NOVEMBER 2024

Volume: 52  Number: 11  Total Pages: 76

ANNUAL NUMBER

A view of the dais during Inaugural Function of Seminar on "Emerging Trends and
Technologies in Road & Bridge Construction and EPC Contract Execution"
in Bhopal on 19-20, October 2024
 INDIAN HIGHWAYS
VOLUME: 52  NUMBER: 11  NOVEMBER 2024  ISSN 0376-7256
Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December, 1934

CONTENTS
¾ From the Editor’s Desk 4-5
¾ Advertisements 2, 6-10,35, 71-74, 75 & 76
¾ List of New/Revised IRC Publication 52

Technical Papers

¾ Capacity Building of Stakeholders for Holistic Rural Infrastructure Development Under PMGSY 11
By Surendra Chaudhary & Dr. I.K. Pateriya

¾ Planning, Construction and Operation of Roads in a Landslide Prone Area 17

By Col. Sandeep Sudhera

¾ Representative Modulus of Granular Layers for Rational Analysis of Flexible Pavements in India 26
By Tanmaya Kumar Barik & Dr. U. C. Sahoo

¾ Sensitivity Analysis of HDM-4 Models for Developing Road Asset Management in India: A Case Study on
Regional Calibration Approach 36
By Sachin Gowda, Ganesha Kalburgi, Vijaykumar Sagar, Aakash Gupta & Jaya R S

¾ Notifications 53-70

FEEDBACK
Suggestion/Observation on editorial and Technical Papers are welcome and may be sent to IRC Secretariat on
[email protected]/[email protected]

Publisher & Editor: Sanjay Kumar Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC

E-mail: [email protected]
Headquarter: IRC Bhawan, Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110 022.
Phone Nos.: +91-11-26171548 (Admn.), 23387140 & 23384543 (Membership, Tech. Papers and Indian Highways),
23387759 (Sale), 26185273 (Tech. Committees)

No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.

The responsibility of the contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author(s) concerned. IRC and the Editor
disclaim responsibility and liability for any statements or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The
opinion expressed in the papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.

Printed at: M/s Infinity Advertising Services Pvt. Ltd., Faridabad, Haryana
 TECHNICAL
FROM PAPER
THE EDITOR'S DESK

BRIDGE AESTHETICS: BLENDING FUNCTIONALITY WITH ART

Bridges have been an essential part of human civilization for centuries, not only serving as vital connections for
transportation but also standing as symbols of engineering triumph. While their primary purpose is functional—
allowing people and goods to cross obstacles like rivers, valleys, or other roads—bridges have evolved to be more
than just utilitarian structures. Their design has become a reflection of artistic expression and cultural identity.
The aesthetics of bridges, therefore, is a subject that merges art, architecture, and engineering, addressing the
balance between form and function.
Historically, bridges were designed primarily with functionality in mind. The main goal was to construct a
structure that could support the necessary loads, resist natural forces, and last over time. However, as engineering
techniques and materials advanced, there was a shift in bridge design where aesthetics also became a critical
consideration.
Bridge aesthetics refers to the visual impact a bridge has on its surroundings. It encompasses the shape, materials,
colour, structural elements, and the way it fits within its environment. A well-designed bridge is not only
structurally sound but also pleasing to the eye, enhancing its surroundings and even becoming a landmark. The
aesthetic appeal of a bridge is influenced by various factors, including the choice of materials, structural form,
colour schemes, and lighting. Each of these elements can either enhance or detract from the visual harmony of
the bridge within its setting. Therefore, bridge aesthetics is about finding the right balance—ensuring that the
beauty of the structure complements its surroundings without compromising on safety and durability.
Throughout history, many bridges have become iconic not only for their engineering feats but also for their
aesthetic appeal. For example, the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco is recognized worldwide, not just as a
transportation link but as an architectural marvel. Its distinct red-orange colour contrasts with the surrounding
landscape, while the Art Deco design adds a touch of elegance.Similarly, the Tower Bridge in London is another
example where aesthetics plays a significant role. Its Gothic-inspired architecture blends seamlessly with the
historic cityscape, while the blue and white paint scheme gives it a unique identity. The Sydney Harbour Bridge,
often referred to as the "Coathanger" due to its arch-based design, also stands out as a symbol of Australia's
architectural prowess, merging robust engineering with striking visual appeal.
In modern bridge construction, materials such as steel, concrete, glass, and composite materials have expanded
the possibilities for design. The use of steel allows for slender and elegant designs, as seen in the Millau Viaduct
in France, which features tall, graceful pylons that support the bridge deck, creating an impression of lightness
and modernity. The use of concrete, on the other hand, can achieve solid and sturdy designs while still being
moulded into aesthetically pleasing shapes. In some contemporary designs, glass is incorporated to enhance
the visual experience of the bridge, allowing for panoramic views of the surroundings. The Zhangjiajie Glass
Bridge in China, which stretches across a canyon, exemplifies this approach. It not only serves as a crossing but
also as a tourist attraction, where the thrill of walking on a transparent surface adds to the overall experience.
The choice of a structural form can influence how well a bridge fits into its surroundings. Arch bridges, for
example, can blend seamlessly with natural landscapes, such as mountains or rivers, due to their organic
shapes. Suspension bridges, with their cable structures, often provide a visually lightweight appearance, ideal
for spanning large bodies of water. Beam bridges, while less visually dramatic, can be designed with decorative
elements to suit their urban settings.
Lighting is another powerful tool that can transform a bridge's appearance, especially at night. Well-planned
lighting can emphasize the structural features of the bridge, highlight its architectural details, or create an entirely

4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL
FROM PAPERDESK
THE EDITOR'S

new visual experience. The use of LED technology has made it possible to design energy-efficient lighting
systems that not only enhance a bridge's aesthetics but also contribute to its safety by improving visibility for
Reinforcement.
both pedestrians Special feature of these Membranes are impermeability, resistance to ageing and
and vehicles.
weathering, bonding with base, high temperature stability, resistance to impact and puncture, and cold
While theexibility.
aesthetic value of a bridge is important, it must not compromise its primary function as a transportation
structure. Engineers and designers face the challenge of ensuring that aesthetic considerations do not negatively
In bridge’s
impact the the Signature
structuralbridge on Yamuna
integrity, cost, or in Delhi, Atactic
maintenance Polypropylene (APP) modied bituminous
requirements.
waterproong and Damp proong membrane with polyester reinforcement as per IS 16532 was used.
Most bridge professionals agree on the fundamental principle that a bridge has to be robust (strong, stiff, and
It functional,
resilient), is reported that Kanaka
efficient andDurga Flyoverbut
economical, in also
Vijaywada, New Mandovi
that it should be elegant Bridge in Goa
– slender with and a Cable
simple Stayed
forms and
Bridge on Maner
well proportioned. It has river
to be(Karimnagar
in harmony District) in Telangana environment,
with its surrounding adapted waterand proong wearingtocoats
if possible, together
embellish its
with other bituminous layers.
natural site. In modern times, David Billington has set the core principles of good structural design as efficiency
(of materials), economy (of cost and time) and elegance (slenderness, elegance, and good proportions).
Experience on the Ganga Bridge at Garh Muketswar with the use of waterproong layer on the concrete
surface was
The engineer’s rolereported to be a an
is to provide “failure”
efficientresulting in replacement
and economic of thewhile
structure, entirealso
wearing coat
trying tosubsequently.
make it elegant.The
reason attributed being lack of exclusive specication on tack coat for water
The engineer’s task is to select the most appropriate bridge type and the correct parameters for a particular proong layer and absence of
project; any
the additional
builder canprotecting
provide layer.
significant assistance in this process if involved on time. The architect, while
advisingAs thethere
engineer
are noon aesthetics,
standard shouldfor
Guidelines avoid
laying recommendations
of wearing coats that may significantly
on bridge decks in Indiaincrease
there is athe cost.
need to
While aesthetics is more or less subjective, efficiency and economy can be
review MORT&H Specications pertaining to this subject. Typically, the wearing coat system shall measured objectively by the cost,
comprise
main structural of waterproong
materials layer, a protective
and construction time withlayer respectand to
two or three
bridge surface
span layers on the top. The inter layer
lengths.
adhesion between each layer is important parameter.
Good design concepts minimize future difficulties both in the design office and on the construction site. While
experienced engineers can for
The Specications deliver excellent
interlayer bondprojects
are generallyeven without
issued byanthe architect, it would
Manufacturer be Waterproong
of the preferable for
engineerssystem but the owners should insist on priming the concrete deck surface to prepare a “texture”design
to work in collaboration with an architect with knowledge and understanding of bridge so that and
the
layer
aesthetics. does not
Perhaps it isget debonded.
a good idea forAlso a need to
engineers to work
installwith
or replace expansion
an architect joints
on their onbridge
next bridgesproject.
together with
new/renewed wearing coat is to be detailed while retaining the same thickness of wearing coat on the
The long-span
existingbridge
bridgedesign
duringisitsmainly governed
replacement. It isby structuraltoefficiency.
preferable These bridges
adopt a minimum thicknessbenefit
of 80 from
mm for thewearing
natural
elegancecoatof on existing
their bridges.
structural The specications
systems. In suspension for bridges,
steel, composite and concrete
the towers with theirbridge wearing
imposing coats
size andcould be
shape,
combined different.
with the natural elegance of the catenary main cables, have predominance on the projected image.
This “natural” inherited quality is usually enhanced with the appropriate articulation of the tower legs and
In recent
cross-girder ties. years, large numbers
Here again, the role of of failures of bridge
an architect deck wearing
is helpful coats the
for achieving are being reported.
maximum The Ministry
aesthetic may
effect. Well-
designedsponsor
towers aprovide
Research Studyofonelegance
a feeling the performance
and strength andatdesign
the sameof wearing
time. coat for bridge decks in India
considering trafc and environmental factors. Till such time some guidelines are needed so that the
specications
It is important to keepfollowed for roadbetween
a good balance works arethe notaesthetics
made directly applicable
and the efficiencyfor wearing coats on
and economy inbridge
bridgedecks.
design.It
includestointeralia
Any deviation extremestack coats/texturing,
in either direction hasbonding
adverse of intermediate
effects.It is alayers in thewhile
beautiful, system. Till such time
controversial, EN
bridge
Specications for water proong layers and other specications for “pavement
design due to its deviation from basic cable-stayed systems, resulting in high inefficiency. The unusual omission on bridge decks” evolved in
European countries could be adopted in addition to MORTH Specications.
of back span cable-stays creates a dramatic view and contributes to the attractiveness of the bridge, but such a
concept should be discouraged for any bridge that is not built as a monument. Similar comments are valid for
As thicker wearing coats of 80-90 mm increase the dead load on the structure, this issue could be taken into
the Erasmus
account Bridge
as perin Rotterdam,
the Limit State Netherlands credited to
Design principles Ben van
(IRC:6) andBerkel, the architect
increasing of the bridge.
the corresponds Kerb/Footpath
A bridgeheight
does (IRC:5)
not needfor tothe
be purpose
expensive of design.
or extravagant – the simplest bridge with sincere structure is often the
best. TheAccreditation
right balanceCommittee
of the leading role
of IRC hasofalso
engineers, combined
recommended many with
newthe important
materials contribution
for bridge of architects
deck waterproong
and builders, is essential for creating a successful bridge project
applications for trial use. The details of these materials are available on our website

(Sanjay Kumar Nirmal)

Secretary General, IRC

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JUNE 2023 5

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 5
 TECHNICAL
ADVERTISEMENT
PAPER

6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL
ADVERTISEMENT
PAPER

Road Safety
need of the hour...
Thanks to rapid strides in development of the economy, industry & infrastructure,
countries like India are witnessing an exponential increase in vehicles on the road -
both passenger and commercial.

