TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2011, volume 10 Issue 2

THE CURRENT PERSPECTIVES, THEORIES AND PRACTICES OF MOBILE

LEARNING
Nilgun Ozdamar KESKİN
Anadolu University
[email protected]

David METCALF, Ph.D.

University of Central Florida
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Mobile learning (m-learning) is a highly popular multidisciplinary study field around the world. It has attracted
a great deal of attention from researchers in different disciplines who have realized the potential to apply mobile
technologies to enchance learning. Thus, mobile learning has been defined differently by different people. This
study is a review of m-learning literature for understanding and discussion of current perspectives and theories
in mobile learning. Additionally, some m-learning practices that are implemented in different sectors such as
corporate, university and military have been mentioned.
Keywords: Mobile learning, m-learning theories and m-learning practices

INTRODUCTION
Mobile devices are commonly used all around the world. In some countries, mobile devices are much more
widely used than computers. For instance, people in Kenya are able to use mobile devices everywhere to access
the internet, check e-mail, make phone calls, send SMS messages, etc. Mobile learning has come to people’s
attention because mobile devices are portable, ubiquitous, easily accessible and used by many people. This
situation shows that there is great potential to enchance learning with mobile devices.

Mobile Learning Perspectives

Mobile learning (m-learning) is defined differently by different people. Early perspectives of m-learning were
focused on technology, and defined as the delivery of training by means of mobile devices such as mobile
phones, PDAs and digital audio players, as well as digital cameras and voice recorders, pen scanners, etc. For
example, MoLoNET (2007) defined it as “The exploitation of ubiquitous handheld technologies, together with
wireless and mobile phone networks, to facilitate, support, enhance and extend the reach of teaching and
learning.” Another view of m-learning focuses on mobility. Keagen (2005) suggests that m-learning should be
restricted to learning on small and portable devices. According to him, mobile devices could be carried
everywhere. For example, a lady can carry in her handbag or a gentleman can carry in his pocket. So this
definition also relates to a technocentric perspective because of concentrating on the size of mobile devices.

Some researchers characterise mobile learning as an extension of e-learning. For instance, Kadirire (2009)
defines m-learning as a form of e-Learning, which can take place anytime, anywhere with the help of a mobile
communication device such as a mobile phone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), iPod or any such small
portable device. But new mobile learning perspectives accept m-learning as a paradigm change. One of these
perspective is the learner-centred perspective. It asserts that m-learning is any sort of learning that happens when
the learner is not at a fixed, predetermined location, or learning opportunies offered by mobile technologies (O’
Malley et al, 2003). The other perspective focuses on individualism. According to this perspective, m-learning is
defined as any activity that allows individuals to be more productive when consuming, interacting with, or
creating information, mediating through a compact digital portable device that the individual carries on a regular
basis, has reliable connectivity, and fits in a pocket or purse (Wexler et al, 2008). There are some researchers
who associate m-learning with ubiquitous learning, as well (Ng et al, 2009).

Finally, there are many different m-learning perspectives in the related literature. Each definitions focus on the
different features such as mobile technologies, mobility, indvualism, ubiquitous, or e-learning.

Mobile Learning Theories

Current mobile learning theories are Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism, Situated Learning, Problem-
Based Learning, Context Awareness Learning, Socio-Cultural Theory, Collaborative Learning, Conversational
Learning, Lifelong Learning, Informal Learning as well as Activity Theory, Connectivism, Navigationism,
Location-based learning,. All of these theories will be discussed in Table 1.

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Table 1. Mobile Learning Theories

