefore, |¾ ASK| = |¾ BSK|.
Because they are supplementary angles, so both are
right angles. It follows that the line KS is the perpen-
dicular bisector of line segment AB.
When K = S, then obviously K lies on the perpendic-
ular bisector of line segment AB.

Theorem
In each triangle, the symmetrical bisectors of the sides
intersect at one point.

Proof
Let S be the intersection point of the
symmetrical bisectors of AB and AC
in triangle ABC. From the property of
a symmetrical bisector it follows that
|SA| = |SB| and |SA| = |SC|.
From here |SB| = |SC|, which means
that point S also lies on the symmetri-
cal bisector of BC.

PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES (CONTINUED) 49

MLK2-1 str. 49
 Let us remind you that the bisector of an angle is a ray that divides this
angle into two angles of equal measures.

Theorem
A point belonging to a convex angle
lies on its bisector
if and only if
it is equally distant
from both angles’ arms.

We will use this theorem only for acute, right or obtuse angles, so we will
prove it only for such angles.

Proof
We will show that if point P lies on the bisector of the angle with vertex W
(acute, right or obtuse), then the distances of P from the angle arms are equal.

Let P 6= W , P A ⊥ W A and P B ⊥ W B. Triangles W P A

and W P B are right-angled and have a common W P
side. In addition, the angles adjacent to this side are
the same in both triangles. Thus, from the ASA rule it
follows that these triangles are congruent. Therefore,
|P A| = |P B|.
When P = W , then of course the distances of the P
point from both angle arms are equal (equal to 0).

We will show that if K is such a point of an angle (acute, right or obtuse) with
vertex W that it has equal distances from the angle arms, then this point lies
on the bisector of that angle.
Let K 6= W , KR ⊥ W R, KT ⊥ W T and |KR| = |KT |.
Triangles W T K and W RK each have two corre-
sponding sides of the same length. According to
Pythagoras’ Theorem, |W R| = |W T |. The SSS rule im-
plies that these triangles are congruent. Therefore,
|¾ T W K| = |¾ KW R|, i.e. the K point lies on the bisec-
tor of the ¾ T W R angle.
When K = W , then of course K lies on the bisector,
too.

Theorem
In each triangle, the bisectors of the angles intersect at one point.

EXERCISE B Prove the above theorem, imitating the proof of the theorem about
the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of sides of a triangle.

50 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 50
 Bisector theorem
If in triangle ABC the bisector of the angle
with vertex C intersects side AB
at point D, the ratio |AD| : |BD|
is equal to the ratio |AC| : |BC|. |AD| |AC|
=
|BD| |BC|

Proof
Let in the triangle ABC the bisector of the angle with vertex C intersects side
AB at point D. The distances of point D from the arms of this angle are equal.
They are labelled with a in the figure.
The ADC triangle’s area can be written in
two ways.

From the equality |AD| × h = |AC| × a

2 2
|AD| a
equality = results.
|AC| h

Similarly, for the BDC triangle,

from equality |BD| × h = |BC| × a

2 2
|BD| a
eqality = follows.
|BC| h

Therefore: |AD| = |BD| .

|AC| |BC|

The segment connecting the vertex of the triangle with the center of the
opposite side is called the median of the triangle.

EXERCISE C Draw any two triangles: acute- and obtuse-angled. In each of them
draw lines containing the heights of the triangle.

If your drawings from Exercise C were made accurately, then on each of

them the drawn lines should intersect at one point. The following state-
ment is true.

Theorem
In each triangle,
• lines containing heights intersect at one point,
• medians intersect at one point which divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1.

PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES (CONTINUED) 51

MLK2-1 str. 51
 The intersection of lines containing The intersection point of the medi-
the heights of a triangle is called ans of a triangle is called the center
the orthocenter. of gravity of the triangle.

Note that in an equilateral triangle the ortho-

center, the center of gravity, the intersection
point of perpendicular bisectors and the in-
tersection point of bisectors of angles is the
same point that divides each height in a ratio
of 1 : 2.

Note. If the triangle is not equilateral, the ortho-

center, center of gravity, intersection of perpen-
dicular bisectors and intersection of bisectors of
angles are four different points.

EXERCISE D Perform the following steps:

1. Draw any triangle (rather large) on a
cardboard and cut it out. Hang the tri-
angle on the hook (select the place of
attachment at some distance from ver-
tices). Hang the weighted thread on the
same hook. Mark the line along the thread
on the triangle.
2. Choose another point to hang the trian-
gle and do the same.
3. Find the intersection of the lines drawn.
Check (by drawing the medians) that this
point is the center of gravity of the trian-
gle.

Good to know!
The concept of center of gravity should be familiar to you from physics
lessons. Gravity is the force acting on every point of the physical body. The
resultant of these forces is applied at a point called the center of gravity.
So, if we cut a triangle out of cardboard, determined its center of gravity
and attached a thread at this point, then after hanging the triangle on it, it
should hang horizontally and remain in balance.

52 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 52
PROBLEMS
1. Using the information given in the drawing find a triangle that is congruent with
the shaded triangle.

2. In the triangle ABC in the drawing next to, points D, E, F are the centers of the
sides. The sides of the DEF triangle are parallel to the respective sides of the ABC
triangle. Justify that the triangles AED, EBF, DEF and DFC are congruent.

3. The ABCD quadrilateral in the picture is a parallelogram. Show that the triangle
ABF is congruent with the triangle CDE and that the triangle AED is congruent
with the triangle CFB.

4. The two squares are located as shown below. Show that angle α is right.

PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES (CONTINUED) 53

MLK2-1 str. 53
5. DCF and BCE equilateral triangles 6. Equilateral triangles were built on all
were built on the non-parallel sides DC sides of the square as shown in the fig-
and BC of rectangle ABCD (see figure ure below. Justify that the quadrilateral
below). Show that the triangle AEF is ABCD is a square.
equilateral.

7. In triangle ABC two sides have lengths |AB| = 12 and |BC| = 16. Perpendicular
bisectors of these sides intersect at point S. The diagonal SB of the quadrilateral
ABCS is 10. Calculate the area of this quadrilateral.

8. Point D in the drawing is the intersection point of the

bisectors of the two angles of triangle ABC. Calculate the
angle’s α measure.

9. In triangle ABC, bisectors of angles with vertices A and C intersect the sides of
the triangle at points E and D, respectively, and intersect at point F. Show that:

a) |AD| = |DF | b) |AF |×|DF | = |AD| c) |DF | + |BD| = |BE|

|AC| |CF | |F E|×|CF | |CE| |CF | |AC| |CE|

10. The heights of the equilateral triangle ABC intersect at point D.

a) Calculate the length of segment AD if it is known that |AB| = 5.
b) Calculate the distance of point D from the line BC if |BC| = 10.
c) Calculate the distance of point D from the side AB if |DC| = 12.
d) Calculate the area of the BCD triangle if |AD| = 20.

11. Point D in the figure is the orthocenter of the triangle ABC. Calculate the
angle’s α measure.

54 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 54
 PROPERTIES OF QUADRILATERALS
We have already discussed the properties of angles in some quadrilaterals
(see page 38. Now we will remind other properties of quadrilaterals.

EXERCISE A Let’s assume that the side of the grille is 1. Calculate the areas of
the figures drawn.

EXERCISE B Draw a square, a rectangle (which is not a square), a rhombus

(which is not a square) and a parallelogram (which is not a rhombus or rect-
angle). Draw the diagonals of these quadrilaterals. Consider what can be said
about the diagonals of each of the figures drawn.

The square is a quadrilateral whose all angles are right and all sides have
equal lengths.

The area of the square is equal to The diagonals of the square have
the square of the length of its side. equal lengths, they intersect in half
and are perpendicular.

A = a2

A rectangle is a quadrilateral whose all angles are right.

The area of a rectangle is equal to The diagonals of a rectangle are

the product of the lengths of its equal in length and intersect in the
two adjacent sides. midpoint.

A=a×b

PROPERTIES OF QUADRILATERALS 55

MLK2-1 str. 55
 A rhombus is a quadrilateral whose all sides have equal lengths.
The area of a rhombus is equal to The rhombus’ diagonals intersect
half the product of the lengths of in the midpoint and are perpen-
its diagonals. dicular. The diagonal divides the
rhombus’ angle into two parts of
equal measure.

e×f
A=
2

Note. The square is a rhombus, so its area can also be calculated using the
rhombus’ area formula.

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral that has two pairs of parallel sides.

The area of a parallelogram is equal The diagonals of a parallelogram in-
to the product of the length of its tersect in the midpoint.
side by the length of the hight per-
pendicular to this side.

A=a×h

Note. The rhombus is a parallelogram, so its area can also be calculated using the
formula for the parallelogram’s area.

A trapezoid is a quadrilateral that has at least one pair of parallel sides.

The trapezoid’s area is equal to half In the isosceles trapezium, which is
the product of the sum of lengths not a parallelogram, the diagonals
of its bases, and the length of its have equal lengths.
height.

(a + b) × h
A=
2

56 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 56
 EXAMPLE The rhombus’ diagonals have lengths 3 and 5. What is the height
of this rhombus?

The rhombus’ properties imply that the ABO triangle is

right-angled, and its legs are 32 and 25 long (each of them
is half of the corresponding diagonal).

 2  2
5 3 We calculate the side’s length of the rhombus using
a2 = 2 + 2 Pythagorean Theorem for triangle ABO.
34
a2 = 4
√ We cannot take into account the negative solution of the
34
a= 2 quadratic equation, because this is the length of side.

3×5 We present the rhombus’ area in two ways and write the
2
=a×h
√ appropriate equality.
15 34
2
= 2
×h
√
15 15 34
h= √ = 34
34
√
15 34
Ans. The height of the rhombus is 34
, i.e. about 2,6.

PROBLEM The rhombus’ area is 32 and one of the diagonals is 4. Calculate the
height of this rhombus.

The properties of diagonals of a square, rectangle, rhombus and parallel-

ogram mentioned above can be formulated using equivalence. Here is an
example of such an equivalence:

Theorem
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if
its diagonals intersect at the midpoint of each.

Proof
We will show that if the ABCD quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its diago-
nals intersect in the midpoint.

Let P be the intersection point of the diag-

onals of the ABCD parallelogram. The ASA
rule tells that the triangles ABP and CDP are
congruent because |AB| = |CD| and the re-
spective angles of these triangles are equal.
From here: |AP | = |P C| and |BP | = |P D|.
Thus, point P is the center of the diagonal AC and center of the diagonal BD.

PROPERTIES OF QUADRILATERALS 57

MLK2-1 str. 57
 We will now show that if KLMN is a quadrilateral whose diagonals intersect in
the midpoint, it is a parallelogram.
Let S be the intersection point of the KLMN’s
diagonal. The triangles KLS and MNS are
congruent (rule SAS).
Therefor: |¾ KLS| = |¾ SNM|. So, KL k MN.
Similarly, it can be shown that KN k ML.

It follows that the KLMN quadrilateral has two pairs of parallel sides, it is so
a parallelogram.

EXERCISE C Draw two line segments of different lengths, but intersecting in

the midpoint of each. Draw a quadrilateral whose diagonals are these line
segments. Which one of the implications proved above determines what quadri-
lateral it is?

It is known that every parallelogram

is a trapezoid, every rectangle — a
parallelogram, etc.

EXERCISE D Using the trapezoid’s for-

mula, calculate the area of:
a) a square with side of length a,
b) a rectangle with sides of lengths a
and b,
c) a parallelogram with side a and
height h perpendicular to this side.

PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the areas of the figures shown in the drawings.

58 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 58
2. The drawn lines are parallel. Which figure has the largest area? Which figures
have equal areas?

3. Write a formula to calculate:

a) the area of a square with diagonal d,
b) the perimeter of a square with area A,
c) the rhombus’ area with perimeter P and height h,
d) the rhombus’ perimeter with diagonals e and f ,
e) the area of an isosceles trapezoid with bases a, b (a > b) and arm r ,
f) the perimeter of an isosceles trapezoid with bases a and b (a > b) and area A.

4. Ina rectangular trapezoid with an area of 12, the shorter base and height are
equal in length. The difference in base length is 2. Calculate the perimeter of this
trapezoid.

5. a) Calculate the area of a rhombus in which one of the angles is 45◦ and the
side is of length a.
b) Calculate the isosceles trapezoid’s area in which one of the angles is 60◦, shorter
base is of length a and the arm is 2a long.
c) Calculate the perimeter of a parallelogram with heights a and b if one of its
angles has the measure of 30◦.

6. Read the Curiosity.

Curiosity

A-format paper sheets (e.g. A4 —

used for printers, A5 — notebook
pages) have the following property: if
we draw from the top a line segment
at an angle of 45◦ (see figure), this
line segment has the same length as
the longer side of the sheet.

a) Calculate the ratio of the length of A-format paper to its width.

b) A-format page is divided into an isosceles right-angled triangle and a trapezoid.
How many times the trapezoid’s area is larger than the triangle’s area?

PROPERTIES OF QUADRILATERALS 59

MLK2-1 str. 59
7. The figures show the carousel at rest 8. Look at the drawing. A rope was at-
and in motion. How high up is the chair tached to the branch and a 60 cm long
when the carousel is spinning? board was attached to it. The swing
hangs 70 cm above the ground. When
a shorter board was attached instead of
this board, the swing hung 60 cm above
the ground. Calculate the length of the
shorter board.

9. Linesegment MN connects the centers of

the opposite sides of the parallelogram ABCD.
Show that the line segment MN and the diag-
onal BD intersect in half their lengths.

60 FIGURES ON THE PLANE. PART 1

MLK2-1 str. 60
Functions
Sound is a physical phenomenon caused by vibrations. Thus, the magnitude
of this phenomenon can be measured by the energy of these vibrations.
However, it turns out that sound of twice the energy is not perceived
by people as twice as loud. When we want to compare sound levels according
to how the human ear perceives them, we use the logarithmic function.

Formulas and graphs of functions Examples of functions

and their properties Exponential and logarithmic functions
Exponential and logarithmic equations Applications of exponential
and logarithmic functions Transforming function graphs
Transforming function graphs (continued)

MLK2-1 str. 61
 FORMULAS AND GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
Let us remind you that a function from set X (domain) to set Y (codomain)
is an assignment which to each element of X (argument) assigns exactly
one element of Y (value).
The notation f : X → Y denotes a function f with domain X whose values belong
to set Y . The set of function values (range) is a subset of codomain Y , but it does
not have to be equal to Y .

In this chapter we will deal with functions whose domain and range are
sets of numbers.

 
Consider the function f : −1 ; +∞ → ’ described as follows:

We assign each real number x greater than −1 the quotient of x divided by

a number 1 greater than x.

The way arguments are assigned values for this function can be represent-
ed by the formula:
f (x) = x
x+1

The function’s formula can also be written otherwise:

y= x x→ x
x+1 x+1
Note. Both x and y are called variables because they vary. Function determines
how y depends on x. This is why x is called the independent variable and y —
the dependent variable.

Using a formula, we can calculate values of the function under

 consid-

eration for numbers belonging to the domain, i.e. the set −1 ; +∞ . For
example, for arguments 2, − 1 , 0, 3 we get:
2

f (2) = 2 = 2 f (0) = 0 =0
2+1 3 0+1

  − 12
f −1 = = −1 f (3) = 3 = 3
2 1
−2 + 1 3+1 4

The table beside lists selected arguments

x 2 −1 0 3
and the corresponding values. 2

f (x) 2 −1 0 3
The above calculations show that the graph 3 4
of function f includes points:
     
2, 2 , − 1 , −1 , (0, 0), 3, 3
3 2 4

62 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 62
 EXERCISE A a) Mark in the coordinate system at least seven points belonging to
the graph of the function discussed on the previous page.
b) Which of the numbers: 1, 2, −50, −1000 can be values of this function?

In the coordinate system, several All points on the graph of the

points belonging to the graph of function under consideration form
the function discussed on the pre- such a curve as in the figure below.
vious page have been marked.

 
The set of values for the function f is the interval −∞ ; 1 .

x −1
EXAMPLE 1 The formula f (x) = x 2 defines function f on the set ’ \ {0}.
Check if points A and B belong to the graph of this function.

1 2−1 1 −2 − 1 3
 
A = 2, 4 f (2) = = 4 B = (−2, 1) f (−2) = = − 6= 1
22 (−2)2 4

1
 
Ans. Point A = 2, 4 belongs to the graph of function f , and point B = (−2, 1)
does not belong to this function graph.
   
PROBLEM Do points A = 9, 3 , B = 1
,21 belong to the graph of function
10 4 2
√
x
g(x) = ?
x+1

EXAMPLE 2 The figure shows a graph of the func-

tion given by the formula f (x) = |3x + 2| − 4. Find the
coordinates of points A and B.

Point A: f (2) = |3 × 2 + 2| − 4 = 4 A = (2, f (2))

A = (2, 4)

Point B: f (0) = |3 × 0 + 2| − 4 = −2
B = (0, −2)

PROBLEM Function g is given by the formula g(x) = |2x − 3| − 5. Point P with the
first coordinate −7 belongs to the graph of this function. What is the second coordinate
of this point? At what point does the graph of this function intersect the y axis?

FORMULAS AND GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS 63

MLK2-1 str. 63
 The argument for which the value of a number function is 0 is called the
zero of the function. In other words:
x0 is the zero of function ⇐
⇒ f (x0 ) = 0

√
EXERCISE B a) Function f is defined by the formula f (x) = (x + 2) x2 − 1. Which
of the arguments: 1, −3, −2 are zeros of this function?
b) Find the zero of function y = 4x − 7 .
3

EXAMPLE 3 Function f (x) = (2x + 1)(x 2 − 2x − 1) is defined on the set ’. Find all
zeros of this function.

f (x) = (2x + 1)(x 2 − 2x − 1)

(2x + 1)(x 2 − 2x − 1) = 0 To find arguments for which the function

2 takes value 0 we solve the equation f (x) = 0.
2x + 1 = 0 or x − 2x − 1 = 0
1
x = −2 ∆=4+4=8
√ p √
∆= 8=2 2
√ √
2−2 2
x1 = 2
=1− 2
√ √
2+2 2
x2 = 2
=1+ 2
1 √ √
Ans. Zeros of this function are numbers − 2 , 1 − 2 and 1 + 2.

PROBLEM Find zeros of the function y = x3 − 2x2 defined on set ’.

EXERCISE C Determine what zeros  the function

E from the above example would
have, if its domain were the set −∞ ; 0 ?

When a function is determined only by means of a formula and its domain

is not given, we assume that all real numbers for which the value of the
function can be calculated belong to the domain.

6 √
EXAMPLE 4 Specify the domain of the function y = x − 2 + 3x.

x − 2 6= 0 and 3x ≥ 0 Division by zero is not defined, the radicand

must be non-negative.
So:
x 6= 2 and x ≥0
D 
Ans. The domain is the set 0 ; +∞ \ {2}.
√
2−x
PROBLEM Determine the domain of the function y = .
x−1

64 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 64
 Sometimes the function formula describes a relationship between two
quantities. It should be remembered that arguments of such a function
can only be such numbers for which using the formula makes sense. Here
are examples:

• Number L of all prism’s faces depends on

the number of edges on the base of the
prism.
L=n+2
n — number of edges of the base,
L — number of faces.

The domain of this function is the set of:

{3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}.

• The length of the diagonal (d) of rectangle

with perimeter 10 depends on the length of
one of its sides (x).
p
d = x 2 + (5 − x)2

x — length of one of the sides

d — diagonal’s length

When the perimeter of the rectangle is 10, then

the length of each side must be less than
 5,so
the domain of this function is interval 0 ; 5 .

PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the value of the given function for argument 0 and for argument 2.
√ 1
a) f (x) = x3 b) f (x) = x − 10 c) f (x) =
x+2

2. Specify the coordinates of three points that belong to the graph of the given
function.
a) y = 2x2 + 1 b) y = −3x3 c) y = −3
x

3. Check which of the points A, B, C belong to the graph of the given function.
2
   
a) y = 2x − 1 ;
1 79
A = 1, 3 , B = −20, 60 , C = (0, −1)
3x
√    √ 
b) y = 1 − 5x ; A = 51 , 0 , B = (10, 7), C = −2, 11
   
c) y = x + √ 1 ; A = 0, 21 , B = (−3, −2), C = 5, 5 31
x+4

FORMULAS AND GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS 65

MLK2-1 str. 65
4. Find the coordinates of the points labelled on the graphs with letters.

5. Check which of the given numbers are zeros of function f .

√ √ √
3
a) f (x) = x+3 b) f (x) = x − x+2 c) f (x) = 1 − x3

0, −3, 3 −1, 1, 2 1, −1, 0

y = x(x2 − 3) 6. The formula and graph of a function are present-

ed next to it. Which of the following questions are
easier to answer by using the graph and which by
using the formula?
a) What value does the function take for x = −1?
b) Is the function value for x = 5 greater than 100?
1
c) Is the function value for x = 1 7 positive?
d) Is the value of the function for x = −1,8 negative?
e) Is the number 1,7 zero of the function?
f) Are the numbers f (−20) and f (20) opposite?
g) Does point (6, 198) belong to the graph of this
function?
h) Is the value of the function for x = −1,75 higher or
less than the value for x = −2,75?
i) How many negative integers for which the func-
tion assumes positive values are there?

7. Specify the domain of the given function.

a) y = x3 − 5x c) y = 1 e) y = 1
x−2 |x − 2|
√ √ 5
b) y = x d) y = 3−x f) y =
2x2 + 3

8. Show that if the difference between arguments of the function f (x) = 5x − 3 is

2
equal to 4, then the difference between the corresponding values is 10.

66 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 66
 EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONS
AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Let the domain of function f be a number set.

We remind you that:

Function f is increasing when for any arguments x1 , x2 is satisfied the
condition:
x1 < x2 ⇐
⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
Function f is decreasing when for any arguments x1 , x2 is satisfied the
condition:
x1 < x2 ⇐
⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
Function f is constant when the function takes the same value for each
argument x.

Here are examples of several functions. Each of them is either increasing

or decreasing, or constant throughout their domain. We can say that each
of these functions is monotonic.

y = x3 y = −x y =3

increasing function decreasing function constant function

3
y = √1
√ √
y = x y =3 x
x

increasing function decreasing function constant function

EXERCISE A It is known that a function f is increasing, a function g is decreas-

ing, f (8) = g(8) and the domain of each of the two functions is the set of
real numbers. Sort the numbers f (3), g(3), f (7), g(7) in order from smallest to
largest.