Sunrise Overseas
A trusted & renowned name in Road Marking Industry...
AUTH. Converter. Awarded best performing MSME .

ONE OF THE LARGEST MANUFACTURER OF

THERMOPLASTIC ROAD MARKING
OVERHEAD GANTRY TRAFFIC SIGNAGIS

‘W’ BEAM METAL CRASH BARRIER ANTI GLARE

Mr Ankur Aggarwal, Director, Sunrise Overseas, Welcoming Sh.

Nitin Gadkari Union Minister for Road Transport and Highways of
India along with Sh. Bhupendra Patel, Chief Minister of Gujarat at
our stall in 82nd session of Indian Road Congress at Gandhi Nagar, KERB MARKING REFLECTIVE
PAINT RPM
SOLAR ROAD STUD
Gujarat, INDIA

Customer Care Number : 9818134521

Head O ice : B-5, Shiva Chambers, Nimri Colony Commercial Complex, Ashok Vihar, Phase - IV, New Delhi - 110052
INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER
Tel. : 011-47503511,49124180, E-mail : [email protected] 2024 7
Website : www.sunriseroadmarking.com, www.roadmarkingsbysunrise.com
FOR FOR
 TECHNICAL PAPER
ADVERTISEMENT

8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL
ADVERTISEMENT
PAPER

WORLD-CLASS
GEOHAZARD MITIGATION
SOLUTIONS BY TECHFAB INDIA

www.techfabindia.com

TechFab India: Leading the way in GeoHazard Mitigation

with innovative, ETA-approved products designed to reduce
risks from rockfalls, landslides and debris flows through
advanced technology and extensive research and development.

Our Products

TECHRHOMBUS SWK TECHRHOMBUS HRC TECHSLOPE MESH

TECHANCHOR TECHFAB METAL GABION TECH WELD MESH

TechFab India Industries Ltd.

46/47, Maker Chambers VI,
Nariman Point, Mumbai - 400021
[email protected] www.techfabindia.com
+91 - 22 - 2287 6224 / 25

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 9

 TECHNICAL
ADVERTISEMENT
PAPER

THERMOLAZER®
Graco’s Complete Line of Thermoplastic Striping Solutions

THERMOPLASTIC ROAD
MARKING MACHINE

Automatic temperature control

Adjustable glass beads dispenser

Line thickness adjustments

Floating screed boxes

Heat Efficient design for gas saving

Graco India Pvt. Ltd.

Plot No. 295, Phase IV, Sector 18, Gurugram, Haryana -122015 | Website: www.graco.com
Tel.: +91 124 4354208 | Mob.: +91 7042291666, +91 98101 50374
MADE IN THE USA WITH
Email: Denzil_D'[email protected], [email protected] GLOBAL COMPONENTS

10 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

CAPACITY BUILDING OF STAKEHOLDERS FOR HOLISTIC RURAL

INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT UNDER PMGSY

Er. Surendra Chaudhary1 Dr. I.K. Pateriya2

1. INTRODUCTION operation, safety protocols, design methods, and project

management to ensure quality rural infrastructure.
The rural population in India as per census 2011 is
68.84% of the total population. As per the 2011 census, NRIDA has also organised workshops, webinars, and
the number of villages increased by 2,279 compared to seminars on various topics to impart knowledge about
the 2001 census figure of 6,40,867. These figures suggest new technologies and the latest construction techniques, as
that India remains a major rural nation despite rapid urban listed in later chapters of this paper.
growth in recent years. Thus, it can be said that the path
to India’s development must traverse through rural areas This paper aims to highlight the achievements of NRIDA
to ensure the holistic development of the nation. The need to enhance stakeholders’ knowledge and build the capacity
for efficient rural infrastructure is a must for this purpose. to execute best practices on the site.
It was rightly recognized, and Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak 2. BACKGROUND
Yojana (PMGSY) was launched in December 2000 to
connect eligible rural habitations. The structure of PMGSY’s human resources strength
includes different types of stakeholders, as shown in
National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency Fig. 1. Empowerment of these stakeholders is essential for
(NRIDA), formerly known as National Rural Roads achieving quality infrastructure as they control a project
Development Agency(NRRDA) was established in 2002 both on a micro and macro level. Therefore, specific
as an autonomous body to support the PMGSY scheme courses are designed, and training is provided to each
through uniform technical standards, operation policies, stakeholder group based on their need and work nature.
capacity building, and overall monitoring of the scheme.

With the large number of PMGSY works commencing, there

was a need for huge human resources to cater to the need for
pace and quality of the works. Skill of these human resources
required to be up to date as per the latest technologies
and trends; therefore, NRIDA with the help of leading
technical institutes such as Central Road Research Institute
(CRRI), Indian Academy of Highway Engineers (IAHE),
Engineering Staff College of India (ESCI), etc. organized
various training programs for PMGSY stakeholders. The
training courses include road construction, machinery Fig. 1 Stakeholders in the PMGSY Project

National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency

1 Young Civil Engineer
2 Director & Chief Quality Coordinator, Email:[email protected] } (NRIDA), New Delhi

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 11

 TECHNICAL PAPER

NRIDA has acknowledged that capacity building should Note: Data of financials years before 2003-04, are not
be a holistic and cyclic process. If any single type of included in the above graphic.
stakeholder group is not efficient, it makes the entire
system inefficient. For instance, if the capacity of STA/ Apart from the above physical training, around 5,563
PTA who audits DPR is not as par, then slowly, it will officials were trained through webinars conducted by
make the entire system of development of infrastructure NRIDA in recent years. All these training courses (physical
obsolete. Whereas the cyclic process helps to impart new and virtual) were focused mainly on
practices to all stakeholder groups from time to time.
• New Technology Initiatives in PMGSY
NRIDA, with the help of the Centre for Development of • Design, Construction, and Quality control of
Advanced Computing (C-DAC) and National Informatics flexible and rigid Pavements
Centre (NIC), developed a robust IT infrastructure
• Program on Planning, Design, and Construction
throughout the journey of PMGSY implementation in the
of Minor Bridges and Culverts
states. Some of these softwares are mentioned in the Fig. 2.
• Road Safety of Rural Roads
• Quality Control, Material Testing Procedures, and
Lab Practices
• Planning, Design, and Construction of PMGSY
Roads.
• Procurement, Financial planning, and Tendering
Fig.2 IT Infrastructure in PMGSY system of PMGSY.
These e-governing tools are crucial for data management, It is pertinent to note that training was also provided to
monitoring, and analysis of PMGSY projects. Thus, the officials of states in which the PMGSY scheme was
Training for capacity building on these tools is also provided executed with the assistantship of the World Bank and Asian
by NRIDA to all concerned PMGSY stakeholders. Development Bank (ADB). Training for more than 15,000
contractors and their engineers was provided under the
3. TRAINING FOR PMGSY OFFICIALS
World Bank’s Technical Assistance Program. Whereas ADB
The officers of the Project Implementation Units (PIU) are developed Rural Connectivity Training and Research Centers
directly involved in the execution of the project. PIUs are (RCTRC) and Rural Road Network Management Units
the primary pillars of the PMGSY program; thus, extensive (RRNMU) across the ADB-assisted PMGSY implementing
training programs have been conducted throughout the years states (Assam, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal,
since the inception of the program. NRIDA trained around and Odisha). Various training programs at these centers were
48,000 PIU engineers over the years to ensure a better quality organized by the states for their PMGSY officials.
of construction on the ground and create a strong rural road
MoRD technical/governing officers’ capacity building
network throughout the country to provide all-weather
has also been done to effectively monitor the scheme.
roads to rural populations for the holistic development of
These officials took part in various conferences across the
the nation. The following figure presents data on the number
nation and in other countries to learn and implement new
of participants trained throughout the years.
initiatives in rural roads of India.

4. RCTRCs and RRNMUs

NRIDA, with financial assistance from the Asian

Development Bank, launched the Rural Connectivity
Improvement Program (RCIP) in 5 states namely Assam,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal.

Under this program, Rural Connectivity Training and

Fig. 3 Number of Trained PIU Officials over the Years Research Centres (RCTRCs) and Rural Roads Network

12 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Management Units (RRNMUs) have been established in 5. TRAINING FOR QUALITY MONITORS
each of these states with the common goal of improving
the capacity of personnel, quality management, local level Quality Monitors are empaneled at the state level (State
research and development support, implementation of new Quality Monitor) and national level (National Quality
technologies and maintenance management of rural roads. Monitor) to inspect the PMGSY rural infrastructure and
ensure quality infrastructure in rural regions.
Funds for Construction of these RCTC and RRNMU
Buildings and procurement of equipments for laboratories NQM/SQM are retired government officials who already
have been provided by Ministry of Rural Development possess immense work experience in civil engineering
(MoRD), whereas the land for buildings, recurring projects, but they may not have specific experience to
expenditure for these institutions as well as staff is provided conduct pavement inspection tests on-site; therefore,
by the concerned state government. NRIDA, with the help of leading technical institutes
such as IAHE, CRRI, ESCI, IITs, etc. organizes training
program at the time of orientation of new NQMs and
Refresher courses for already empaneled NQMs.

In the last 10 years, NRIDA has organized 26 such training

programs, and more than 500 NQMs trained through these
programs. An overview of these programs is graphed
below.

Photo1 RCTRC Raipur, Chhattisgarh

RCTRCs have held training programs, in the last 5 years,

as shown in the Table 1 below

Table 1 Year wise of Training Programs organised

Madhya West
Year Assam Chhattisgarh Odisha
Pradesh Bengal
2019-20 451 570 1183 267 300
2020-21 537 2061 420 97 76
2021-22 243 1498 643 372 158 Fig. 4 Year wise No. of Training Programs organized
2022-23 352 971 1259 574 260 for NQMs
2023-24 90* 742 863 326 278
Total 1673 5842 4368 1636 1072 Topics for these Training programs included an overview
Note - * Data available till June 2023 of the PMGSY scheme, NQM guidelines, QC testing
The above trainings include refresher courses, DPR methods, Field demonstration of QC testing, new
preparation, mix design, construction and quality controls, technologies, Introduction of quality formats, and Use of
road safety, finance operation, etc. These trainings are OMMAS and QMS App.
residential, 3-5 days in duration, designed according to the
Training was provided to SQMs by their respective states and
level and need of officials.
NRIDA frequently organized webinars and workshops for
the SQMs to keep up the knowledge as par with the NQMs.