Theories Definitions Focus Examples with mobile
technologies
Behaviorist Learning has occured when Information and content English learning
Learning learners evidence the delivery in mobile learning applications
appropriate reinforcement of Language learning: Test, SMS, MMS, Voice recorder
an association between a practices, quiz, listening-practice softwares
particular response and speaking Mobile Response System:
stimulus (Smith and Ragan, Drill and feed back: Mobile Qwizdom, Turning Point
2005) Reponse System Response System
Content delivery by text Tell me tech. (searching)
messages.
Cognitivist Learning is the acquisition or Information and content Multimedia (text, video,
learning reorganization of the cognitive delivery in mobile learning audio, animation, images)
structures through which Using Multimedia learning SMS, MMS, e-Mail
humans process and store (Dual code, Cognitive Load Podcasting
information (Good and Theory): Images, audio, video, Mobile TV
Brophy, 1990) text, animations
Constructive Learning is an activity process Context and content- Handheld games
learning in which learners construct dependent mobile learning Simulation
new idea or concepts based on Questions for Exploration Virtual reality
their current and past Cases and examples Interactive Podcasting and
knowledge (Bruner, 1966) Problem solved and Decision SMS
making applications Interactive mobile TV and
Multiple representations SMS
Authentic contexts based
information database
Collaboration and interaction
in mobile learning
Collaboration and interaction
between students
Comunication via mobile phones
Situated Learning is not merely the Social Context and Social Natural science learning
learning acquisition of knowledge by participant dependent mobile Medical education
individuals, but instead a learning Multimedia museum
process of social participation Authentic domain activity Virtual experts by artificial
(Brown et all, 1989). Collaborative social interaction intelligence tech.
Cooperative activities Mobile performance support
Expert modeling system
Situated mentoring
Workplace learning
Problem-based Learning aims to develop Problem based context and Medical education
learning students’ critical thinking solved based content- Business administration
skills by giving them an ill- dependent mobile learning Nursing
defined problem that is Problems – Solutions Simulations
reflective of what they would Case centred activities SMS
encounter as a practicing Collaborative social interaction MMS
professional (Koschmann et Voice responde systems
all, 1996)
Context Context awareness means Context aware in mobile Multimedia museum and
awareness gathering information from the learning gallery
learning environment to provide a Context-dependent content Pre-class podcasts
measure of what is currently management Films
going on around user an the Contextual event notification e-books
device (Naismith et all, 2004) Context-aware communication Podcasting
Navigation and retrieval of
learning materials
User interface adapted according
to time and location contexts
Socio-cultural Learning occurs first through Social Context and Social Mobile performance support

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theory interpersonal (interaction with participant dependent mobile system

social environment) than learning Virtual experts
intrapersonal (internalization) Mobile experts Mobile forum, E-mail
(Vygotski, 1978). Community of practice Social network (Web 2.0
Workplace learning tools)
Mobile communication
Collaborative Learning is promoted, Collaboration and interaction Mobile Assisted Language
learning facilitated and enhanced by dependent mobile learning Learning
interaction and collaborations Actively participation Mobile Response System
between students. Social context Mobile computer supported
Communication between peers collaborative learning
via mobile phones. Forum, Web 2.0 tools, e-
mail, mobile portal, games
Conversational Learning is in terms of Interaction and Laboratory classes
learning conversations between communication dependent Field trip
different systems of mobile learning Mobile computer supported
knowledge (Sharples, 2002). Solving a problem collaborative learning
Exploring an environment Calling, Interactive Voice
Communication between peers Respond (IVR)
via mobile phones.

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Lifelong Learning happens all the time Lifelong information and Social networks (Blogs,
learning and is influenced both by our interaction with education Wikipedia, Twitter,
environment and the particular content in mobile learning Youtube)
situations we are faced with Podcasting Podcast
(Sharples, 2000). Information resources E-mail
Mobile web site Mobile Forums
Informal Learning is a process of Information and interaction Social networks (Blogs,
learning learning that occurs with education content in Wikipedia, Twitter,
autonomously and casually informal mobile learning Youtube)
without being tied to highly setting Podcast
directive curricula or Mobile information resources E-mail
Instruction (Vavoula, 2004) Mobiles in a museum setting Mobile Forums
Field Trips
Science Field Work
Activity theory Learning occurs with three User actions in social context Museum Art Gallery exhibit
features-involving a subject dependent mobile learning via SMS, polls, calling
(the learners), an object (the Actively participation Mobile Games
task or activity) and tool or Social context Multimedia
mediating artefacts and human Activities
behaviour is situated within a
social context that influences
their actions (Vygotsky,
1987).
Connectivism Learning is process of Diversity of information Social networks (Blogs,
connecting specialized nodes sources in mobile learning Wikipedia, Twitter,
or information sources Connecting specialized nodes Youtube)
(Siemens, 2004). Information sources Podcast
Facilitate continual learning E-mail
environment Mobile Forums
Knowledge management Diccussion Platforms
activities Podcasting
Decision-making
Navigationism Learning is a process of Complex of information Social networks (Blogs,
connecting specialized nodes sources in mobile learning Wikipedia, Twitter,
or information sources Connecting specialized nodes Youtube)
(Brown, 2005). Information sources Podcast
Facilitate continual learning E-mail
environment Mobile Forums
Knowledge management Diccussion Platforms
activities Podcasting
Decision-making
Manage information (identify,
analyse, organize, classify,
assess, evaluate, etc.)
Sense making and chaos
management.
Location based Location-based learning holds Location context in mobile Field trips
Learning promise for just- in-time learning Archaeology studies
learning tied to a student’s Conceptual knowledge Location based game
physical location (Johnson et Conceptual application Virtual world
all, 2009) Constructive environment Google Map, GPS, RFID,
Partnership with location network triangulation
Immersive activities