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 67

MLK2-1 str. 67
 None of the following functions are monotonic, but we can determine the
intervals of their monotonicity, i.e. divide the domains of these functions
into such intervals in which a given function is either increasing or de-
creasing, or constant.

f1 (x) = |x| f2 (x) = x − |x − 1| + 5 f3 (x) = −x2 + 4

Function f1 is decreasing

E Function f2 is increasing
E Function f3 is increasing
E
in set −∞ ; 0 in set −∞ ; 1 in set −∞ ; 0
and is increasing
D  and is Dconstant
 and is decreasing
D 
in set 0 ; +∞ . in set 1 ; +∞ . in set 0 ; +∞ .

2
f4 (x) = x f5 (x) = 1 x3 − 1 x2 − 2x f6 (x) = |x| + |x + 5|
3 2

Function f4 is decreasing

 Function f5 is increasing
E Function f6 is decreasing
E
in set −∞ ; 0 in set −∞ ; −1 , in set −∞ ; −5 ,
and is decreasing
  is decreasing
D E is constant
D E
in set 0 ; +∞ . in set −1 ; 2 in set −5 ; 0
and is increasing
D  and is increasing
D 
in set 2 ; +∞ . in set 0 ; +∞ .

If the function is defined on set ’ and its formula has the form y = W (x),
where W (x) is a polynomial, we call this function a polynomial function.

EXERCISE B Which of the above functions are polynomial functions?

Linear functions and quadratic functions are polynomial functions. On the

next page we remind you of their properties.

68 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 68
 The function given by formula y = ax + b is a linear function. Its graph is a
line. When a > 0, it is an increasing function, when a < 0, it is a decreasing
function, and when a = 0, it is a constant function.

Graphs of functions of type y = ax + b Graphs of functions of type y = ax + b

with the same coefficient a with the same coefficient b
are parallel lines. intersect at (0, b).

The function defined by formula y = ax2 +bx+c, where a 6= 0, is a quadratic

function. Its graph is a parabola with arms pointing up when a > 0, or
down when a < 0. The number of zeros of such a function depends on the
value of ”delta”, i.e. the expression ∆ = b2 − 4ac.
√ √
If ∆ > 0, the function has two zeros: x1 = −b − ∆ , x2 = −b + ∆ .
2a 2a
If ∆ = 0, the function has one zero: x0 = −b .
2a
If ∆ < 0, the function has no zeros.

The formula of a quadratic function can

be written in the general (or canonical)
form, and if the function has zeros, it can
also be in the product form.
General form: y = ax2 + bx + c
Canonical form: y = a(x − p)2 + q
Canonical form: y = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 )
p=− b p = x1 + x2
2a 2 When the quadratic function has one zero x0 ,
q=−∆ q = f (p) the function formula can be written in the
4a
form y = a(x − x0 )2 .

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 69

MLK2-1 str. 69
 Sometimes function values are not specified with the same expression for
all arguments. Here is an example of such a function:
(
x+4 for x ≤ −1
f (x) =
x(x − 2) for x > −1

This notation means that for arguments smaller than −1 or equal to −1 we

calculate the value of the function f from the formula f (x) = x + 4, and for
arguments greater than −1 we use the formula f (x) = x(x − 2). E.g:

f (−5) = −5 + 4 = −1
f (−1) = −1 + 4 = 3
f (2) = 2(2 − 2) = 0
f (4) = 4(4 − 2) = 8

The figure beside shows the graph of

this function. It consists of fragments
of a line and a parabola. This graph is
a solid line (you can draw it without
taking your pencil off the sheet).

In a similar way to the function f , func-

tion g is defined:
(
−2x + 3 for x ≤ 2
g(x) =
x+1 for 2 < x ≤ 5

A graph of g function is shown in the

figure. Note that it is not a solid line.

EXAMPLE Draw the graph of the given function.


 1 (x + 7)(x − 1) for x ∈ −∞ ; −1
 E

2
f (x) =  E
x + 4 for x ∈ −1 ; 5


First, we sketch the graph of function y = 12 (x + 7)(x − 1).

Zeros are −7 and 1, the coordinates of the vertex of
the parabola are −72+ 1 = −3 and 12 (−3 + 7)(−3 − 1) = −8,
and the value of this function for x = −1 is −6.
Then we sketch the graph of the function y = x + 4
(the value of this function for x = −1 is 3, and for
x = 5 is 9).
Finally, we mark the appropriate sections of the
parabola and the line.

 D 
 −x2 + 4 for x ∈ −3 ; 1
PROBLEM Draw the graph of function f (x) = D .
 2x − 5 for x ∈ 1 ; +∞

70 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 70
PROBLEMS
1. Match formulas to graphs.
a) b)
y =x+1 y =x+3
y = −x + 1 y = −x − 2
y = 1x + 1 y = −2x + 3
2
y = −1x + 1 y = 3x + 2
2

2. The figure presents graphs of three linear functions. Two of the lines are paral-
lel. Formulas of two functions are given. Find the formula for the third function.
a) b)
y = 5x + 5 y = 1x − 3
3
y = −5x − 5 y = −1x + 3
3

3. Find formulas of the linear functions shown in the

picture.

4. Find the formula for a linear function that meets

the given condition.
a) The graph of the function passes through points
(5, −2), (−4, 1).
b) The zero of the function is −2 and the graph of this
function intersects the y axis at (0, 6).

5. a) Find the formula for the linear function f whose zero is 3 less than zero of
the function g(x) = − 4 x + 3, but the graphs of the functions f and g intersect the y
5
axis at the same point.
 
b) Linear function f assumes positive values for x ∈ −∞; −4 and its values for
−10 and 4 arguments differ by 3. Find the formula for this function.

6. a) The graph of the linear function f is parallel to the graph of the function
y = 3x + 1 and passes through point (−6, 3). Find the formula of this function.
2
b) Find the formula of a linear function whose graph is parallel to the graph of
function f (x) = −5x + 7 and intersects the y axis at the same point as the graph of
function g(x) = 2 x + 4 . Find the zero of this function.
3 5

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 71

MLK2-1 str. 71
7. Match formulas to graphs.
a) b)

y = 1 (x − 2)(x + 5) y = −2(x − 2)2 + 5

2
y = 1 (x + 2)(x − 5) y = −2(x + 2)2 + 5
2
y = − 1 (x + 2)(x − 5) y = − 1 (x − 2)2 + 5
2 2

c) d)

y = x2 − 2x − 4 y = −(x + 2)(x − 3)

y = x2 + 2x + 4 y = −(x + 4)2 + 8

y = 1 x2 − 2x + 4 y = −x2 + 6x − 5
2

8. Find the formula of the quadratic function that has the same zeros as the func-
tion f (x) = −5(x − 2)(x + 4), and the parabola, which is its graph, has the same vertex
as the graph of the function g(x) = 3(x + 1)2 − 6.

9. Calculate f (−2), f (0), f (10), if:

  E

 −2x2 for x ∈ −∞ ; −1
x2 + 1
( 
for x < −1

  E
a) f (x) = c) f (x) = 1 for x ∈ −1 ; 1
2
x −1 for x ≥ −1

  

 3x2

for x ∈ 1 ; +∞

√
√ E
 2−x for x < 0
 
 3−x

for x ∈ −∞ ; − 2
 
2

b) f (x) = 3
d) f (x) = 5x − 2
 √  for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5
 x2 + 21 for x ∈ − 2 ; +∞
 


0,1x − 10 for x > 5


72 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 72
10. Draw the graph of the given function.
 D    
 − 1 x + 3 for x ∈ −6; −2
  −x2 + 4 for x ∈ −2 ; 2

2
a) f (x) = D E c) f (x) =  
 −x2 + 4 for x ∈ −2; 2
  x2 − 4

for x ∈ ’ \ −2 ; 2
( (
(x + 2)2 for −4 ≤ x ≤ 1 x2 + 3 for x ≤ 0
b) f (x) = d) f (x) =
2
−x + 4 for x > 1 x − 2x for 0 < x ≤ 3

EXPONENTIAL AND
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
You already know that for every real number x the number 2x is specified.
So, you can consider the function y = 2x , whose domain is the set ’.

EXERCISE A Calculate the values of the function y = 2x for the arguments: −3,
−2, −1, 0, 1 , 1, 2, 3 and mark in the coordinate system the corresponding
2
points of the function graph. Sketch the graph of this function.

The figure shows the graph of function y = 2x . Note that:

• The function values are positive because

2x > 0for each real number x.
• The graph does not intersect the x ax-
is, but for smaller arguments the corre-
sponding points on the graph are closer
and closer to this axis. We say that the
x axis is the horizontal asymptote of the
graph of y = 2x .
• The function graph intersects the y axis
at the point with coordinates (0, 1), be-
cause 20 = 1.

EXERCISE B The diagram beside

 x shows
graph of the function y = 1 . Check
2
which of the features described above
has this function.

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 73

MLK2-1 str. 73
 Each function whose formula can be written in the form y = ax ,
where a > 0, is called an exponential function. The domain of the
exponential function is the set of real numbers.

Note that for a = 1 the exponential function has the form y = 1, so it

is a constant function. Below are graphs of several exponential functions
y = ax , where a 6= 1, and their properties are given.

 
• The set of function values is the interval 0 ; +∞ .
• The x-axis is the horizontal asymptote of the function graph.
• The function graph intersects the y-axis at the point with (0, 1) coordi-
nates.
• For a > 1 function y = ax is increasing, and for 0 < a < 1 it is decreasing.

Because each positive number x can be uniquely assigned the number

log2 x (that is, such an exponent to which 2 should be raised to get x), so
we can consider the function log2 x, whose domain is set ’+ .

EXERCISE C Calculate the values of the function y = log3 x for the arguments:
3, 9, 1 , 1 , 1 and mark in the coordinate system the points corresponding to
3 9
these arguments. Sketch in the coordinate system the function’s graph.

The figure shows the graph of function y = log3 x. Note that:

• The domain
 of the function is the set
0 ; +∞ .
• The function graph does not intersect
the y-axis, but the closer the arguments
are to zero, the more the corresponding
graph points approach the y-axis. We
say that the y-axis is the vertical asymp-
tote of the function graph.
• The function graph intersects the x-axis
at point (1, 0).

74 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 74
 EXERCISE D The next picture shows the
graph of the function y = log 1 x. Which
3
of the properties given above has this
function?

Each function whose formula can be written as y = loga x, where

a > 0 and a 6= 1, is called a logarithmic function. The domain of the
logarithmic function is the interval (0 ; +∞).

Here are examples of graphs of several logarithmic functions and their

properties.

• The set of logarithmic function’s values is the set of real numbers.

• The y axis is the asymptote (vertical) of the function graph.
• The function graph intersects the x axis only at the point (1, 0), i.e. the
only zero of the function is x = 1.
• For a > 1 the function y = loga x is increasing, and for 0 < a < 1 it is
decreasing.

The concept of logarithm is associated with exponentiation. Similarly,

there is a relationship between the logarithmic function and an exponen-
tial function.

Look at the picture beside. It is easy to

see that the x-axis and y-axis are symmet-
rical to each other with respect to the line
y = x and each point with coordinates (a, b)
is symmetrical relative this line to the point
(b, a). This fact can be used when drawing
graphs of logarithmic functions.

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 75

MLK2-1 str. 75
 Let’s consider the following func-
tions:
f (x) = 2x g(x) = log2 x

Let point (p, r ) be an arbitrary point

of the f function’s graph. So:
r = 2p
Therefrom:
log2 r = p

Therefore, point (r , p) belongs to

the graph of function g. It means
that the graph of function g is sym-
metrical about the line y = x to the
graph of function f .

Similarly, the graph of function y =

log 1 x is symmetrical to the func-
2  x
tion graph y = 1 relative to the
2
y = x line.