It is also essential to assess the impact of capacity building

so that the knowledge giver and seeker remain at the
same level in this process. NRIDA has in place a system
for performance evaluation of Quality Monitors (QMs)
through independent technical institutes such as IITs. QMs
need to score a minimum mark to remain empaneled as
Photo 2 RRNMU, Angul, Odisha QMs for the inspection of PMGSY projects.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 13

 TECHNICAL PAPER

6. WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCES Table 2 Details of Inter State visits

Name of Host No. of
NRIDA has organized around 70 workshops throughout State
Technology
Participants
the journey of PMGSY. In these workshops, all types of Bihar Panelled Cement Concrete 49
stakeholders were invited to attend the workshops. These Jharkhand Steel Slag 48
workshops were organized in all parts of the country to
Karnataka Cell Filled Concrete 49
maximize the local benefits and number of participants.
Punjab Nano Technology 46
The topic list comprised core network planning, accounts Tamil Nadu Cement Stabilization 49
procedures, standard bidding documents, project Uttar Pradesh Full Depth Reclamation 55
formulation, quality monitoring, tendering and bid Odisha Nanotechnology 48
evaluation, hill roads, e-procurement and GepNIC, non- Maharashtra Full Depth Reclamation 51
conventional materials and technologies, etc. Jammu &
Cold Mix Technology 47
Kashmir
For instance, in the financial year 2023-24, 13 such workshops
Arunachal
have been organized on fulldepth reclamation (FDR) Pradesh
Cement Treated Base 41
and cement-treated base (CTB) in all states where these
technologies will be implemented or are being implemented. 8. TRAININGS ON IT TOOLS

NRIDA has also organized aninternationalconference on Many numbers of web-based and physical training provided
“New Technologies and Innovations in Rural Roads”. In to concerned stakeholders such as OMMAS training to state
this event, international experts from various agencies/ IT Nodal Officers (ITNO), QMS, and e-form training to
institutes, local participants (all PMGSY stakeholders) quality monitors for digitally reporting the quality of roads,
from different sectors and states, and equipment planning of roads on NRIDA’s GIS platform e.g. GeoSadak
manufacturers participated. More than 1000 participants and Geo PMGSY, eMARG for monitoring maintenance
trained on resilient infrastructure, asset management, the of rural roads, etc. Training for these tools is organized
latest technologies, etc., through this conference. regularly and upon receiving a request from any state.
7. INTERSTATE GREEN TECHNOLOGY SITE User manuals of all such IT tools were created by NRIDA
VISITS with the help of C-DAC/NIC and circulated to all states
and provided in these tools too.
NRIDA with the help of host states organized interstate
NRIDA has an ICT division to support and provide case-based
green technology site visits for a better understanding
solutions for issues encountered while using these tools.
of the new technologies adopted indifferent terrain/
soil/geographic/traffic conditions and interaction with 9. DO-IT-YOURSELF PUBLICATIONS
stakeholders and technology providers.
NRIDA has published 22 Do It Yourself (DIY) booklets
More than 1,500 participants from all states participated for self-learning and execution of new technologies on
in such visits. A sample of NQM/SQM and PTA/STA was sites where conventional practices can be replaced by
also scheduled along with state PMGSY officials. For such new technologies for sustainable and cost-effective
illustration, detailsof a visit organized in November 2023 infrastructure.These booklets focused mainly on the
are tabulated below in Table 2. practical portion of the new technologies thus emphasis
These visits are usually comprisedof 2-3 days; onthe was given to design, construction, and quality control
first day,a seminar is organized with theory lectures from methods. schedule of rates of new technologies is also
eminent professors, technology briefs by technology annexed in these booklets along with a cost comparison of
providers, and views of experts from a state in which these these technologies with relative conventional technologies.
technologies are implemented successfully. In the last days Training videos of some of these technologies were
of this visit, a site visit commenced to cover site aspects of also prepared and shared with all states for an enhanced
this technology. This initiative has received a very positive experience of learning. These booklets and training provided
response from many stakeholders as it holistically covers a detailed overview of new technologies and encouraged PIU
all aspects of technology. officials to adopt these technologies in their respective states.

14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

10. DIGITAL COURSES ON I-GOT – Table 3 Matrix for Rating

KARMYOGI Questionnaire

Digitization has made it essential to make learning flexible SN (5-Excellent/Fully, 4-Mostly/Very Good,
and demand-driven, thus the government of India launched 3-Average/Good, 2-Slightly/Fair, 1-Not at all/Poor)
a digital platform called i-GOT Karmayogi platform to A Rate the programme against your expectation
train officials to perform regular tasks efficiently and learn To what extent do you feel the programme achieved
about new practices and accommodate them in place of B
its objective
conventional practices.
C Was the course content adequate
NRIDA has uploaded 18 digital courses on i-GOT D Was the topic dealt in detail
prepared with the help of leading technical organizations E Applicability of the training in your area of work
and consultancies. These coursesincluded topic subjects F Did the programme help in refreshing knowledge
such as G Did the programme help in updating knowledge
• Procurement and Contract Management H Was the duration adequate
I Was the course worth it
• New Technologies and Sustainable Materials
J Rate the overall programme design/selection of the topic
• GIS Curriculum For PMGSY
Rate the overall composition of faculty members
• Full Depth Reclamation for Rehabilitation of K
for the programme
Low-Volume Roads Was the course (5-Balanced, 4-Too Practical, 3-Too
L
• Road Safety Audit Theoretical, 2-About Right, 1-Not Right)
• Preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR) In addition to the previously mentioned matrices, the
• Planning, Design, And Construction of Short feedback form also incorporated matrices designed to assess
Span/ Long Span Bridge the course content of experts. These matrices encompassed
criteria such as the utility of the topic, quality of teaching
11. CASE STUDY OFA TRAINING material, effectiveness of delivery, and an overall grading
PROGRAMME of the expert’s performance.

For the case study of a training programme, a training The collective ratings from all 34 participants were
programme taken for study which was held from subjected to arithmetic averaging, as illustrated in Fig. 5.
20th-24th February 2023 on the topic “Planning, Design, Analysis of the graph reveals that the mean rating assigned
by participants hovers around 4 for all matrices. Notably,
and Construction of Minor Bridges and Culverts” at
participants awarded a maximum average of 4.62 marks to
the Indian Academy of Highway Engineers (IAHE)
the query “Did the program help in updating knowledge,”
specificallytailored for PMGSY engineers.
while the lowest average rating of 3.79 was attributed to the
In this training programme, 34 participants from various question “Was the duration adequate”. Many participants
states (Assam, Manipur, Uttar Pradesh, etc.) with different gave a low rating for the adequacy of training duration,
designations (JE. AE, EE, etc.) took part.Out of this, 11 with feedback to provide a site tour after training.“Course
was balanced”was rated most frequently along with
Junior engineers, 16 Assistant engineers, and 5 Executive
“Applicability of the training in your area of work” and
engineers participated.Two participants opted not to
“Did the programme help in updating knowledge” which
disclose their identity in the feedback form submitted.
garnered a 5 rating from a majority of participants.
Upon the culmination of the training program, a feedback The analysis based on designations, as illustrated in Fig. 6,
form was distributed to all participants, soliciting their reveals a discernible trend where junior-level participants
opinions on the course curriculum, its relevance, and consistently provide lower ratings, while their senior-level
the expertise of the instructors.The feedback form counterparts tend to assign higher ratings to the same
encompassed specific metrics to gauge these aspects, as matrices. Specifically, junior-level officers contributed an
elucidated below. average rating of approximately 3.9, mid-level officers

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 15

 TECHNICAL PAPER

provided an average rating of about 4.15, and senior- achieved through the incorporation of the following key
level officers demonstrated the highest inclination with points:
an average rating of around 4.58 across all matrices. This
distinction in ratings across different hierarchical levels i. NRIDA to spearhead the development of a
underscores a noteworthy pattern in the participants’ comprehensive digital platform. This platform
perception of the trainingprogram. would serve the dual purpose of managing and
monitoring all training programs andfacilitating
the analysis of pertinent matrices. This initiative
aims to enhance the overall quality of the training
programs by leveraging technology for efficient
administration and evaluation.
ii. Tailoring training sessions to be state-specific
is imperative. Simultaneously, a balanced blend
of participants from multiple states should be
integrated into the training cohorts. This approach
caters to the localized requirements of each state
while also broadening exposure criteria through
the inclusion of diverse perspectives from various
Fig. 5 Analysis of Ratings
regions.
iii. Standardization is essential in the feedback
process. Implementing an identical feedback form
and matrices across all training institutes ensures
uniformity in the evaluation process, making the
feedback collected not only comparable but also
universally applicable and insightful.
iv. More matrices need to be added tothe feedback
form to enhance its quality.
v. Introducing innovative initiatives such as group
case studies, hands-on training sessions, and
Fig. 6 Mean of Ratings Provided by Officers site visits is crucial. These experiential learning
opportunities enhance participant engagement
12. Conclusion and future directions and offer practical insights, contributing to a more
NRIDA’s training initiatives have played a pivotal role in enriching and effective training program.
elevating the skill sets of rural engineers, an enhancement
that might not be immediately apparent on a macroscopic With the aim of better management and execution, the
level but becomes evident through the distinct improvement PMGSY program has trained over 70,000 participants
in the quality of infrastructure developed under the across all levels, significantly contributing to the holistic
PMGSY scheme. The multi-faceted approach employed development of rural infrastructure.
by NRIDA, including comprehensive training sessions,
interactiveworkshops, digital courses and videos, has REFERENCES
bestowed rural engineers with holistic capabilities. This
1. Data of annual reports from the PMGSY website
holistic skill set empowers them to implement not only
(https://pmgsy.nic.in/annual_reports)
innovative and contemporary initiatives adeptly but also
to handle conventional projects with confidence. These 2. Data of training programmes, workshop, and seminar
initiatives aided state engineers not only in the execution from https://pmgsy.nic.in/
of PMGSY scheme roads but also in handling other 3. Previous 5-year Training Data from all RCTRCs.
infrastructure projects created through state schemes. 4. Green technology sire visit data from office files.
The optimization of training programs can be further 5. Case study feedback data from IAHE, Noida.

16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF ROADS IN A

LANDSLIDE PRONE AREA

Sandeep Sudhera1

ABSTRACT

In India, nearly 15% of our territory (covering about 0.49 million sq.km) is prone to various degrees of landslide hazard (GSI,
2001). Landslides occur in areas spread over 22 States and UTs in our country. Most of the landslide occurrences, especially
those that have caused extensive damage to life and property, are recorded along the highways and other connecting roads of
the hilly terrain of the country. The landslide often lead to disruption of traffic and essential supplies to higher areas which
get cut off due to the landslides as there is only limited access to these areas in mountainous region. Landslides are major
challenges that a road engineer faces and hence, this paper deals with the nuances of planning, construction and operation of
roads in a landslide prone areas.