Current Mobile Learning Practices

In this part, it will be given some current mobile learning applications developed by METIL LAB (Mixed
Emerging Technology Integration Lab) in the Institute for Simulation & Training in University of Central
Florida which is a world-leading center for the development, demonstration, and utilization of interactive and
virtual systems for simulating operational environments and for training personnel who will utilize specific

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equipment and systems in those environments. METIL produces mobile learning application and provides
mobile learning research and development expertise for the public, private, and social sectors.

• Johnson & Johnson

The Johnson & Johnson PRD 3D University is a virtual world onboarding system for Johnson & Johnson,
allowing constant new employee training and orientation from all locations worldwide while fostering
communication among the employee base. Employees can launch corporate learning materials and exercises, get
help from HR personnel and collaborate with colleagues across the globe. METIL continues to provide
consultation and development services for PRD 3D University, along with mobile, simulations, and Web 2.0
techniques and products to help connect and streamline processes for Johnson & Johnson's global workforce.

Figure 1 - Johnson & Johnson's project

• Microsoft Mobile Course and IVR Sales Materials

As smart phones become more common and mobile web browsing improves, the need for mobile access to
learning and training materials is more in demand and has greater impact for business professionals. METIL took
Microsoft's existing web courses and created a SCORM-compliant mobile web template. This allows the content
from Microsoft's web courses to be easily repurposed (requiring only some modifications to media assets) for
mobile access with full progress tracking and scoring.

Sales professionals in particular have a strong need for on-demand, mobile access to refresher materials on their
product line. Driving, however, provides challenges to many methods of delivering mobile content, such as apps
or mobile web access, due to limiting ability to look at the device's screen; this is especially true now due to
stricter hands-free laws in many states. In order to allow simple, hands-free access to sales data, we developed a
voice recognition IVR (Interactive Voice Response) system that allows sales professionals to navigate
Microsoft's product information library and select audio for listening.

Figure 2- Microsoft Mobile Course and IVR Sales Materials Project

• My Sports Pulse
The My Sports Pulse project combines mobile and web technologies, STEM education, and a sports theme to
create an innovative approach to bolstering understanding and interest in science and mathematics fields.
Students can register with the My Sports Pulse program to receive questions, presented within the context of
sports scenarios, about subjects such as physics, nutrition, algebra or geometry. Questions are delivered through

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text messages or email, and can also be accessed and answered directly through the My Sports Pulse website. As
students answer questions, they earn points in various knowledge areas and build up their own avatar to compete
with other students and schools. The My Sports Pulse program has been piloted with several schools inside and
outside of the US, with promising results.

Figure 3- My Sports Pulse Project

• Dream Corp Alternate Reality Game

Run as a demonstration for Elliot Masie's Learning 2008 conference, the DreamCorp Alternate Reality Game
(ARG) provided an introduction to cross-media training and employee onboarding. The game involved several
challenges on three different tracks: Compliance, Leadership and Flexible Workforce. Players took on the role of
employees at fictional company DreamCorp and worked, sometimes alone and sometimes in cooperation with
fellow players, to solve puzzles and complete the assigned challenges. Portions of the game were offered through
multiple avenues and media formats: printed materials (e.g. pamphlets and newsletters), emails, text messages,
in-person interaction with METIL team members acting as DreamCorp employees, and a bonus task offered in
Second Life.

• Go for the Green

Go for the Green is a mobile web game, developed for The Willis Organization, that uses a golf theme to
reinforce key sales concepts. Nine holes of the golf course are mapped to nine steps in the sales process, with
each hole presenting several questions and feedback items related to that particular step. Users attempt to
complete the full course by answering all questions and avoiding common "traps" in the sales process. By using
streamlined mobile web development rather than creating a specific game application, we are able to deliver this
content to a wide range of user devices including iPhone, Blackberry and various Symbian and Windows Mobile
platforms.

Figure 4- Go for the Green

CONCLUSION
Mobile learning has a promising future as a field of study. In related literature, there are many different
approaches, theories and practices. The current m-learning study field will be more understandable for new
researchers if these definitions, approaches and theories are disccussed and linked to concrete mobile learning
practices.

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