PROBLEMS
1. Each of the drawings below presents graphs of two of the following functions:
 x
f (x) = 0,6x g(x) = 6 h(x) = 2,7x k(x) = 10x
7
Match the formulas to the graphs.

2. From among the given formulas, find the ones that represent the same function.
x 2
a(x) = 10x + 2 c(x) = 100 + 10x g(x) = 10 i(x) = 10x
100
b(x) = 10x − 2 d(x) = 100 × 10x h(x) = 100x j(x) = 102x

76 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 76
3. a) For what value a does the graph of function y = ax pass through point (2, 4)?
b) For what value a point (−3, 27) belongs to the graph of the function y = ax ?

4. Specify the domain of function:

a) y = log3 (x − 2) c) y = log(x2 − 3x − 10) e) y = logx − 3 5

b) y = log 1 (x2 − 9) d) y = logx 2 f) y = logx (2 − x)

2

5. The following figures show the graphs of functions:

 x  x
1 y= 3 2 y= 4 3 y = 3x
4 3

4 y = log 3 x 5 y = log 4 x 6 y = log3 x

4 3

Match the formulas to the graphs.

6. The tables present the results of measurements of t and p values made during
three different experiments. It is presumed that the relationship between these
quantities is represented by the formula p = a + b log t, where a and b are certain
numbers — constants characteristic of a given experiment. Which measurement
results confirm this assumption?

1 1 2 3
t 1 10 t 0,01 1 1000 t 0,1 1 100
10
p −16 −10 −6 p 13 −2 −12 p −3 4 18

7. Inthe drawings next to it there are

graphs of the following functions:
f (x) = log x
g(x) = log3 x
h(x) = log 5 x
6

k(x) = log0,1 x
Match the graphs to the formulas.

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 77

MLK2-1 str. 77
 EXPONENTIAL
AND LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS
A function is said to be injective when it takes different values for any
two different arguments. In other words: this function assigns each value
for only one argument. This means that the following condition is met:
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇐
⇒ x1 = x2

Note that each increasing function and each decreasing function is injec-
tive, so this condition is met by exponential and logarithmic functions.

Equation: Equation:
3x = 9 log5 x = 2
you can write like this: you can write like this:
3x = 32 log5 x = log5 25
The exponential function is injective, The logarithmic function is injective,
so: so:
x=2 x = 25
and the number 2 is the only solution and the number 25 is the only solution
to the equation under consideration. to the equation under consideration.

The equation 3x = 9 is an example of an exponential equation, i.e. one in

which the unknown occurs only in the exponent. In the equation log5 x = 2
the unknown is a term in logarithm. This is an example of a logarithmic
equation.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve the equation.

√
5
1 b) 3x = 3
a) 5x = 25 We write both sides of the equation in the
1 form of powers with equal bases.
5x = 5−2 3x = 3 5

x = −2 x=
1 We use the condition: a p = a r ⇐
⇒p=r for
5 a > 0 and a 6= 1.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

√
b) 10x = 0,001
3
a) 2x = 2

78 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 78
 When solving exponential equations,
properties of powers are sometimes If a > 0 and m, n ∈ ’,
useful, which we recall next. then:

(am )n = am × n

am × an = am + n
EXAMPLE 2 Solve the equation.
am
= am − n
√ x an
3
4 27
x
a) 2x = b) 9 = √
16 3
√
3 6 x
2 x (33 ) Using properties of powers, we write both
2x = 4 (32 ) = 1 sides of the equation in the form of powers
2
32 with identical bases.
2
23 1
2x = 32x = 33x − 2
24
2 1
−4
2x = 2 3 2x = 3x −
2
10
We use the condition: a p = a r ⇐
⇒p=r for
1 a > 0 and a 6= 1.
x
2 = 2− 3 x=
2
10
x =−
3

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

√
a) 4x = 2 b) 8x = 2 × 4x

Solving an exponential equation, it is not always possible to apply the

method shown in the examples above. Sometimes you can find a solution
using the logarithm’s definition.

EXAMPLE 3 Solve the equation.

a) 5 × 2x + 1 = 4 b) 3x = 2 × 5x
3x
5 × 2x = 3 =2
We use 5x We use
3
2x = the definition  x
3 the definition
5 of logarithm. =2 of logarithm.
5
3
x = log2 x = log 3 2
5
5

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

x
a) 4 × 3 = 7 b) 3 × 5x = 10x

Note that in example 3b) the equation could be transformed differently and
result x = log 5 1 obtained.
3 2

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS 79

MLK2-1 str. 79
 By solving logarithmic equations, you can use the definition of logarithm
or logarithmic function’s injectiveness. When solving such equations, you
need to remember the appropriate assumptions.

EXAMPLE 4 Solve the equation.

a) 3 log5 x + 4 = 6 Assumption x > 0

3 log5 x = 2
2
log5 x = 3 We use the definition of logarithm.
2
x =5 3

√ √
3
3 Number 25 is positive, then it meets the assumption.
x = 25

b) log2 x = log2 (2x + 5) Assumption x > 0 and 2x + 5 > 0

x = 2x + 5 We use the condition: loga p = loga r ⇐
⇒p = r for
a > 0 and a 6= 1.
x = −5
Number −5 does not meet the assumption. The equation has no solution.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

a) 5 log2 x − 3 = 1 b) log 2x = log(1 − x)

Sometimes, when solving log-

arithmic equations, the loga- For a, b, c, p if a > 0, b > 0, c > 0
rithm’s properties, which we and a 6= 1, then:
recall next, are useful.
loga (bc) = loga b + loga c

loga b = loga b − loga c

c

loga bp = p loga b
EXAMPLE 5 Solve the equation.

1 1 1
log7 2 − 3 log7 x = log7 4 Assumption x > 0

1 1 1
3
log7 x = log7 2 − log7 4

1 1 1
 
3
log7 x = log7 2
÷4

log7 x = 3 log7 2

log7 x = log7 23
We use the condition: loga p = loga r ⇐
⇒p = r for
a > 0 and a 6= 1.
x=8

PROBLEM Solve the equation: log3 x − log3 4 = 2 log3 5.

80 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 80
 By solving the equation of type ax = b, instead of using the logarithm’s
definition, we can take the logarithm of both sides of such equation (as-
suming any positive number other than 1 as the basis of the logarithm).
We say, ”we log each side”.
Below the equation 7x = 11 was solved in three ways. Each time the same
solution was received, only written in a different way.

7x = 11 7x = 11 7x = 11

log7 7x = log7 11 log11 7x = log11 11 log 7x = log 11

x log7 7 = log7 11 x log11 7 = 1 x log 7 = log 11

1
x = log7 11 x= x = log 11
log11 7 log 7

Note. To calculate an approximate value of the solution of equation 7x = 11 using

a calculator, it is most convenient to use the decimal logarithm, i.e. use the last
method.

EXERCISE Write the solution of equation 5x = 3 using decimal logarithms.

4

PROBLEMS
1. Solve the equation.
 x √ x √
a) 1
= 125 e) 2 = 1 i) 2x × 2= 1
5 32 16
 4  x √
x √ 1 × 7x = √7
b) 6 = 7 f) 7 = 37 j)
7 6 49
 x
c) 9x = 27 g) 1 = √1 0,2 = 25x
p
k)
9 3
 x
d) 1 = 8x h) 0,1 = 1000 × 10x l) 4 = 8 ×3
4 3 27

2. Solve the equation.

√
x
a) 3x × 5x = 15 d) 0,2 × 5x = 5 g) 4x × 8x + 1 = 1
2
 x  x x √
b) 1 × 6x = 9 e) 81 × 1 = 9 h) 27 x+3
= 3 × 81x
2 3 3
x
 x  x  x  x − 1
c) 2 = 2 × 4x f) 3 × 1,5 = 8 i) 4 × 3 = 27
16 2 27 9 2 8

3. Solve the equation.

2x
a) 7x = 3 c) 3x + 1 = 4 e) 3 = 2 g) 23x − 1 = 5
5
b) 5 × 6x = 10 d) 4 × 5x − 1 = 7 f) 73x × 3 = 1 h) 42x + 3 = 1

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS 81

MLK2-1 str. 81
4. Solve the equation.
a) 2 log5 x = 6 c) 4 log6 x + 3 = 5 e) 1 − 2 log 1 x = 3
3 5

b) 3 + log 1 x = 1 d) 1 log4 x − 5 = −4 f) 7 − 3 log8 x = 9

3 2 2

5. Solve the equation.

a) log3 x = log3 5 + log3 4 e) 2 log 1 x = log 1 6 + log 1 24
2 2 2

b) log0,7 x = 3 log0,7 2 − log0,7 3 f) 4 log 2 = 2 log x + log 5

c) log5 4 + log5 x = 1 log5 49 g) log6 5 − 1 log6 x = log6 1

2 2 2
d) log 8 = log x − 2 log 1 h) log2 x2 − log2 x = 2 log2 5
5

6. Solve the equation.

a) logx + 1 36 = 2 c) log x 8 = −3 e) log2 + x 5 = 1
2 125 2
√
b) log2 − x 1 = 3 d) log3x 15 = 1 f) log2x − 1 4 = − 1
3
8 2 3

APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL
AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION
By using exponential and logarithmic functions, phenomena from very
different fields of knowledge can be described.

SIZE OF POPULATION
A certain bacterial colony initially had 1000 bacteria, and their number
increased by 10 %every hour.
after the first hour: 1000 × 1,1
after the second hour: (1000 × 1,1) × 1,1 = 1000 × 1,12
after the third hour: (1000 × 1,12 ) × 1,1 = 1000 × 1,13
after t hours: 1000 × 1,1t
The colony of bacteria is an example of a population changing at a con-
stant rate. Such changing populations can be described by formulas of the
form:
L(t) = b × at ,
where t is time, and constants a and b depend on the rate of population
change and its initial size. When we describe the population in this way,
we say that we have created its exponential model.

82 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 82
 EXAMPLE 1 In 1971, 548 million people lived in India, and in 1991 — 846
million. The population of India in the years 1971–1995 changed according to
the exponential model.

a) Set a formula for this model.

L(t) — population of India (in mln) We write the general for-
L(t) = b × a t
t — time (in years) since 1971 mula of exponential model.

548 = b × a 0 The beginning of observation was 1971. Then t = 0 cor-

responds to 1971, i.e. L(0) = 548.
b = 548

846 = b × a 20 The year 1991 corresponds to t = 20, so L(20) = 846.

20 b = 548
846 = 548 × a
r
846
a = 20 ≈ 1,022
548

We received the formula L(t) = 548 × 1,022t

b) Estimate the population of India in 1980 and 1995.

L1980 = 548 × 1,0229 ≈ 667

We use the formula L(t) = 548 × 1,022t
for t = 9 and t = 24.
L1995 = 548 × 1,02224 ≈ 924

Ans. In 1980, the population of India was around 667 million, and in 1995 —
approx 924 million.

c) In 2000, the population of India exceeded 1 billion. Calculate in which year it

was to take place according to the given formula.

1000 = 548 × 1,022t We use the formula L(t) = 548 × 1,022t ,

for L(t) = 1000.
1000
1,022t = 548
1000 We log both sides of the equation.
log 1,022t = log 548
1000
t × log 1,022 = log 548
1000
log 548
t=
log 1,022
t ≈ 28 28 years after 1971.

Ans. According to the formula given, the population of India was to exceed 1 billion in 1999.