1. INTRODUCTION infrastructure projects requirement tourism strategic other

needs which decide the obligatory points.
Landslides are geological challenges posing major threat to
habitation and infrastructures like highways rail routes and There is a requirement of having control points with
other civil engineering structures like dams and buildings obligatory points which are influenced by passes, valleys,
while undertaking expansion of urban infrastructural rivers, cliffs, forest, dense hebetate area, landslide and
in hill areas if the excavation for these structures is not avalanche prone area.
systematically planned they may lead to landslides Whenever a new road is being planned in Hill areas,
landslides are also often induced during other major following systematic investigations in terms of different
natural disasters such as earthquakes floods and volcanoes stages should be done.
this makes road construction and maintenance a daunting
task in the mountainous region it becomes imperative that (a) Routes Reconnaissance
route location is based on a carefully planned systematic (b) Center Line Determination
investigation and study of the target areas thereby selecting (c) Preliminary Ground Survey
an alignment with minimum stability problem it is equally (d) Selection of possible alternative alignments from
important that proper care is taken during the construction routes surveyed
of roads and maintain them regularly thereafter. (e) Preliminary Survey and verification of the
alternative alignments.
2. PLANNING STAGE (IRC:SP:48-2023, (f) Detailed Survey of selected alignments.
IRC:52-2019 & Anbalagan and Bhoop Singh:
2007) By following these stages of investigation, the existing
instabilities of the slope can be better evaluated and taken
The hill road alignments are based on the development of care off.
1 Col. (Retd.) & Executive Director, NHIDCL Regional Office, Jammu, Email: [email protected]

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 17

 TECHNICAL PAPER

2.1 Reconnaissance points, engineering economical and environmental factors.

Special care should be taken to avoid geologically unstable
During the reconnaissance stage, before going on to the area.
ground a detailed study of the area can be done using Arial
photographs, Satellite imageries, Topographic maps and 2.5 In the planning stage the following options may be
Geological maps. At this stage, three important parameters employed to avoid or mitigate the problems of landslides
namely Topography, Geology and Historical Data of the as per the ground conditions.
area shall be attended. This will help in identifying the
potential landslide prone zone , sinking areas rivers, cliffs, 2.5.1 Change of alignment
forest, densely habitated area, and avalanche prone area. Alternate alignment where possible must be selected.
In this stage, the investigation should cover the area from It is often more practicable, economic and safe to avoid
the top of the ridge to the bottom of valley. The scale of the a potential landslide zone by changing the alignment
map should be 1:50,000 . Initially three to five alignments of proposed road at the planning stage itself rather than
should be selected connecting the obligatory points. resorting to landslide mitigation methods later on. There
Based on geology and other potential landslide hazards may be locations where it may be feasible to choose the
along individual alignments, the selected alignments are opposite side of the mountain where bedding planes of
evaluated thereafter final alignment is chosen for further rocks dip away from the road slope rather than dip on to
investigations. the cut road slope.
2.2 Preliminary Ground Survey
2.5.2 Where realignment of the proposed road is not
The pegs are put on ground at short intervals on the feasible then we may resort to one of the following methods
selected routes based on reconnaissance survey. The data to avoid the landslide/potential landslide prone area which
is collected on ground which will be the basis for deciding has been identified during the reconnaissance stage:
the final center line of the road. Therefore, it is important
a) Removal of Materials. Resort to removal of the
to maintain accuracy in addition the data w.r.t. traffic,
unstable material. However, it must be ensured
condition of soil, construction material, drainage which is
that stability of the slope is maintained and also
important for the designing. Status of stability of individual
that the proposal is economical (Fig. 1).
landslides are collected along with the historical data. It is
important to get data from all available sources like PWD,
BRO, Local civil authorities and Local people. This will
help in identifying the required stability measures.

The following steps to be followed:

(a) Jungle Clearance
(b) Pegging the alignment
(c) Trace Cut
(d) Survey
(e) Map preparation

2.3 Preparation of Maps

Fig. 1 Soil Removal
After completion the ground survey plan and longitudinal
section are developed which will assist in finalizing the b) Bridging. Places where it is not feasible to either
final center line of the road. The Maps should generally be change the alignment or undertake removal
with horizontal scale of 1:1000 and vertical scale 1:100. of unstable material then one of the alternate
solution is bridging. It must be ensured that the
2.4 Determination of Center line foundation of the bridge is will below the unstable
Based on the various study and survey carried out the best materials and should span the unstable area
alignment is determined which satisfies the obligatory (Fig. 2 & Photo 1).

18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

3. DURING CONSTRUCTION STAGE

During road construction stage in hill areas, utmost care
must be taken not to make the cut slope steep making it
unstable. Slope stability analyses must be carried out
once the road formation has been cut. It must be ensured
that proper surface drainage and subsurface drainage
is provided, the unstable overburden weight is reduced
and the resisting force of the slide surface is increased,
where required. These are discussed in the subsequent
Fig. 2 Bridging paragraphs. The retaining/permanent structure i.e.
drains, culverts, retaining, breast and toe walls must be
constructed immediately after the formation has been cut,
even before the construction of the pavement starts. The
slope stabilization should also be completed at the earliest
after detailed study and proper design with location.

3.1. Surface Drainage

An efficient surface drainage helps to reduce pore pressure

Photo 1 Field Photogrpahs of the slop material. Surface drainage also arrests surface
erosion and helps to increase stability. The location of the
c) Tunneling. Another alternative to avoid unstable surface drainage must be planned after the ground survey
areas is tunneling. This is feasible where the rock is and topography has been carefully examined and studied.
at suitable depth and is stable. This method also has It must be ensured that the surface runoff is prevented from
the last impact of environment and is a permanent entering a potentially unstable zone.
solution. Bridging and Tunneling, due to their high
The tension cracks must be sealed. The surface drains must be
capital cost are not widely practiced in India. With
of impervious materials with proper slope. Fig.3 & Photo 3.
the increasing demand of safe and uninterrupted
traffic movements and also the rapid development 3.2. Sub Surface Drainage
in hill areas, these alternatives can and where The conditions are made more conducive and stable by removal
feasible must be resorted to Fig. 3 and Photo 2 of the sub surface water. This helps in the following ways: -

(a) Reduction in seepage force.

(b) Increase in shear strength.
(c) The hydrostatic pressure is decreased.
(d) Driving forces are reduced.
Subsurface drain construction is costly and tedious. These
drains generally are horizontal drains, deep trench drains,
vertical drainage wells, drainage tunnels etc.

Fig. 3 Tunneling

Photo 2 Field Photographs Photo 3 Lined Surface Drains

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 19

 TECHNICAL PAPER

3.2.2. Certain points that need to be kept in mind while

constructing the horizontal drains are:

(a) Perforated or slotted rigid PVC pipes with Dia

38 mm to 50 mm should be used. The perforation
should be on the top two thirds of the pipes.
(b) Geological and geotechnical investigations must
be carried out to locate the source of water seepage
water table, determine the material properties &
evaluate the benefits of horizontal drains.
(c) In critical areas the horizontal drain should be
placed behind the retaining and breast walls.

3.2.3. Deep trench drains

Photo 4 Drainage Tunnels, Galleries and Adits Particularly useful where ground water can be intercepted
at a depth less than 5 to 6 m. These drains generally consist
of permeable gravel core surrounded by filter fabric e.g.
geotextile, in addition to the above lined surface drain may
be constructed.

Photo 5 Vertical (Large Diameter) Wells with Gravity Draining

3.2.1. Horizontal Drains. Are provided where there is

steady seepage of water. These drains are very good in
lowering the subsoil water levels and thus help in slope
stability. They also help in reduction of pore pressure.
Fig. 5 Deep Trench Drains

3.3. Reduction of Overburden Weight

Where realignment of slide prone areas is not possible, one

of the alternatives available is to partially or completely
remove the unstable material. With this there is an increase
in stability of the soil mass beneath the slope. This also
helps in the lowering of the grade line.
Fig. 4 Horizontal Drains

Photo 6 Field Photographs Fig. 6 Reduction of Overburden Weight

20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Benching is used to reduce the driving forces in landslide prone

areas and is preferred to uniform straight slopes. By benching
the stability is increased as the slope is divided into segments
of small slope sections. The benches should preferably have
paved drain. Additional land should be acquired

Photo 8 Field Photograph of Toe Strengthening

3.4.2. Reinforced Earth Fills

Is the concept where in we can construct earth retaining walls.

Horizontal strips of metal, Geosynthetics, Geofabrics or
Fig. 7 Benching Geogrids can be used as reinforcements in the reinforced earth
walls/systems Fig.8. These structures have been constructed
since 1974 around the world, are low cost and have been
found to be satisfactory even where hill slopes have witnessed
some movement. This is mainly due to the flexibility of these
structures, in such conditions where a rigid structure would fail.

Photo 7 Field Photo of Benching

3.4. Increase the Resisting Forces

This can be achieved broadly by two methods i.e. firstly

restraining structures e.g. counterweight fill, buttresses
pile system and anchor systems, which are employed as
resisting force at the toe of the slide. The second method Fig. 9 Reinforced Earth Fills
would be subsurface, Bio Engineering, Hydro drainage, slope
stabilization and slope treatment etc. Primary aim of these
methods is to increase the strength of the material in the failure
zone. These methods are described in the following paras.

3.4.1. Counter Weight Fills. This is done by providing

dead weight near the toe of the unstable area. These should
be constructed on a stable foundation and must be designed
to resist overturning, shearing and sliding forces.
Photo 9 Reinforced Earth Fills at New Airport
Pakyong, Sikkim

3.4.3. Gabion Walls

These are basically sausage walls constructed using
Galvanized Iron wire netting of 4 mm which can be
supplemented with geogrids and nails (Gabian) diameter,
more recently geogrids which are filled with boulders are
also being used. These could be retaining, breast or toe
Fig. 8 Counter Weight Fills walls. The Gabion walls have the advantage of withstanding

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 21

 TECHNICAL PAPER

deformation as they are flexible and being open structure, (d) Anchors
allowing quick drainage of water Photo 10. To improve (e) Gaiting
the stability the Gabion can be placed at the toe of the slide. (f) Wire mesh
(g) Stone, lime or cement columns
(h) Heat Treatment
(i) Freezing
(j) Soil stabilization using lime, lime slurry, electro-
osmotic hardening etc.
(k) Biotechnical measures like planting Vetiver grass
or using jute/coir mats.
Photo 10 Gabion Walls
(l) Mulching
3.4.4. Restraining structures (m) Short creating
There are many types of restraining structures that are in 3.5. Erosion Control Measures
vogue and are employed to restrain the slope movement. Erosion is one of the main problems leading to the instability
These could be retaining walls, breast walls or toe walls etc of Slopes. It is rainfall, type of soil and the slope conditions
and could be made of the following:- that are responsible for the erosion and landslides. Erosion
(i) Concrete/ Random Ruble Masonry can be controlled by the following methods.
(ii) Gravity retaining walls 3.5.1. Plantation of vegetation
(iii) Cribs walls
The plantation of grass and shrubs are useful in controlling
(iv) Gabion walls
erosion and thus help in slope stability. Asphalt mulching
(v) Passive plies, piers & caissons cast in situ,
has been found to be successful in assisting in planting of
reinforced concrete walls.
vegetation. Asphalt emulsion is sprayed on the prepared
(vi) Reinforced earth retaining structures with
surface. It is advised to use 0.9 litre per sqm of emulsion,
geotextiles/geofiber/sheets.
once the grass have been planted. After certain time the
(vii) Retention nets/mesh on slopes with rock
emulsion film disintegrates, by which time the grass would
(viii) Drums/ Tyre walls anchored with anchor bolts.
have taken up deep roots. This technique is ideally suited
(ix) Bio Engineering & Hydro
to be undertaken before the onset of monsoons.
(x) Shotcreting

Fig 10 Schematic Figure of Restraint Works of

Landslide

3.4.5. Slope Improvement/Reinforcement

The strength properties of a slope can be improved by the Photo 11 Green Control Measures
following methods.
(a) Rock bolts 3.5.2. Coir/Jute Treatment
(b) Micro piles The slopes are prepared for seeding and leveled for
(c) Soil nailing the jute/core nets such that the nets are flushed with the

22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

ground. The coir/Jute nets are then placed on the ground. millimeters to as much as 100 cm or even more. The surface
Thereafter seeding is done and the nets act as miniature run-off water infiltrates from these surface cracks which
check dams which absorb the impact and kinetic energy decreases the factor of safety of the slope and also increases
of the rain drops and water flow. Thus the soil, seeds and the pore and hydrostatic pressure. Thus, it becomes imperative
surface are kept in place without getting dislodged where to seal these tension cracks. One of the suggested methods of
required DT Mesh which should be anchored properly. sealing these tension cracks is making a trench of minimum
50 cm in depth and about 50 cm in width along the length of
the cracks. The water is added to the material that has been
excavated up to optimum moisture content (OMC). The
base of the trench is compacted with the helped of Durmuth
(Hand hammer) and crow bar. Then the excavated material
at OMC is laid and compacted in 15 cm layers. The finished
layer should as far as possible be retaining the original slope
profile. Water proofing of the finished layer is done by
spraying bituminous cut backs with Bitumen (1 kg), Kerosene
(0.6 kg) and Paraffin Wax (0.01kg), Asphalt Emulsion
can also be used. The bituminous cut backs is sprayed at
0.2 kg per sqm approximately. The sealing of Tension Cracks
must be done regularly.

3.6. ROCK SLOPE PROTECTION

The rock cut slopes are essential during construction of

roads especially in hilly areas. The stability of these slopes
are primarily dependent on the Geological and local slope
conditions. These rock cut slopes are prone to induce rock
Photo 12 Jute Mats fall and rock slide hazards.
3.5.3. Bally Benching 3.6.1. Rock Cut Slopes

This is effective in controlling surface erosion and also The stability of slope can be quantitatively assed by the
stopping the shallow movement of top mantle of the slide quality of rock which is generally designated by qualitative
mass. This method is more suitable and widely used to control index or RQD (IRC:SP:48).
small slides. It also helps in densification of soil materials Table 1 RQD Vs Description of Rock
surrounding the ballies, the slope strength is increased, there IS 12070–1987 RMR RQD Description of
by arresting the shallow movement of loose mantle. Rock Mass Rating (percent) Rock Quality
0 – 20 0 – 25 Very good
21 – 40 25 – 50 Poor
41 – 60 50 – 75 Fair
61 – 80 75 – 90 Good
81 – 100 90 – 100 Excellent

Fig. 11 Bally Benching Where,

Lc = Total length of intact pieces > 100 mm long
3.5.4. Tension Cracks Sealing
La = Total length of core advance
These are generally present in most of the unstable slopes Where the hill slopes have no major fault planes of shear
and are caused due to strains caused by the incipient zone in the vicinity, the rock slope stability in influenced
mass movements. These cracks could be ranging from few by RQD.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 23

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 2 Range of Permissible Slope 4. Operation and Maintenance of Roads Post Construction
Rock Type Range of permissible slope
(Horizontal: vertical) 4.1. Immediately after the formation has been cut (even
Sedimentary Rocks Sand Stone before the pavement construction starts). The permanent
& Lime Stone Inter bedded sand 1/4 : 1 to 1/2 : 1 works must be constructed. These could be construction of
stones, shales & limestone Clay 1/2 : 1 to 3/4: 1
stone & slit stone 3/4: 1 to 1 : 1
water management structure in the form of longitudinal drains
Igneous Rocks Granites, Trap,
along the road, cross drainage (culverts/ bridges/causeways),
1/4 : 1 to 1/2 : 1
Basalt & Lava catch water drains or water chutes. Construction of various
Metamorphic Rocks Gneiss, Schist 1/4 : 1 to 1/2 : 1 restraining structures which could be Retaining walls, Breast
& Marble Slate Slate 1/2 : to 3/4 : 1 Walls, Toe walls etc. These structures would prevent the
Anbalagan & Gopal Ranjan (1997) have suggest the cut damage to the formation that has been freshly cut.
slopes based on condition of rock & soil as follows: 4.2. Pre-Monsoon Maintenances Before the onset of
Table 3 Suggested Cut Slopes for Different Slope Materials monsoons, pre monsoon maintenance must be carried out.
Nature of Slope Material Preferred Cut Slope Angle Wherein all the pots holes on the road surface and burms
Fresh, hard & sound rocks with less 65º – 70 º are repaired, all the drains must be cleared and repaired, this
number of geological discontinuities would include the culverts, causeways and other drainage
Fresh, hard & moderately jointed rocks 60 º – 65 º systems. The abetments of the causeway and bridges must
with varying Lithology be inspected and where need be repaired. The inspection
Moderately weathered, moderately about 60 º and repair of river training work must also be carried out.
jointed & hard rock
Moderately sound, moderately about 50 º 4.3. Once the monsoons start, regular maintenance and
weathered & well jointed rocks. cleaning of the drainage system must continue and all the
Highly weathered rocks 50 º – 55 º debris cleared at the earliest from the road area. Critical
Dry non-cohesive sand 30 º – 35 º appraisal of the landside prone area should be carried out and
Cohesive marls & clay 35 º – 45 º pre positioning of plants i.e. Dozer, Excavation, Compressor
Well compacted sand ,clay mixture 45 º – 50 º etc must be done so that minimum time is lost in opening
of the road once the landslide occurs. In difficult areas,
3.6.2. Rock Slope Protection Measures
which are likely to be cut off if landslide occurs provision
The methods to rock slope protection are: of dumping of fuel and fast-moving spares for the plant and
(a) Shotcreting machinery must be done. The above-mentioned practice is
(b) Grouting very well followed in the Border Roads Organization. It is
(c) Rock collection trenches very important that the communication with the detachments
is maintained during monsoons and area which are in remote
(d) Benching
locations provision of wireless communication and where
(e) Rock fall fences
possible satellite phone should be provisioned.
(f) Protection sheds, tunnels or covered galleries
(g) Rock Bolts and Anchors 4.4 Early Warning of Land Slide: Instrumentational
(h) Covering the rock slope with coir netting as and Monitoring
geogrids.
4.4.1. Field instrumentation, early warning systems,
monitoring and prediction of landslides is still in the nascent
stage in our country, however in some developing countries
early warning systems have been evolved as a Real Time
Automated Monitoring of the landslides. The monitoring of
landslides for early warning has three important facet, namely:-

(a) Identification of location of potential landslide prone area.

(b) Identification and selection of the methods to be
employed and periodicity of collection of data.
(c) Processing of data, its communication and
Fig. 12 Slope Protection Measures dissemination of early warning alerts.

24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

4.4.2 The instrumentation should be designed to provide these.

the following information:
4.4.5. Real time automated monitoring of landslides.
(a) To monitor the build-up of pore water pressure at
various locations in the slide zone. This is used to detect even minor changes, thus making it
(b) To monitor sub-surface movement by installation possible to issue warning at the time of initiation of slide
of bore hole instruments like Extensometer, movement. Here the instruments are connected to data
inclinometer & VM Piezometer. logger which is under observation. These data logger are
(c) Monitoring of sub-surface movement by providing, connected to data processing station through telemetry
extensometer, tilt meter. systems which can transfer data to the processing stations
on real time bases. Here the data received is processed
4.4.3 Surface Monitoring The surface movements could immediately by a computer, the output is recorded and
be either horizontal or vertical or both. This is done by warning is issued where necessary. Remote Sensing,
placing of survey pillars within the landslide area. These employing high resolution Satellite Imaginary Light
pillars are embedded within the ground and are numbered, Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), Synthetic Aperture
they are then placed in a row as shown in the Photo 11. Radar (SAR), Persistent Scatters (PS) etc are used in a
The elevation and location of each and every pillar is large way in monitoring of landslides.
recorded. The changes are noted which will give the rate
of movement. The elevations are noted by a Theodolite 4.4.6. Early warning based on detailed studies on seasonal
or a Total Station. A rain gauge is also placed near the rain induced landslide on discrete boundaries are very
landslide area and correlation between the intensity of reliable. The inter-relationship between slope profile,
rainfall with initiation of movement in the landslide rainfall, sub slope movement and pore pressure are very
mass must be established. The horizontal movement can useful in forecasting of landslides. Studies worldwide have
also be measured with surveying method by wire rod established correlation between intensity of rainfall and
extensometers and the vertical movement with the help initiation of landslides. With the advancement of weather
of platform gauges, extensometers, hydraulic settlement forecast, three to four days in advance early warning can
gauges, Tilt meter etc. be issued, like in the recent catastrophic cloud burst which
had a devastating effect in the hilly region of Uttarakhand
in 2013. The number of casualties could have been reduced
to a large extent if timely warning was issued.

5. CONCLUSION

During the planning stage of the road construction we

must consider the existing instabilities of ground so that
these can be avoided ,if not then remedial measures can be
planned well in advance .This can be best achieved when
investigations are done in “Stages & Scale” i.e initially
small scale covering large area (1:25,000 to1:50,000) &
ultimately small area on large scale (1:1000 to 1:5000).
Fig. 13 Surface Monitoring This is possible when stage wise detailed planning is done,
which has been discussed in this research paper.
4.4.4 Subsurface Monitoring.
REFERENCES
The sliding surface usually cannot be observed visually,
nor apparent from the surface management. This is done 1. Anbalagan. R and Singh Bhoop (2007). Landslide Hazard Zonation
Mapping- a Need for Sustainable Development of Uttaranchal with
by use of instruments placed in boreholes drilled at various
special reference to route locations.
identified locations. These instruments are used to monitor
2. IRC:SP:48-2023 Hill Road Manual.
various aspects related to slope movements and also 3. IRC:52-2019 Guidelines for the Alignment Survey and Geometric
understand the relationship between factors responsible Design of Hills Roads.
for instability. These instruments could be Inclinometer, 4. NIDM: Training module on comprehensive landslide risk management
Extensometer, Chain Deflect Meter, or a combination of (2012).