PROBLEM The population of Nigeria in the years 2006–2017 changed according to

the exponential model. Set a formula for this model, knowing that 140 million people
lived in Nigeria in 2006 and 162 million in 2011. Using this formula, estimate Nigeria’s
population in 2015 and determine in which year the population will exceed 250 million.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION 83

MLK2-1 str. 83
 Curiosity

In 1862, President of the United States Abraham Lincoln presented Congress

with a US population projection until 1930. On the basis of censuses from
1790 to1860, Lincoln noted that the natural growth rate was constant during
this period. So, he assumed that this ratio would not change until 1930, and
using an exponential model, he calculated that by then over 250 million
people would live in the US. In fact, the United States had 123 million
inhabitants in 1930.

As can be seen, the exponential model for calculating population growth is

effective only for short periods, because it assumes the invariance of the
birth rate. In fact, this ratio is not constant and depends on many factors,
including population size, cultural changes, migration of people, natural
disasters.

The exponential model can also be used to describe other variable magni-
tudes than the population, but only those that change at a constant rate.

EXERCISE The mass M of a sample changes according to the exponential mod-

el. Determine whether this mass increases or decreases when:
a) M = 20 × 0,7t
b) M = 10 × 1,2t

LEVEL OF LOUDNESS
Some magnitudes are described from very small to very large numbers, so
that the range of values makes it difficult to use them.

An example is the sound intensity measured in W/m 2 . It was found that

the threshold of audibility, i.e. the lowest sound intensity that the average
person hears, is 10−12 W/m 2 . The loudest sound emitted on Earth was
accompanied by the eruption of the Krakatau volcano in Indonesia. It was
1023 W/m 2 .

The strength of a sound is determined by calculating how many times the

I intensity of this sound is greater than the I0 intensity of the sound corre-
sponding to the hearing threshold. So, the sound strength is described by
I
the I0 quotient. From the information provided above, it follows that the
values of this quotient range from 1 to 1035 . A scale of this range would
be difficult to use. The decimal logarithms of these numbers take values
from 0 (log 1 = 0) do 35 (log 1035 = 35).

Numbers in such a reduced range are much easier to use, so a new concept
was introduced — the level of loudness. It is most often expressed in
decibels (abbreviated dB).

84 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 84
 The loudness level (in decibels) can be calculated from the formula:
L(I) — level of loudness (in dB)
L(I) = 10 log I I — strength of sound in W/m2
I0 I0 — strength of sound corresponding with the hear-
ing threshold (I0 = 10−12 W/m2 )

The level of the hearing threshold is 0 dB and the volcanic eruption of

Krakatau had a sound level of 350 dB.
Note. The intensity of two simultaneous sounds is the sum of the intensities of
these sounds, but the loudness level of these two sounds is not the sum of their
loudness levels, because log (a + b) 6= log a + log b for positive a and b.

EXAMPLE 2 The level of the kettle’s whistle is 90 dB and of the whistle of the
train is 110 dB.

a) How many times does the strength of the train’s whistle exceed the sound of
the kettle’s whistle?

I c — the strength I p — the strength

of the kettle’s whistle of the train’s whistle
We use the formula
Ic Ip L(I) = 10 log I ,
90 = 10 log 110 = 10 log I0
10−12 10−12 where I 0 = 10−12 W/m2 .
Ic Ip
9 = log 11 = log
10−12 10−12
Ic Ip We use the definition of logarithm.
= 109 = 1011
10−12 10−12

I c = 109 × 10−12 I p = 1011 × 10−12

W W
h i h i
I c = 10−3 2 I p = 10−1 2
m m

Ip 10−1
= = 100
Ic 10−3

Ans. The loudness of the train’s whistle sound is 100 times higher than that of
the sound of the kettle’s whistle.

b) Calculate the loudness level of the whistles of two passing trains.

I — the strength of the whistles of two trains

I = I p + I p = 2 × 10−1 The loudness levels are added. We have found

−1
before that I p = 10−1 W/m2 .
2 × 10
L = 10 log = 10 log(2 × 1011 ) = We use the formula L(I) = 10 log I .
10−12 I0
11 11
= 10(log 2 + log 1011 ) =


log 2 × 10 = log 2 + log 10

= 10(log 2 + 11) ≈ 113

Ans. The sound loudness of two trains’ whistles is around 113 dB.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION 85

MLK2-1 str. 85
 c) How many kettle whistles create a painful noise in the ear, i.e. 130 dB?

I n — sound intensity of n kettles whistling

In = n × Ic

I n = n × 10−3 We have found that I c = 10−3 W/m2 .

n ×10−3 We use the formula L(I) = 10 log I .

130 = 10 log I0
10−12

13 = log(n × 109 ) We use the definition of logarithm.

n × 109 = 1013

1013
n=
109

n = 104

Ans. It takes as many as 10 000 whistling kettles to bring the noise up 130 dB.

PROBLEM The sound produced by a refrigerator is equal to 40 dB, and by a vacu-

um cleaner to 80 dB.
a) How many times does the loudness produced by the vacuum cleaner exceed the
sound produced by the refrigerator?
b) Calculate the loudness of a refrigerator and vacuum cleaner working simultaneously.
c) How many working vacuum cleaners create noise at 100 dB?

PROBLEMS
1. The population of Poland in the years 1962–1970 changed according to the
exponential model. Use the data in the table and compose the formula for this
model.

Year 1962 1964

Population of Poland 30,5 mln 31,3 mln

a) Estimate what was (according to the formula) the population of Poland in 1970.
Compare your result with the actual population this year (32,6 million).
b) Estimate what the number of Polish inhabitants would be in the current year
if the natural growth in the period 1962–1964 remained unchanged until today.
Compare the result obtained with the actual population of Poland.
c) In which year, according to this model, would the population of Poland exceed
50 million if the birth rate of 1962–1964 remained unchanged?

86 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 86
2. A patient has taken a 50 mg dose of a certain drug. It is known that within 6
hours 60 % of this drug is removed from the bloodstream.
a) The mass m of the drug (in mg) remaining in the body after time t (in hours) can
be calculated from the formula: m = abt , where a and b are constants. Calculate
the values of these constants.
b) How much medicine remains in the bloodstream after an hour, and how much
— after a day?
c) The patient should take a second dose before the first dose in the bloodstream
falls below 10 mg. How many hours after taking the first dose should he take the
second dose?

3. In one Masurian village, the fight against mosquito plague was undertaken. Ex-
perts say systematic spraying will reduce mosquito numbers by 15 % year. Assume
that before spraying, the mosquito population was 2 million.
a) After what time should the number of mosquitoes be reduced by half?
b) The fight against mosquitoes is intended to be stopped when the mosquito
population is less than 500 000. How long will this fight last?

4. The next box contains the loudness levels

of several selected sounds. rustling leaves — 10 dB
a) Calculate the sound intensity of rustling violin (pianissimo) — 30 dB
leaves. scream — 80 dB
b) How many times less intense is the sound pneumatic hammer — 100 dB
of pianissimo playing the violin than the orchestra (fortissimo) —100 dB
sound of a fortissimo playing orchestra? rock concert — 120 dB
c) Calculate the sound level of two pneu-
matic hammers working simultaneously.
d) Calculate the sound level of the concert performed simultaneously by nine vio-
linists playing pianissimo.
e) Calculate the noise level to which the person sitting next to the screaming spec-
tator at a loud rock concert is exposed.
f) Calculate how many working pneumatic hammers produce a noise equal to the
volume of a rock concert.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION 87

MLK2-1 str. 87
Curiosity
An object placed in an environment at a lower temperature than the object’s tem-
perature will begin to cool down. When the ambient temperature is constant, the
temperature T of the object after time t is described by the formula:

T (t) = T0 + (Tp − T0 )at

T0 — environment’s temperature (in ◦C), Tp — initial temperature of the object (in ◦C),
a — the constant characteristic for the object

5. The formula T = T0 + (Tp − T0 )at at presented in the curiosity is used by foren-

sic medicine specialists, specifying the time that has elapsed since the death of
the deceased. Let’s assume that the police found the body at 1800 , the victim’s
body temperature was 30◦, and the ambient temperature, like the whole afternoon,
was 10◦C. Let’s also assume that after an hour the ambient temperature has not
changed, but the body has cooled to 28◦C. Calculate what time he died.

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

Look at the picture beside. The value of
the function g for the argument x is 5
greater than the value of the function f
for this argument. Thus, it can be said
that for each argument x the function g
takes the value equal to f (x) + 5.

The graph of function g was created as

a result of moving the graph of function
f by 5 units up.
Note. By saying ”shift up”, we will mean
shifting in the direction of the y-axis, and
saying ”shift down” — shift in the opposite
direction.
g(x) = f (x) + 5

EXERCISE A Each of the following graphs was created by shifting the graph of
function y = f (x). One of the graphs has been described. Describe the others.

88 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 88
 Look at the picture below. The value of the function h for the argument x is
the same as the value of the function f for the argument 8 smaller than x.

So we can say that for every ar-

gument of x the function h takes
the value equal to f (x − 8).

The graph of the h function was

created as a result of shifting the
f function graph by 8 units to
the right.
h(x) = f (x − 8)
Note. By saying ”shifting to the right”,
we mean shifting in the direction
consistent with the x axis, and by saying ”shifting to the left” — shifting in
the opposite direction.

EXERCISE B Each of the following graphs was created by shifting the graph of
function y = f (x). Some graphs have been described. Describe the others.

2−x
EXAMPLE 1 The function f (x) = + 1 is given. Find the formula for the
x2
function whose graph we get the after moving the graph of the function f :

a) 5 units up b) 5 units right

g(x) = f (x) + 5 h(x) = f (x − 5)

2−x 2 − (x − 5)
g(x) = +1+5 h(x) = +1
x2 (x − 5)2
2−x
g(x) = +6 h(x) =
7−x
+1
x2
(x − 5)2

PROBLEM The function f is given by formula f (x) = 2x2 − 3x. Find the formula for
the function whose graph you will get after moving the graph of the function f :
a) 7 units up, b) 6 units left.

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS 89

MLK2-1 str. 89
 Each of the following figures presents a graph of the function f and a
graph that arose as a result of its horizontal and vertical displacement.
Formulas of the received functions are written under the drawings.

The graph of function f has been The graph of function f has been
moved 2 units to the left moved 2 units to the right
and 3 units down. and 3 units up.

g(x) = f (x + 2) − 3 h(x) = f (x − 2) + 3

EXERCISE C Each of the following graphs was created by shifting the graph of
y = f (x). Some graphs have been described. Describe the others.

EXERCISE D How do you move the graph of the function f to get the graph of
the function h given by the formula h(x) = f (x + 1) + 4?

90 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 90
 The table presents examples illustrating how the function graph changes
at different shifts.

Received
The way of shifting the graph of function y = f (x)
function
horizontally vertically
5 units right → 3 units up ↑ y = f (x − 5) + 3
4 units right → 2 units down ↓ y = f (x − 4) − 2
7 units left ← 1 units up ↑ y = f (x + 7) + 1
6 units left ← 8 units down ↓ y = f (x + 6) − 8

EXAMPLE 2 Find the formula for the function whose graph you will get after
moving the graph of the function f (x) = 4x 3 + 5x + 1 by 2 units to the left and 7
units up.

y = f (x + 2) + 7

y = 4(x + 2)3 + 5(x + 2) + 1 + 7

y = 4(x 3 + 6x 2 + 12x + 8) + 5x + 10 + 8

y = 4x 3 + 24x 2 + 53x + 50

PROBLEM The function f is given by formula f (x) = 2 + 5x. Find the formula for
x
the function whose graph is obtained by moving the function f graph by 6 units to the
left and 4 units down.