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 25

 TECHNICAL PAPER

REPRESENTATIVE MODULUS OF GRANULAR LAYERS FOR

RATIONAL ANALYSIS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS IN INDIA

Tanmaya Kumar Barik1 Dr. U. C. Sahoo2

ABSTRACT

Granular materials comprise the major structural layers in a conventional flexible pavement. Elastic modulus and Poisson’s
ratio of the pavement layers are the most important parameter in the design process. It has been already established that
unbound granular layers (UGL) show stress hardening behaviour, and therefore, resilient modulus (MR) of UGL has been
considered to be a stress dependent parameter. However, IRC recommends to use IITPAVE, a layered elastic analysis program
that takes the linear elastic modulus of the layers as input parameter. Therefore, IRC:37 adopts a constant MR value for the
UGL based on the thickness of the layer and subgrade modulus determined using the Shell’s model for the design of flexible
pavements in India, instead of a non-linear constitutive model. This is to mention that the Shell equation does not consider
the stress dependent nature of UGL. Therefore, an effort has been made in this study to propose a representative linear elastic
modulus for the UGLs that can be used as an input in IITPAVE for the analysis and design of conventional thick asphalt
pavement while considering the effect of stress state on the MR of UGMs. A non-linear material characterization model
developed from tests performed on local granite aggregates has been used in the study. Cross Pave, a program that has the
ability to consider stress dependent MR value for UGL for the analysis of flexible pavements was used for the analysis. In
order to construct the model, this study considered81 representative pavement sections that exhibit various combinations of
different layers.

1. INTRODUCTION

In India, IRC:37-2018 guidelines are adopted for the

structural design of flexible pavements. It may be seen
from Fig.1 that Unbound Granular Materials (UGMs)
used in the base and sub-base layers constitute the major
structural layers in a conventional flexible pavement. In
such pavements, the primary function of granular layers is
to distribute the stress induced by the traffic from surface
layers to the subgrade. As a result, the stress transmitted to the
subgrade is substantially reduced and prevents accumulation
of excessive plastic deformation, which can lead to rutting
failure. The Unbound Granular Layer (UGL) also serves as
a drainage layer, thus preventing accumulation of excessive Fig.1 Typical Cross-section of a Conventional Asphalt
moisture that can be detrimental to the pavement. Pavement
1 Research Scholar, Email: [email protected]
2 Associate Professor, Email: [email protected]
} School of Infrastructure, IIT Bhubaneswar

26 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

IRC:37-2018 recommends the use of IITPAVE for the The abovementioned model considers MR of subgrade and
analysis and design of flexible pavements, which is a thickness of granular layers in estimating the MR of the
multi-layered elastic analysis program. The program granular layers. However, it does not consider the effect
assumes that the materials are homogeneous, isotropic, of the overlying layers even though their stiffness and
linear elastic and weightless. Elastic properties of the thickness dictate the stress state in the granular layers.
layers are defined by their elastic modulus and Poisson’s Therefore, this study is aimed to understand the effect of
ratio values. In pavements, elastic modulus of the materials the asphalt layer properties on the modulus of the granular
are determined under dynamic loading using a Repeated layers. Further, as the IRC recommends to use IITPAVE, a
Load Triaxial Test setup (RLTT) and is termed as resilient layered elastic analysis program that takes the linear elastic
modulus (MR). MR is defined as the ratio of deviator stress modulus of the layers as input parameter, an effort was
(σd) to the resilient strain (Ԑr), and itusually depends on made under this study to determine equivalent linear elastic
the stress state in the unbound layer(Seed et al. 1967). modulus (ELE modulus) using a program Cross Pave
Several studies observed that the MR value of the UGL is (Beriha et al., 2020) for varying pavement compositions.
significantly affected by the confining stress (Mitry 1964; ELE modulus is expected to result in comparable pavement
Hicks 1970; Smith and Nair 1973; Uzan 1985 and Sweere responses using any layered elastic analysis programs (i.e.
1990) and the deviator stress (Morgan 1966; Hicks 1970; IITPAVE) similar to using nonlinear models in Cross Pave
Hicks and Monismith 1971). However, the bulk stress or similar programs that can handle nonlinear properties
(i.e. sum of all three principal stresses) has been found to of UGL. A relationship was also established between ELE
correlate well with the MR value of the granular materials modulus and different pavement composition parameters,
(Williams 1963; Kolisoja 1997 and Lekarp et al. 2000).
which gives a single representative modulus for granular
Though it is already established that the modulus granular materials (for a typical constitutive model developed for
materials is stress dependent, IRC:37-2018 still suggests WMM) that can be used in IITPAVE for a more rational
to use an empirical model, developed by Dormon and pavement analysis.
Metcalf (1965), for estimating the MR of UGL as given by
Eq.1. This relationship is also known as Shell model. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

MRUGL = 0.2*MRSUBG *(H)0.45 (1) 2.1 Nonlinear Stress Dependent Behaviour of UGM
Where,
Based on the data obtained from Repeated Load Triaxial
MRUGL = Resilient Modulus of UGL (MPa) (RLT) tests, several non-linear constitutive relationships
have been developed to estimate the MR value of UGMs.
MRSUBG = Resilient Modulus of Subgrade Layer (MPa)
Some of these models are given in Table 1.
H = Thickness of UGL (mm)
Table 1 Non-linear Material Characterization Models

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 27

 TECHNICAL PAPER

It may be observed from the above models that MR of UGL have been developed for the estimation of MR from different
increases with increase in bulk stress, more specifically the geotechnical properties of the unbound materials such
confining stress. Thus, most of these models characterize as California Bearing Ratio (CBR), California R-values,
the resilient behaviour of UGMs through their stress state. shear strength parameters, dynamic cone penetration index
(DCPI), and soil index properties etc. These correlations
2.2 Correlation between MR and other Properties have been developed by agencies based on historical data
Determination of MR in the laboratory involves a tedious sets. Some of these correlations are presented in Table 2.
process, and therefore, numerous empirical relationships
Table 2 Empirical Correlations

2.3 Equivalent Modulus h1 = Asphalt layer thickness (inch)

E1 = Asphalt layer modulus (ksi)
Efforts were made by different researchers to estimate the
equivalent or representative linear elastic modulus values h2 = Granular layer thickness (inch)
for the UGL taking into account its nonlinear behaviour. E3 = Subgrade Modulus (ksi)
Smith and Witczak (1981) developed a relationship in this
K1 = Material constant of k-Ɵ model (ksi)
regard as given by Eq. 2.
Sahoo and Reddy (2010) also developed a correlation using
log EEq. = 0.959-0.430logh1 - 0.073h2 - 0.122log E1+ results from finite element analysis as given by Eq. 3.
0.294log E3 +0.848log K1 (2)
Eeq = 0.22 x Esg - 0.21 x Hgranular + 243.64 (3)
Where, EEq. = Equivalent modulus of the unbound granular
Where, Eeq = Equivalent Modulus of granular layer (MPa)
layer (ksi)

28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Esg = Modulus of subgrade layer (MPa)

Hgranular = Thickness of granular layer (mm)

The negative sign in Equations 2 and 3 indicates a decline

in equivalent modulus with increase in granular layer
thickness, which is contradictory to Eq. 1.

In a recent study, Hajj et al. (2018) developed a method

to determine a single MR value for the entire layer. This
modulus value generates similar pavement responses as
the corresponding non-linear material model. The study
also correlated MR of the UGMs with other physical and
index properties of the respective materials as given by
Eq. 4.

Where,

MR = Representative Modulus (psi)

wopt= Optimum moisture content Fig. 2 Methodology Followed in this Study

P (3/8) = Percentage of particles passing 3/8inch sieve The study was conducted on conventional thick asphalt
R = California R-value pavements consisting of three layers, i.e. bituminous
layer (binder course + surfacing), granular layer (base
P (40) = Percentage of particles passing no. 40 sieve + subbase) and subgrade. A total of 81 combinations of
Heq = Equivalent thickness of granular layer (inch) input parameters were considered in this study using the
input matrix as given in Table 3. The moduli values and
Sebaaly et al. (2018) established a similar empirical model
thicknesses considered for the analysis take into account
for the state of Nevada, USA, as demonstrated by Eq. 5.
the typical pavement sections adopted in India.

Table 3 Matrix of Layer Properties Considered for the

Study
Where the variables in Eq. 5 are identical to those in Eq. 4. Asphalt Granular
Asphalt Layer Subgrade
layer Layer
Thickness Modulus
It may be observed that a few relationships are available Modulus Thickness
(mm) (MPa)
for predicting the representative linear elastic modulus (MPa) (mm)
of UGL. These relationships are also dependent on the 1500 100 300 40
constitutive models used for developing such models. 2000 125 400 60
Therefore, such models are necessary to be developed for 2500 150 500 80
the UGMs used in India taking into account the type of
Converged moduli of the UGLs were determined for all
aggregates and gradations recommended by IRC.
the 81 pavement sections using Cross Pave. Details about
Cross Pave are given later in this section. For the analysis,
3. METHODOLOGY
the pavement layers were considered to be isotropic
in nature. The Poisson’s ratio for all three layers have
The methodology followed to determine the representative
been considered to be 0.35. The densities of the asphalt
MR for UGL and to compare it with MR obtained from the concrete, UGL and subgrade layers are assumed to be 2400
Shell model has been briefly demonstrated in Fig. 2. kg/m3, 2300 kg/m3 and 1800 kg/m3 respectively. For this

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 29

 TECHNICAL PAPER

study, a k- material characterization model was adopted. to impact and crushing load. The specific gravity, crushing
This model was developed by performing MR test on Wet value and impact value of the aggregates used for this study
Mix Macadam (WMM) gradation consisting of granite were found to be 2.75, 16.46 % and 12 % respectively
aggregates using a newly developed triaxial set up at IIT
Bhubaneswar. In this test set up, the confining stress is Cross Pave
provided through four single acting pneumatic cylinders
Cross Pave, developed at IIT Bhubaneswar (Beriha et al.,
attached to the four walls of the split mould that encloses
2020) is an indigenously developed software that considers
the specimen. The tests have been conducted following the
the non-linear elasticity of UGMs. It is a multi-layerelastic
test protocol given in AASHTO T-307 (2003), for all the
theory (MLET) based pavement analysis program that
stress sequences including conditioning of the specimen.
is capable of incorporating several non-linear material
Results obtained from this equipment have been found
to be in line with the traditional RLTT, but yields a little characterization models including cross-anisotropy for the
higher values. The model is given by Eq. 6. unbound granular layer as well as the subgrade layer. In this
program, values of non-linear model constants k1, and k2
are given as the input parameters instead of a single resilient
modulus value. For isotropic analysis, the necessary input
Where, MR = Resilient modulus (MPa) parameters are elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, density and
the thickness of the layers. The program has already been
ϴ = Sum of principal stresses (kPa) validated by comparing the critical pavement response
P0 = Unit pressure (kPa) parameters computed using CrossPave to those computed
with ILLIPAVE (an axisymmetric Finite Elementbased
In addition to the resilient modulus test, other tests were pavement analysis program) and KENLAYER (Beriha et
carried out to determine the basic physical properties of the al., 2020). Fig. 3 shows the Graphic User Interface (GUI)
source material such as specific gravity and its resistance of Cross Pave.

Fig.3 Graphic User Interface of CrossPave (Beriha et al. 2020)

30 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

The pavement analysis process in CrossPave generates a subgrade stiffness. It may also be seen that for a single
modulus value named as Equivalent Linear Elastic Modulus value of the Shell modulus, there are multiple ELE moduli
(ELE Modulus) that represents the non-linear elasticity of values, which indicates that the stress condition in a
the entire layer. This modulus value is dependent upon the granular layer is also dependent on other parameter such
thickness of the overlying layer, the relative modulus of as the properties of the overlying layers (i.e. asphalt layer
the other layers, the thickness of the UGL, and the loading thickness and its stiffness), apart from the thickness of the
conditions. The procedure followed to obtain this ELE granular layer and the stiffness of the bottom (subgrade)
Modulus is mentioned below. layer. It may be inferred that Shell equation ignores the
effect of some relevant factors on MR of UGL.
• Initially, an MR value is assigned to the UGL.
Then, the stress filed at a specific point in the layer
is determined using MLET based approach. The
following equation (Eq.7) is used to obtain a new
MR value in accordance with the stresses.

Where, MiR = MR allocated at the beginning of ith iteration

M'Ri = MR acquired using a non-linear material

characterization model at the conclusion of (i-1)th iteration

λ = Damping factor, Value ranges between 0 to1

Fig. 4 Comparison of the Granular Layer Moduli
• The newly obtained MR value is utilized to compute obtained from the Two Methods
the stress values at the designated points. For the 81 pavement sections considered in this study, a
• This process is repeated iteratively until the comparison between ELE Moduli and the moduli values
discrepancy between MR values obtained from determined using the correlation proposed by Sahoo and
two consecutive iterations reaches a 5% tolerance Reddy (2010) (Eq. 3) is presented in Fig. 5.
limit.

In CrossPave, the specified points for the calculation of

stresses are taken beneath the single wheel or the dual
wheel configuration as per the recommendations of Huang
(2004). A single value of representative MR for each of
the pavement compositions considered in this study was
obtained from CrossPave by adopting the non-linear
constitutive model by Hicks and Monismith (1971) given
in Table 1.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The ELE Modulus values determined for all the 81 Fig. 5 Comparison of the ELE Moduli with Moduli
pavement compositions are presented in Fig.4. It obtained from Sahoo and Reddy Model (2010)
alsopresents a comparison between ELE Moduli values
obtained from CrossPave and the moduli values obtained The moduli values derived from these two methods are
using the Shell equation(i.e. Eq. 1). within a comparable range, and both methods produce a
significantly narrower range of moduli values when compared
It may be observed from Fig. 4 that the moduli values to the Shell equation. Nevertheless, the values derived from
obtained from Shell equation varied from 104 MPa to these two methods cannot be directly compared, as they are
262 MPa with variation in the thickness of the layer and based on two distinct material characterization models.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 31

 TECHNICAL PAPER

In order to illustrate the impact of the MR of the asphalt layer Effect of granular layer thickness on its modulus as
on the modulus of the granular layer, the ELE Moduli are determined by the two methods presented earlier is
plotted against the MR of the asphalt layer as shown in Fig. 6 illustrated in Fig. 8 (a & b).
(mean and standard deviation plot). It may be observed that
the Modulus decreases considerably with increase in MR
of the asphalt layer. This may be attributed to the fact that
stiffer upper layers reduce the stresses in the UGL, which
results in lower moduli values. However, the Shell equation
ignores the effect of stiffness of the overlying asphalt layer
on the MR of granular layers. Probably, when the Shell
model was developed, most of the pavement sections were
not practicing thick asphalt layers.

(a) Effect of Granular Layer thickness on ELE

Modulus

Fig. 6 Effect of Asphalt Layer Stiffness on Granular

Layer Modulus

Fig.7 depicts the effect of asphalt layer thickness on the

granular layer modulus obtained from CrossPave. It may
(b) Effect of Granular layer thickness on Shell
be seen that the ELE modulus decreases significantly
Modulus
with increase in the thickness of the overlying asphalt
layer. However, the Shell equation does not consider the Fig.8 (a & b) Effect of Granular Layer Thickness on
influence of asphalt layer thickness on the stress transmitted its Modulus
to the granular layer and eventually its effect on the MR
of UGL. As the thickness of the overlying layer increases, It may be seen from Fig. 8(a) and 8(b) that the granular
the magnitude of stress transmitted to the granular layer layer thickness has contrasting effect on moduli values
decreases. This may be attributed to the reason behind the estimated using Shell equation and ELE Modulus obtained
decrease in modulus of UGL. from CrossPave. The moduli values obtained using the
Shell model shows an increasing trend, whereas the ELE
moduli shows a decreasing rend with increase in the
thickness of the granular layers. It may be attributed to the
fact that across the depth of the layer, the magnitude of
stress decreases, so does the representative MR of UGL.
Even though there is slight decrease in MR the UGL
with higher depth is more efficient in reducing the stress
transmitted to subgrade.

Fig. 9 (a & b) illustrates the effect of subgrade modulus

on granular layer modulus as determined by the two
Fig.7 Effect of Asphalt Layer Thickness on Granular mentioned methods. It is evident from Fig. 9(a) and 9(b)
Layer Modulus that both models result in increase in the modulus of the

32 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

granular layer with increase in the subgrade modulus, have considerable correlation with the dependent variable
assuming all other parameters remain constant. However, i.e., ELE Modulus.
an increase in subgrade stiffness results in a marginal rise
in ELE Modulus, whereas it is significant with the Shell Table 4 Pearson Correlation Matrix to Check
equation. In these plots low variability indicates relatively Multicollinearity
higher degree of influence on the dependent variable i.e. Pearson Correlations
MR of UGL as compared to other independent parameters. ELE
ALM ALT Esg Hg
Therefore, it may be inferred that the subgrade modulus is Modulus
Pearson
the major factor that affects the Shell Modulus. ALM
Correlation
1 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.296

Pearson
ALT 0.000 1 0.000 0.000 -0.780
Correlation
Pearson
Esg 0.000 .000 1 0.000 0.315
Correlation
Pearson
Hg 0.000 0.000 .000 1 -0.437
Correlation
ELE Pearson
-0.296 -0.780 0.315 -0.437 1
Modulus Correlation

Linear regression analysis was performed to develop an

empirical correlation to predict the representative modulus
of the granular layer (ELE Modulus). Table 5 shows the
(a) Effect of subgrade modulus on ELE modulus results obtained from the linear regression analysis.

Table 5 Results from Regression Analysis using SPSS

Standard Significance
Parameters Coefficients t
Error (p-value)
Constant 282.108 1.853 152.282 <0.001
ALM -0.010 0.001 -21.907 <0.001
ALT -0.524 0.009 -57.757 <0.001
Esg 0.264 0.011 23.292 <0.001
Hg -0.073 0.002 -32.369 <0.001

It may be seen from Table 5 that all the input parameters

are significant (as p-value <0.05 for all the parameters) in
(b) Effect of subgrade modulus on Shell modulus determining the modulus of granular layer. The prediction
model obtained from the linear regression analysis is given
Fig.9 (a & b) Effect of Subgrade Modulus on
by Eq. 8.
Granular Layer Modulus

A prediction model was developed as part of this study

that correlates the ELE Modulus with the pavement layer
attributes that affect the MR of UGL. The independent Where, MRCP = Predicted Modulus of granular layer (MPa)
variables considered are Asphalt Layer Modulus (ALM), ALM = Asphalt layer modulus (MPa)
Asphalt Layer Thickness (ALT), thickness of the UGL ALT = Thickness of asphalt layer (mm)
(Hg) and subgrade modulus (Esg). The statistical analysis
Esg = Modulus of subgrade layer (MPa)
was done using IBM SPSS statistics software. Prior to the
development of the model the multicollinearity amongst Hg = Thickness of granular layer (mm)
the independent variable was investigated and the result
is shown in Table 4. The Pearson correlation coefficients The negative sign with thickness of granular layer suggests
suggest non-existence of multicollinearity among the decrease in MR of UGL, which is contradiction to Shell
independent variable and all the independent variables equation, but is in agreement with equations 2 and 3. This