PROBLEMS
1. Write the formula of function whose graph we’ll receive after shifting the graph
of function y = f (x) by 7 units:

a) up b) to the left c) down d) to the right

2. In the figure next is the graph of a certain func-

tion f . Draw the graph of function:
a) y = f (x − 2) c) y = f (x + 4)
b) y = f (x) + 1 d) y = f (x) − 3

3. Draw a graph of any function. Label it with the

letter f . Draw the graph of the function:

a) y = f (x) + 3 b) y = f (x) − 3 c) y = f (x + 3) d) y = f (x − 3)

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS 91

MLK2-1 str. 91
4. Graphs of the function g and h were created as a result of shifting the graph of the
function whose formula is given in the figure. Write the function formulas g and h.

5. How do you move the graph of function f to get the graph of function g?
√ √
a) f (x) = x+2 g(x) = x+7 c) f (x) = 3x + 4 + 2x − 3 g(x) = 3x + 4 + 2x + 6

b) f (x) = 3 + 7 g(x) = 3 − 2 d) f (x) = log (x − 3) + x g(x) = log (x + 2) + x + 5

x x

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS (CONTINUED)

EXERCISE The figure presents the graph of function f .

a) Let function g be given by the formula

g(x) = −f (x). Using the graph of f , determine
what value the function g takes for argu-
ment −2 and which value for argument 3.

b) Let function h be given by the formula

h(x) = f (−x). Using the graph of f , determine
what value the function h takes for argu-
ment −2 and which value for argument 3.

92 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 92
 Each of the drawings presents the graph of a function f and its symmetri-
cal reflection.

The graph of the function g

was created by the symmet-
rical reflection of the graph
of f relative to the x axis.
For each argument, the val-
ues of the functions g and
f are opposite numbers. So,
for the argument x the func-
tion g takes the value −f (x).

g(x) = −f (x)

The graph of the function h

was created by the symmet-
rical reflection of the graph
of f relative to the y ax-
is. For each argument x, the
value of the function h is
the same as the value of the
function f for argument −x.

h(x) = f (−x)

1
EXAMPLE 1 Function f is given by formula f (x) = x 3 − 1 − x .

a) Write the formula of the function g, whose graph is symmetrical to the graph
of function f about the x axis.
1 1
 
g(x) = −f (x) = − x 3 − 1 − x = −x 3 +
1−x
1
g(x) = −x 3 +
1−x

b) Write the formula of the function h, whose graph is symmetrical to the graph
of function f relative to the y axis.
1 1
h(x) = f (−x) = (−x)3 − = −x 3 −
1 − (−x ) 1+x
1
h(x) = −x 3 −
1+x

PROBLEM The function f is given by formula f (x) = 3x2 − x + 7. Find the formula
for the function whose graph was obtained as a result of reflection of the graph of f :
a) relative to the x-axis, b) relative to the y-axis.

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS (CONTINUED) 93

MLK2-1 str. 93
 1
EXAMPLE 2 Graph of function f (x) = 2x − 1 + 3 was first transformed by sym-
metry about the y -axis, then by symmetry about the x-axis, and then moved 5
units to the left and 2 units down. Write the formula of the function whose graph
was obtained.
1
f (x) = +3
2x − 1
We write the formula of the function f1 ,
1 1 whose graph is symmetrical to the graph
f1 (x) = f (−x) = +3= +3
2(−x ) − 1 −2x − 1 of the function f with respect to the y -
1 axis.
f1 (x) = +3
−2x − 1

1 1
 
f2 (x) = −f1 (x) = − +3 = −3 We write the formula for the function f2 ,
−2x − 1 2x + 1 whose graph is symmetrical to the graph
1 of function f1 about the x-axis.
f2 (x) = −3
2x + 1

1 We write the formula for function f3 ,

f3 (x) = f2 (x + 5) − 2 = −3−2
2(x + 5) + 1 whose graph was obtained by moving
1 the graph of function f2 by 5 units to the
f3 (x) = −5 left and by 2 units down.
2x + 11

√
PROBLEM The graph of the function f (x) = 6 x + 4 − 2x was first transformed by
symmetry relative to the y-axis, then by symmetry relative to the x-axis, moved 7 units
left, and finally 5 units up. Write the formula of the function whose graph was obtained.

√
EXAMPLE 3
√ Using the graph of function y = x, draw the graph of function
y = − x + 3 − 2.
√
f (x) = x
√
f1 (x) = f (x + 3), e.i f1 (:x) = x +3 We write the function formulas
√ that we can get after subsequent
f2 (x) = −f1 (x), e.i. f2 (x) = − x + 3 transformations.
√
f3 (x) = f2 (x) − 2, e.i. f3 (x) = − x + 3 − 2 Order of transformations:
1. We move the graph of the
function f by 3 units to the left
and we obtain the graph of the
function f1 .
2. We reflect the graph of the
function f1 relative to the x-axis,
we get the graph of the function
f2 .
3. We move the graph of func-
tion f2 by 2 units downwards
and we obtain the graph of func-
tion f3 .

√ √
PROBLEM Using the graph of function y = x, draw the graph of function y = −x + 4.

94 FUNCTIONS

MLK2-1 str. 94
PROBLEMS
1. Draw the graph of function f and its reflections symmetrical about the x-axis
and relative to the y-axis. Write the formulas for the functions received.

a) f (x) = x − 2
b) f (x) = (x − 3)(x + 2)
c) f (x) = 2x
d) f (x) = log x

2. The graph of the function f (x) = x3 is reflected symmetrically about the x-axis.
Justify that if the graph of the function f is reflected symmetrically about the
y-axis, we would get the same function.

3. The only zero of a function f defined on the set of real numbers is the number
−7. Find the zero of function g if:
a) g(x) = −f (x)
b) g(x) = f (−x)
c) g(x) = −f (−x)

4. a)Justify that for a > 0the graph of function f (x) = ax is symmetrical to the
x
graph of function g(x) = 1 with respect to the y-axis.
a
b) Justify that for a > 0 and a 6= 1 the graph of function f (x) = loga x is symmetrical
to the graph of function g(x) = log 1 x with respect to the x-axis.
a

5. The figure presents the graph of some function f . Draw the graphs of functions
given below the figure.

g(x) = −f (x) + 1 g(x) = f (−x) + 1 g(x) = 1 − f (x)

h(x) = −f (x + 1) h(x) = −f (−x) h(x) = −1 − f (x − 1)

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS (CONTINUED) 95

MLK2-1 str. 95
MLK2-1 str. 96
Figures
on the plane. Part 2
Imagine that you are standing on the beach on a sunny day looking at the see.
How far from your eyes is the horizon line?

Area of a disc. Length of a circle Properties of central angles

and inscribed angles Lines and circles Circle circumscribed
about a triangle. Circle inscribed in a triangle Properties of polygons.
Regular polygons

MLK2-1 str. 97
 AREA OF A DISC. LENGTH OF A CIRCLE

EXERCISE A How to draw a circle on the sand with a string at your disposal?
Describe in words what figure we call a circle and which figure — a disc. What
is the chord of a circle and what is the diameter?

Let us remind you that a circle with center S and radius r is the set of
points of the plane whose distance from the point S is equal to r .

A disc with center O and radius r is the set of points on the plane whose
distance from point O is less than or equal to r.

EXERCISE B Let c(S, r ) mean the circle with center S and radius r and let d(S, r )
mean the disc with center S and radius r . Points belonging to the circle meet
the condition: P ∈ c(S, r ) ⇐
⇒ |P S| = r . Write a similar condition for points on
the disc.

Worth knowing!

The center of a circle lies on the per-

pendicular bisector of each chord of the
circle, as it is equally distant from the
ends of this chord. Therefore, to designate
the center of a given circle, it is enough
to draw two non-parallel chords and con-
struct their perpendicular bisectors. The
intersection of these lines is the sought
center of the circle.

Already in ancient times it was noticed

that the ratio of the length of a circle to
the length of its diameter is the same
for all circles (regardless of the size of
the circle). A number equal to this ratio
is irrational and we denote it with the
letter π . Length of circle:
l = 2πr
circle’ length
=π
diameter’s length

Here are the first several digits of the

decimal expansion of this number:
π = 3,14159265358979 . . .
Area of disc:
A = πr 2

98 FI GUR E S O N TH E PLANE PAR T 2

MLK2-1 str. 98
 From history
Letter π as the name of the ratio of the length of circle to the length of its
diameter maybe came from the fact that it is the first letter of the Greek
′
word περιµ ετρoς (perimetros) — perimeter.
Various approximations of the π number have been used for centuries.
E.g, from a passage in the Bible (I Kings, chapters 7, 23) it appears that in
biblical times, π ≈ 3 was accepted. Egyptians (20th century B.C.) accepted
 2
16 22
π ≈ 9 , and Archimedes (3rd century B.C.) adopted π ≈ 7 .
Also, in modern times, attempts have been made to provide the most accu-
rate value of π. In 1610 Dutch scholar Ludolph van Ceulen gave 35 digits
after the decimal point. In his honor the number π is sometimes called
ludolfine.
Using computers, around 22,5 billion digits after the decimal point of π
were determined in 2016. The calculations took 105 days. Number π is
irrational, which means that the digits of its decimal expansion appear
irregularly. An interesting fact is that in this expansion you can find any
sequence of several digits. For example, the sequence 01052004, i.e. the
subsequent digits of the date of Poland’s accession to the European Union,
appear in the first 100 million digits after the decimal point. You can check
this by using the appropriate computer program available on the internet.

The formula that allows you to calculate the length l of a circle results
directly from the definition of number π . (Because π = l , so l = 2π r ).
2r

We will now show how one could try to justify a disc’s area formula.

Imagine that a circle with a radius r we divide in-

to equal parts (see figure). Each area of these parts
is not much different from the triangle’s area with
basis of a and height r , i.e. is approximately equal
a×r.
2

If the number of parts into which we divide the

circle is equal to n, then the base of the triangle is
approximately equal to 1 of the length of the circle,
n
i.e.
1 × 2π r = 2π r
a≈ n n

The area of each part is 1 the area of the disc. Thus:

n
2π r
×r
area of disc ≈ n × a × r ≈ n × n
= πr2
2 2

The more parts we divide the disc into, the approx-

imation will be the more accurate. We can therefore
assume that the disc’s area is equal to π r 2 .

AREA OF A DISC. LENGTH OF A CIRCLE 99

MLK2-1 str. 99
 EXERCISE C Look at the picture. How many times
the length of the arc of part marked in blue is less
than the length of the whole circle if α = 108◦?
What part of the area of the whole disc is the area
of the marked figure?

The angle with the vertex in the center of the circle is called a central
angle. The common part of the central angle and the disc is a sector, and
the common part of this angle and the circle is the circular arc. We say
that the central angle is based on this arc.
An arc’s length is a fraction of the length of the circle, and the area of a disc’s
sector is a fraction of the disc’s area. This fraction is equal to α ◦.
360

Length of circular arc: Area of sector:

l = α × 2πr A= α × πr 2
360◦ 360◦

EXAMPLE a) The central angle in a circle with the radius of 9 has a measure
of 140◦. Calculate the area of the sector determined by this angle.

140◦ 7 63
Area of the sector = × π × 92 = 18 × 81 × π = 2 π
360◦

b) In the figure a sector is shown. Calculate the perimeter of this figure.

The arc is cut out by the central angle α

α = 360◦ − 160◦ = 200◦ with measure 200◦.
200◦ 5 10
The length of arc = × 2π × 3 = 9 × 6π = 3 π
360◦
10
The perimeter of the sector is = 6 + π
3

PROBLEM A central angle of 40◦ is marked in a circle with the radius of 10.
Calculate the area and perimeter of the sector determined by this angle.

100 FI GUR E S O N TH E PLANE PAR T 2

MLK2-1 str. 100

PROBLEMS
1. Calculate:
a) area of a disc with a radius of 7,
b) area of a disc with a diameter of 12,
c) length of a circle with a diameter of 17,
d) radius of a circle with area 10,
e) radius of a circle of length 5,
f) circle length with inside area 4.

2. Write the formula that allows you to calculate:

a) the length l of the circle, when its diameter d is given,
b) the area A of the circle, when its length l is given,
c) the diameter d of the disc when its area A is given,
d) circle’s length l when its area A is given.

3. The minute hand on a certain clock is 8 cm long. Calculate the path that the end
of this tip takes over:

a) an hour,
b) a day,
c) a quarter of an hour,
d) 45 minutes.

4. Calculate the areas of the shaded figures. Assume that the side of the grille is 1.

5. From a disc with radius R we want to cut three identical discs so, that the sum
of their areas and the area of the remaining part are equal. What radius should the
cut discs have?

6. a) Write down the length of the side of the square which has the same area as
the disc with radius r .
b) A disc and a square have equal areas. Which figure has larger perimeter? How
many times?

AREA OF A DISC. LENGTH OF A CIRCLE 101

MLK2-1 str. 101

Curiosity

How to construct a square with an area equal to the area of a given disc using
a compass and a ruler? This problem, called quadrature of the circle, has been
tried to be solved for over 2000 years. Only in the nineteenth century it was
proved that such a construction is impossible. Thus, it was proved that for a given
√
line segment r it is impossible to construct a line segment r π long. In many
languages, ”quadrature of the circle” figuratively means an unsolvable problem.

7. A rotating wheel with a radius of 5 roll along a line.

a) What distance will this wheel travel if it makes 10 turns?
b) How many complete revolutions will this wheel make over a distance of 100?

8. Calculate the lengths of the selected arcs and the areas of the shaded figures.

PROPERTIES OF CENTRAL ANGLES

AND INSCRIBED ANGLES

The drawing beside indicates the central an-

gle α and the arc on which this angle is
based.
In this drawing you can indicate one more central
angle, its measure is 360◦ − α. The arc on which
this angle is based is marked in black.

The inscribed angle is the angle whose vertex lies

on the circle, the arms intersect the circle, and the
measure is less than 180◦. The adjacent figure in-
dicates the inscribed angle β and the arc on which
this angle is based.
Note that there is only one central angle based
on a given arc, while there are infinitely many
inscribed angles based on that arc.

102 FI GUR E S O N TH E PLANE PAR T 2

MLK2-1 str. 102

 Theorem on inscribed and central angles
based on the same arc
The inscribed angle is twice as small
as the central angle based on the same arc.

Proof
Let’s assume that angle α is the inscribed angle and angle β is the central
angle based on the same arc as the angle α. We will show that β = 2α.

There are three possible cases of positioning the center of the circle relative to
the angle α: the center of the circle may lie on the arm of α, it may lie inside
this angle, it may also lie outside the angle.

1. Let the center of the circle lie on the arm

α, as shown in the figure. The triangle BCO is
isosceles, so:
| ¾ BOC| = 180◦ − 2α
The angle β and ¾ BOC are supplementary angles, so:
β = 180◦ − | ¾ BOC| = 180◦ − (180◦ − 2α) = 2α

2. Let the center of the circle lie within α, as shown in the first figure below.
Drawing the diameter from the vertex
of angle α, we divide α into two angles
γ and δ. Then the angle β will also be
divided into two angles. From previous
considerations we know that these an-
gles are 2γ and 2δ, so:
α=γ+δ β = 2γ + 2δ
Hence:
β = 2(γ + δ) = 2α

3. Let the center of the circle lie outside the inscribed angle α, as shown in the
first figure below.
Drawing the diameter from the ver-
tex of angle α, we get the situation
presented in the second drawing. The
inscribed angle α + γ is based on the
same arc as the central angle β + 2γ.
From previous considerations we know
that:
β + 2γ = 2(α + γ)
Hence:
β = 2(α + γ) − 2γ = 2α

In each of the considered cases we received β = 2α.

PROPERTIES OF CENTRAL ANGLES AND INSCRIBED ANGLES 103

MLK2-1 str. 103

 Theorem on inscribed angles
based on the same arc
Inscribed angles based on the same arc
have equal measures.

Proof
From the previous theorem it follows that when the inscribed angles are based on
the same arc, each of them has a measure two times smaller than the central
angle based on this arc. So, all these inscribed angles have equal measures.

If the arcs of a given circle have equal lengths, then

the central angles that cut them out have equal mea-
sures. It follows that the inscribed angles are also
equal if they are based on arcs of the same length.

When the central angle or inscribed angle is based on

a certain arc, it can also be said that it is based on the
chord connecting the ends of the arc.

Theorem on inscribed angle

based on diameter
The inscribed angle based on the diameter
is a right angle.

Proof
The central angle based on the semi-circle is 180◦. The inscribed angle based on
the diameter has a measure two times smaller than it, i.e. it is a right angle.

PROBLEMS
1. Provide angle measures α, β, γ and δ.

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2. Provide angle measures α, β, γ and δ.

3. Look at the picture beside. Justify that the sum of the

measures of inscribed angles α and β based on the same
chord is equal to 180◦.

4. Calculatethe angles of the polygon, whose sides are

marked in blue.

5. Look at the picture beside. Is the arc length marked

with blue more or less than 10% of the circle length?

6. Using the information provided next to the figure, calculate the measures of
inscribed angles DCB and ADB.
a) b)

|¾ DBC| = 32◦ 48′ |¾ ASB| = 109◦ 20′

|¾ ASB| = 63◦ 32′ |¾ CAD| = 62◦ 34′

PROPERTIES OF CENTRAL ANGLES AND INSCRIBED ANGLES 105

MLK2-1 str. 105

 LINES AND CIRCLES
A line and a circle may not have common points, they may intersect at
two points, or they may have one common point. A line that has only one
point in common with a circle is called a tangent to the circle.

Theorem
The tangent to the circle is
perpendicular to the radius
at the point of tangency.

Proof
The proof will be carried out using the indirect method.
Suppose one of the angles between the tangent to the
circle and the radius to the point of contact is acute. In
the drawing, it is the angle α with vertex A. Drawing
from the center S of the circle another line, inclined to
the tangent at angle α, we get the isosceles triangle ABS.

Then |SB| = |SA| and point B would have to belong to the circle, so it would
be the second common point of the tangent and the circle, which contradicts
the definition of the tangent.

Theorem
When the tangents to the circle
intersect, the line segments connecting
the intersection point with the
tangency points are equal in length.

Proof
Let the lines P A and P B be tangent to the circle
with center S at points A and B. Then the trian-
gles P SA and P SB are rectangular, they have a
common hypotenuse P S and |SA| = |SB|. Accord-
ing to Pythagoras’ Theorem, |P A| = |P B|.

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 Theorem on the angle between tangent and chord
The acute angle α between the chord of the circle
and the tangent at the endpoint of the chord is
equal to the inscribed angle based on this chord.

α=β

Proof
Let us assume that the line m and the circle with
center S are tangent at point A and α is the
acute angle between line m and chord AB (see
the drawing on the right).
Then:
|¾ SAB| = 90◦ − α
The SAB triangle is isosceles, so:
|¾ ASB| = 180◦ − 2 × |¾ SAB| = 180◦ − 2(90◦ − α) = 2α

Angle β is the inscribed angle based on the chord AB, so:

β = 1 |¾ ASB| = 1 × 2α = α
2 2

Good to know!

Let O be the center of the circle. We want to draw a tangent to this circle
through some point P .

When point P lies on the circle, it

is sufficient to draw the ray OP and
construct a line perpendicular to it
passing through point P (see first fig-
ure).

When point P lies outside the circle,

we first determine the center of the
segment OP and draw a circle whose
diameter is OP . Then we draw a line
through P and the common point of
the circles (see the second figure).

The line drawn is perpendicular to the

radius of the given circle, because it is
known that the inscribed angle based
on the diameter OP is a right angle.
So, this line is the tangent sought.

Of course, by drawing a line through P and the second common point of

the circles, we also get a tangent to the circle.

LINES AND CIRCLES 107

MLK2-1 str. 107

 Two different circles can be placed relative to each other so that they have
no common point or have two common points or only one common point.
When circles have only one point in common, we say they are tangent.

Note. Circles that have a common center are said to be concentric. If the con-
centric circles have different radii, then these circles are of course disjoint. If the
radii of the concentric circles are the same, then the circles have infinitely many
common points (coincide).

EXERCISE A Draw a circle with a radius of 2 cm. Label its center with the letter
O and draw through O any line. Using compasses, draw a new circle with
center on the drawn line, tangent to the drawn circle.

A straight line passing through the centers of two tangent circles also
passes through their point of contact. It follows that the distance between
the centers of the tangent circles is equal to the sum or difference of the
lengths of radii of these circles.

EXERCISE B A circle with center S has a radius of 2 and a circle with center T
has a radius of 5. Determine the mutual position of these circles if:
a) |ST | = 7 b) |ST | = 8 c) |ST | = 4

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 EXERCISE C How many lines can be tangent to two circles at the same time?
Consider the different positions of the circles.

Curiosity

In the figure below, the circles are externally disjoint, and each of the four
straight lines is tangent to both circles. We will show you how to construct
such lines.

Let the circle with center S and radius R lie outside the circle with center O
and radius r . Let us assume that R > r .

The method of constructing line a: We draw a circle with the center S and
the radius R − r , then we draw from point O a tangent line to this circle (as
described on p. 107). Through the obtained tangent point A we draw a ray
SA, which intersects the large circle at point B. Drawing through point B
a line perpendicular to the ray SA, we get the tangent sought, because the
AOCB is a rectangle.

The method of constructing line c: We draw a circle with the center S and
the radius R + r , then we draw a tangent to this circle passing through
the point O. We draw radius SK (where K is the tangent point). Through
the point L — the common point of the circle with the radius R and SK
line segment — we run a line perpendicular to SK. This straight line is the
tangent sought.

Note that line b can be constructed like line a, and line d can be constructed
like line c.

LINES AND CIRCLES 109

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PROBLEMS
1. The lines in the figure below are parallel by pairs. Distances between neighbor-
ing lines are equal to 1.
a) A circle with center A has exactly three com-
mon points with lines drawn. What is the radius
of this circle?
b) Can a circle with center B have exactly three
points in common with these lines?
c) What radius can a circle with center C have to
be cut by exactly one line?
d) What radius should a circle with center D have
so that it is crossed by four lines (each at two
points)?
e) What radius can a circle with center E have if it is known that the circle has
exactly four points in common with drawn lines?
f) How many lines cross the circle with center P and radius 2?

2. Line m is tangent to the circle. Determine the measure of angles marked with
an arc.

3. The arms of the angle β in the adjacent

figure are tangent to the circle. What is the re-
lationship between angle measures α and β?

4. The sides of the triangle drawn are tangent to the circle. Calculate the perimeter
of this triangle.

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5. The drawn line is tangent to the circle. Express the measure of angle β depend-
ing on the measure of angle α.

6. We draw two circles: one with a radius of 3 cm, the other with a radius of 4 cm.
What should be the distance between the centers of these circles so that these
circles:
a) were tangent externally,
b) they were tangent internally,
c) intersect at two points,
d) were disjoint?

7. What is the distance between the centers of circles with radius 5 and 8 when the
smaller circle passes through the center of the larger, and what — when the larger
circle passes through the center of the smaller?

8. The circles in the figure are tan-

gent by pairs. The largest of the circles
has a radius of length r . Calculate the
perimeter of the OP S triangle.

CIRCLE CIRCUMSCRIBED ABOUT A TRIANGLE.

CIRCLE INSCRIBED IN A TRIANGLE
We say that the circle is circumscribed
about polygon when all the vertices of
that polygon are on the circle.
If the circle is circumscribed about poly-
gon, we can also say that the polygon is
inscribed in the circle.

CIRCLE CIRCUMSCRIBED ABOUT A TRIANGLE. CIRCLE INSCRIBED IN A TRIANGLE 111

MLK2-1 str. 111

 The center of the circle circumscribed about a polygon is a point equidis-
tant from its vertices. It follows from the property of perpendicular
bisector (see p. 49) that this center must lie on the perpendicular bisec-
tor of each side of the polygon.

We already know that the perpendicular bisectors of sides of each triangle

intersect at one point (see p. 49). The following theorem follows:

Theorem
A circle can be circumscribed about
each triangle. The center of such a
circle is the intersection point of the
perpendicular bisectors of sides of the triangle.

To constructively identify the center of the

circumscribed circle of a triangle, it is suffi-
cient to draw the perpendicular bisectors of
two sides of the triangle. Their intersection is
the center of the sought circle, and the dis-
tance of this point from any vertex of the
triangle is the radius of the circle.

Note that the properties of the central and

inscribed angles show that the center of the
circumscribed circle of the right-angled trian-
gle is the center of the hypotenuse.

EXERCISE a) Calculate the radius of the circle circumscribed about the right-
angled triangle of 4 and 5 legs’ length.
b) Calculate the sides’ length of the isosceles right-angled triangle inscribed in
a circle with a radius of 20.

You can’t circumscribe a circle around every polygon. It is possible only

when perpendicular bisectors of all its sides intersect at one point. For
example, a circle cannot be circumscribed about a parallelogram that is
not a rectangle.

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 We say that circle is inscribed in
polygon, if it is tangent to every
side of this polygon.
If the circle is inscribed in a polygon,
we can also say that the polygon is
circumscribed about the circle.

The distance of the center of the circle inscribed in a polygon from each
side of the polygon is equal to the radius of the circle. The center of such a
circle is equally distant from all its sides, so it follows from angle’s bisector
property (see p. 50) that this center must lie on the bisector of each angle
of the polygon.

Since we already know that the bisectors of the angles of a triangle inter-
sect at one point, the following statement is true:

Theorem
In each triangle a circle can be inscribed. The
center of the circle inscribed in a triangle is the
intersection point of the bisectors of the trian-
gle’s angles.

To construct a circle inscribed in a triangle, we

draw the bisectors of any two angles of the tri-
angle, their common point S will be the center
of the searched circle. Then we draw a line pass-
ing through the S point and perpendicular to
one of the sides. The point of intersection of
this line with the AC side (K in the drawing) is
one of the tangent points. We draw the circle
with the center S and radius |SK|.

You can’t inscribe a circle in every polygon. This is only possible if the bisectors
of all angles intersect at one point. For example, you cannot inscribe a circle in a
rectangle that is not a square.

CIRCLE CIRCUMSCRIBED ABOUT A TRIANGLE. CIRCLE INSCRIBED IN A TRIANGLE 113

MLK2-1 str. 113

PROBLEMS
1. Determine if the center of the circle circumscribed about a triangle belongs to
the triangle when the measures of the two angles of the triangle are:
a) 39◦ and 47◦ b) 70◦ and 55◦ c) 63◦ and 27◦

2. a) Calculate the length of the radius of the circle circumscribed about the right-
angled triangle with legs’ lengths 5 and 12.
b) In a right-angled triangle, the legs are 6 and 8. What is the length of the line
segment connecting the vertex of the right angle with the center of the hypotenuse?

3. Which of the following sentences are true?

1 The center of the circle circumscribed about the triangle always lies at the inter-
section of the lines including heights of this triangle.
2 The center of the circle circumscribed about an equilateral triangle is the point
of intersection of the heights of this triangle.
3 For any three non-collinear points, you can draw a circle that passes through
these points.
4 Each side of the acute-angled triangle inscribed in a circle is shorter than the
diameter of that circle.
5 Each side of the obtuse-angled triangle inscribed in a circle is shorter than the
diameter of that circle.

4. The following figures are triangles: acute-angled, isosceles and right-angled. Cal-
culate the angle measures of these triangles and the angle measures labelled with
letters.

5. Draw any acute angle. Mark point A on one of the arms. Construct a circle tan-
gent to both arms of the angle drawn so that point A is one of the tangency points.

6. In the isosceles triangle ABC, in which the angle between the arms AC and BC is
100◦, a circle with the center O is inscribed. Calculate the measure of the angle AOB.

7. The angle between the arms AC and BC of the isosceles triangle ABC is 40◦
wide. Point O is the center of the circle inscribed in triangle ABC, and point S is
the center of the circle circumscribed about this triangle. Calculate the SAO angle
measure.

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 PROPERTIES OF POLYGONS.
REGULAR POLYGONS

EXERCISE A Sketch:
a) a quadrilateral in which two non-adjacent sides are perpendicular,
b) a pentagon which has one pair of parallel sides,
c) a hexagon in which sides are parallel by pairs.

Note that some polygons satisfy the

condition: for any two points of the
polygon, the line segment whose ends
are these points is included in this
polygon. These polygons are called
convex polygons.

EXERCISE B Here are examples of different polygons. Which of them are convex?

Note that all angles of the convex polygon are angles greater than 0◦ and
less than 180◦ (these are convex angles). In a non-convex polygon, at least
one angle is a non-convex angle.

Let us remind you that the diagonal

of a polygon is each line segment con-
necting the non-neighboring vertices
of the polygon. Some diagonals of a
non-convex polygon lie outside the
polygon.

We already know that the sum of triangle angles’ measures is 180◦, and
the sum of the quadrilateral angles’ measures is 360◦. Let’s consider what
we can say about the sum of measures of the angles of an n-gon, i.e. a
polygon that has n vertices.

EXERCISE C Draw any convex polygon. Choose any vertex and draw all the
diagonals coming out of it. How many triangles the polygon was divided into
by the drawn diagonals?

PROPERTIES OF POLYGONS. REGULAR POLYGONS 115

MLK2-1 str. 115

 EXERCISE D Look at the picture. Into how many
triangles the diagonals divided this 11-gon?
What is the sum of 11-gon angles’ measures?

All diagonals drawn from one vertex of a convex n-gon divide this polygon
into n − 2 triangles (there are as many triangles as sides that do not contain
the selected vertex). The sum of the angle measures of these triangles is
(n − 2) × 180◦ and is equal to the sum of the angle measures of the n-gon.
The same relationship applies to non-convex polygons.

Theorem
The sum of the angle measures of an n-gon is (n − 2)×180◦.

EXERCISE E Draw any hexagon and three diagonals from each vertex. If for a
certain vertex a diagonal has already been drawn, draw it again, but with a
different color. How many times were each of the diagonals drawn? How many
diagonals does the hexagon have?

You can draw n − 3 diagonals from each vertex of the n-gon. (You cannot
draw the diagonal to it or to the adjacent vertices from the selected vertex.)
One can imagine that by drawing the diagonals from each vertex, we would
draw n(n − 3) segments, each twice. This reasoning leads to the following
theorem:

Theorem
The number of diagonals in n-gon is n(n − 3) .
2

EXAMPLE How many diagonals has a polygon in which the sum of the angle
measures is 2700◦?
(n − 2) × 180◦ = 2700◦ We use the theorem on the sum of angle
measures of n-gon.
n − 2 = 15
The considered n-gon is a 17-gon.
n = 17
We calculate the number of diagonals in
17(17 − 3)
number of diagonals = 2
= 119 17-gon.

Ans. The polygon has 119 diagonals.

PROBLEM How many diagonals has a polygon whose sum of angle measures is 2160◦?

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 A polygon that has all sides of equal length and all angles of equal mea-
sure is called a regular polygon. For example, regular polygons are an
equilateral triangle and a square.

In each regular polygon, all bisectors of angles and perpendicular bisec-

tors of sides intersect at the same point. Therefore, this point is also the
center of the circle circumscribed about the polygon and circle inscribed
in this polygon. When calculating the radius length of these circles for an
equilateral triangle, a square and a regular hexagon, appropriate formulas
can be used which allow to calculate the equilateral triangle’s height and
the length of square’s diagonal.

√ √ √
r = 1×a 3 = a 3 r= a r= a 3
3 2 6 2 2
√ √ √
R = 2r = a 3 R = 1a 2 = a 2 R=a
3 2 2

We already know that the sum of the angles in n-gon is (n − 2) × 180◦.

Since all angles of the regular n-gon are equal, we can use the following
theorem.

Theorem
◦
Each angle of a regular n-gon has the measure (n − 2)n× 180 .

EXERCISE F a) What measure does each of the angles of a regular hexagon

have?
b) How many diagonals does the regular hexagon have?

PROPERTIES OF POLYGONS. REGULAR POLYGONS 117

MLK2-1 str. 117

PROBLEMS
1. a) Calculate the sum of measures of all heptagon’s angles and angles of a 100-
gon.
b) How many sides has a polygon in which the sum of the angle measures is 1080◦ ?
c) Is there a polygon in which the sum of all angles is 1000◦ ?
d) In a 10-gon one of the angles is right and the other angles have the same
measure. Calculate this measure.

2. a) Justify that there is no heptagon in which every two adjacent sides are per-
pendicular.
b) Justify that if in a n-gon each two neighboring sides are perpendicular, then n
is an even number.

3. a) Calculate the length of the circle circumscribed about an equilateral triangle

with a side of 10.
b) Determine the length of the circle inscribed in an equilateral triangle with a side
of 5.

Curiosity

The following figures show how to con- construction of a square inscribed in a

struct a square and regular hexagon. circle, they were also able to build a reg-
The theory of regular polygons was one ular 8-gon, 16-gon etc.).
of the great achievements of the Pytha-
Ancient scholars, however, failed to con-
gorean school. The Pythagoreans were
struct some regular polygons using a
able to construct an equilateral trian-
compass and ruler, for example, a 7-
gle, a square, a regular pentagon, and
gon, 9-gon or 17-gon. The trials lasted
a regular hexagon using a compass and
for many centuries.
a ruler.
After Pythagoreans, nothing was dis-
covered in the theory of regular poly-
gons for over 2000 years. It wasn’t until
1801 that the German mathematician
Carl Friedrich Gauss showed how to
construct a regular 17-gon. Soon after,
he argued that it is not possible to
They were also able to construct a reg- construct a 7-gon or a 9-gon. He also
ular polygon with the number of sides formulated a theorem allowing to check
twice as large as the number of sides whether a regular n-gon can be con-
of a given polygon (e.g. knowing the structed.

4. Read the curiosity.

a) Construct a regular hexagon with a side of 3 cm.
b) Using the construction of a regular hexagon, inscribe in the circle an equilateral
triangle and a regular 12-gon.

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