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 33

 TECHNICAL PAPER

may be due to the decrease in stress magnitude across the behaviour of granular materials in pavement design, then the
depth of the granular layer with increase in the thickness. required pavement thickness may be different, considering
The values of R2, adjusted R2, and standard error of the properties of other pavement layers. As the granular
the estimate of this model are 0.986, 0.985, and 1.667 materials constitute the major thickness of a pavement, it is
respectively. From the analysis, it may be inferred that the rational to adopt thenon-linear stress dependent models for
relationship as given by Eq. 8 is statistically significant. estimating the modulus of the granular layers. Programs
like CrossPave that has the capability to handle non-linear
Case Study material models can be used for the analysis. However,
A case study was taken up to demonstrate the effect of the there is a need to develop constitutive models for different
proposed methodology on the design pavement thickness. gradations of granular layer materials as suggested by IRC
A three layer pavement section (i.e. asphalt, granular for choosing appropriate material models for the analysis.
and subgrade was analysed to determine the adequate Further, to use the simple linear elastic analysis programs
thicknesses of UGL (Base+Subbase) necessary for a such as IITPAVE, a representative ELE modulus can be
design traffic of 30 msa and effective subgrade CBR of adopted as presented in this paper.
10%. Modulus of the granular layer was determined using
the Shell modeland the ELE modulus as per the proposed REFERENCES
methodology. The input parameters adopted for the 1. Aashto, T. 307-99, 2003. Standard Test Method For Determining
analysis using IITPAVE are given in Table 6. The Resilient Modulus of Soils and Aggregate Materials.,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Table 6 Input Parameters Considered for Pavement Officials (Aashto), Washington, Dc, Usa.
Analysis 2. Beriha, B., Sahoo, U.c. And Mishra, D., 2020. Crosspave: A
Multi-Layer Elastic Analysis Programme Considering Stress-
Input Parameters Values Dependent and Cross-Anisotropic Behaviour of Unbound
Resilient modulus of asphalt layer 2500 MPa Aggregate Pavement Layers. International Journal of Pavement
Engineering, Pp.1-15.
Thickness of asphalt layer 120 mm
3. Chen, D.h., Lin, D.f., Liau, P.h. and Bilyeu, J., 2005. A Correlation
Poisson’s ratio for all layers 0.35 Between Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Values and Pavement
Subgrade Modulus 77 MPa Layer Moduli. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 28(1), Pp.42-49.
4. Dormon G. M. and Metcalf C. T., 1965. Design Curves for Flexible
The required thickness determined for the granular layer Pavements Based on Layered System Theory, Highway Research
using the current IRC method and the method proposed in Record No. 71, HRB, Washington D.c., Pp. 69-84.
this study are 366 mm and 381 mm respectively. 5. George, K.P. and Uddin, W., 2000. Subgrade Characterization
for Highway Pavement Design. Mississippi Department of
This indicates that, for relatively stiffer subgrade, the Transportation. Fhwa/Ms-Dot-Rd-00-131, Mississippi, 261p.
6. Guthrie, W. S., and K. D. Jackson. 2015. Laboratory Resilient
Shell modulus overestimates the modulus of the UGL and
Modulus Measurements of Aggregate Base Materials in Utah.
considers an inadequate thickness of the granular layer for Final Report, Publication UT-16.12. Washington, Dc: Federal
pavement design. Highway Administration.
7. Hajj, E. Y., J. Thavathurairaja, S. Stolte, P. E. Sebaaly, M.
5. CONCLUSIONS Piratheepan, and R. Motamed. 2018. Resilient Modulus
Prediction Models of Unbound Materials For Nevada. Final Rep.
It is already established that unbound granular materials No. P224-14-803. Reno, Nv: Univ. Of Nevada.
show stress hardening behaviour, and several constitutive 8. Hicks, R.G. and C.L. Monismith, 1971.Factors Influencing
The Resilient Properties of Granular Materials, Transportation
models have been developed in this regard. However, the Research Record 345, Transportation Research Board, National
Shell equation as adopted by the IRC:37 for design of Research Council, Washington, D.C., PP. 15–31.
flexible pavements in India, does not consider the influence 9. Hicks, R.g., 1970. Factors Influencing The Resilient Properties of
of asphalt layer while estimating the MR of UGL, even Granular Materials (Doctoral Dissertation, Thesis Submitted to
The University of California, Berkeley for the Degree of Doctor
though it affects the stress state in this layer significantly.
of Philosophy).
The results show that the ELE modulus obtained from 10. Huang, Y.H. ,2004. Pavement Analysis and Design. Pearson
CrossPave decreases with increase in the stiffness and Prentice Hall, Usa.
thickness of the overlying asphalt layer. 11. IRC: 37, 2018. Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Aavements,
Fourth Revision. Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
This paper demonstrates that if we consider stress hardening 12. Kolisoja, P., 1997. Resilient Deformation Characteristics

34 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

of Granular Materials, PHD Thesis, Tampere University of 21. Smith B.e. and Witczak M.w., 1981. Equivalent Granular Base
Technology, Publ. No. 223, Tampere, Finland. Moduli Prediction, Journal of The Transportation Engineering
13. Lekarp, F., Isacsson, U. and Dawson, A., 2000. State of The Division, Proceedings of ASCE, Vol.107, No.te6, Pp. 635-652.
Art. I: Resilient Response of Unbound Aggregates. Journal of 22. Smith, W. S., And Nair, K., 1973. Development of Procedures for
Transportation Engineering, 126(1), Pp.66-75. Characterization of Untreated Granular Base Coarse and Asphalt-
14. Mitry, F. G., 1964. Determination of The Modulus of Resilient Treated Base Course Materials. Rep.no. Fhwa-Rd-74-61, Federal
Deformation of Untreated Base Course Materials, Phd Thesis, Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California. 23. Sweere, G. T. H., 1990. Unbound Granular Basis For Roads,
15. Morgan, J. R., 1966. The Response of Granular Materials To PHD Thesis, University of Delft, Delft, The Netherlands.
Repeated Loading. Proc., 3rd Conf., ARRB, 1178–1192.
24. The Asphalt Institute. 1982. Research and Development of the
16. Nchrp. 2004. Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New
Asphalt Institute’s Thickness Design Manual. Ninth Edition.
and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures. Final Rep. No. Nchrp
Research Report No. 82-2, Pp. 60.
1-37a Submitted By Ara, Inc., Eres Consultants Division,
25. Theyse, H.l., 2002. Stiffness, Strength and Performance of
National Research Council, Transportation Research Board,
Unbound Aggregate Material: Application of South African HVS
Washington, D.C.
and Laboratory Results to California Flexible Pavements, Report
17. NG, K., D. Mebrahtom, And K. Ksaibati. 2019. Characterization
for the California Pavement Research Program, University of
of Crushed Base Materials in Wyoming. Final Rep. No.
California, Pavement Research Center.
Rs02(216). Cheyenne, Wy: Wyoming Dot.
26. Tian, P., M. Zaman And J. G. Laguros (1998). Resilient Moduli
18. Sahoo, U.C. and Reddy, K.S., 2010. Effect of Nonlinearity
of Raw and Stabilized Aggregate Bases And Evaluation of Layer
in Granular Layer on Critical Pavement Responses of Low
Coefficients for Aashto Flexible Pavement Design. Volume II,
Volume Roads. International Journal of Pavement Research and
Final Report, Item 2199; ORA 125-4262, Oklahoma Department
Technology, 3(6), P.320.
Of Transportation, Oklahoma City, ok.
19. Sebaaly, P. E., J. Thavathurairaja, and E. Hajj. 2018. 27. Uzan, J., 1985. Characterization of Granular
Characterization of Unbound Materials (Soils/Aggregates) Material. Transportation Research Record, 1022(1), Pp.52-59.
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (Mepdg). Rep. 28. Williams, G.T., 1963. Stress/Strain Relationships of Granular
No. P361-16-803. Carson City, Nv: Dot. Soils. Thornton Report R, 1297, Shell Research Limited.
20. Seed, H.B., Mitry, F.G., Monismith, C.l. and Chan, C.k., 1967. 29. Zaman, M., Chen, D.h. and Laguros, J., 1994. Resilient
Prediction of Flexible Pavement Deflections from Laboratory Moduli of Granular Materials. Journal of Transportation
Repeated-Load Tests. Nchrp Report, (35). Engineering, 120(6), Pp.967-988.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 35

 TECHNICAL PAPER

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF HDM-4 MODELS FOR DEVELOPING

ROAD ASSET MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: A CASE STUDY ON
REGIONAL CALIBRATION APPROACH

Sachin Gowda1 Ganesha Kalburgi2 Vijaykumar Sagar3 Aakash Gupta4 Jaya R S5

ABSTRACT

This study aims to perform a sensitivity analysis of Highway Development and Management (HDM-4) models to facilitate
the development of a road asset management system for maintaining the Indian road network effectively. Reliable output
with scientific validation is crucial for such a system to ensure optimal utilization of available resources within budgetary
constraints. Leveraging the World Bank-developed HDM-4 tool, which integrates economic, technical, social, and
environmental considerations, this research focuses on the influence of calibrating model factors across various regions in
India. Data encompassing the non-core road network, comprising major district roads and village roads leading to a total
length of 1976 km in Ananthapuram district in Andhra Pradesh, is collected and segmented into 761 homogenous sections.
Supporting data, including pavement distress, traffic, soil characteristics, vehicle characteristics, environmental factors, etc.,
are also gathered. The study evaluates the calibration factors used across different regions and compares their efficacy. Over
ten years, the road network undergoes analysis under six maintenance standards compared to a base alternative. Growth
rates are assigned to the network, followed by strategic analysis to identify the optimal maintenance alternative. Subsequently,
the chosen alternative undergoes program analysis to maximize Net Present Value (NPV) and minimize costs associated with
achieving the desired International Roughness Index (IRI) target.The study demonstrates that calibration factors have less
significance on the predicted network performance. This is evident when observing the change in IRI from 4.05 to 5.00 m/km.
However, the accuracy of input data plays a crucial role. Validation of calibration factors through this process establishes a
scientific methodology for designing maintenance strategies for the entire road network within Ananthapuram district and
potentially across Andhra Pradesh state.

1. INTRODUCTION networks being completed, highway departments faced

the difficult task of maintaining the investments made on
The development of Pavement Management Systems the freeways and highways. However, the lack of funding
(PMS) took off and has made significant progress since for maintaining roads, as well as the issues of aging
they were introduced in the late 20th century. First came infrastructure and increased overloading, has increased the
up as a response to deploying more maintenance approach quantity and cost of outstanding pavement maintenance
methods at the end of the 1960s and the beginning work. Recognizing the necessity for a planned approach
of the 1970s, and PMS have undergone considerable that efficiently utilizes the system’s scarce resources,
upgrading. With most of the major freeway and highway pavement engineers and planners developed PMS[1, 2]. In the

1 Scientist, Pavement Evaluation Division, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi., E-mail: [email protected]
2 M. Tech Scholar, RASTA-Center for Road Technology, Bengaluru., E-mail: [email protected]
3 Director, KSVR Infra Consultants LLP, Bengaluru., E-mail: [email protected]
4 Scientist, Pavement Evaluation Division, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi., E-mail: [email protected]
5 Associate Professor, RASTA-Center for Road Technology, Bengaluru., E-mail: [email protected]

36 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

initial phase, they mainly used processing data techniques using the same data set containing pavement conditions,
run of current pavement status and traffic volume to set traffic, and climatic information. To operate the system
sides and prioritize pavement rehabilitation projects. These appropriately in the Indian context, the calibration factors
systems did not feature the usefulness of future pavement determined specifically for the Indian conditions have been
conditions or have the economic analysis of preventive selected. These calibration factors yield critical details for
maintenance versus deferred maintenance. On the other improving HDM-4 forecasts of road decay in the Indian
hand, they took projects as the areas of operation without scenario[5].
considering network-level planning, such as spending
the budget from the top to the bottom and setting desired 1.1 Calibration of HDM-4
performance targets for the entire roadway network[2,12,13].
It is fundamental to help one come to terms with the fact
The HDM-4 is a useful tool for decision-making for that HDM-4 has to be appropriately set up and calibrated to
highway management staff and engineers to anticipate the make it fit for local use in any country. What gives the tool
economic, social, and environmental impacts of alternative HDM-4 its versatility for studying different environments
investments on highway projects. Transferability will be a is the possibility to configure it and make it adapt to the
major concern during the development of HDM-4 systems existing standards and norms. Default data and calibration
as much attention will be paid to checking this parameter coefficients are provided at HDM-4, allowing one to
for different technological and climatic conditions. This minimize the data alterations and calibration requirements
is achieved by adopting a structured empirical route that particular to the case in point. Although they are provided
is centered on the concept of a mechanistic-empirical when a program is started, users can provide their values
approach for link prediction. HDM-4 models developed and modify them as needed. For example, default data
based on data obtained from in-depth field studies carried settings can be adjusted to identify traffic intensities (high,
out across different countries are the road deterioration medium, and low traffic) affected by the road classification
models integrated into HDM-4. However, so broad was this system (e.g., national, provincial, or municipal roads).
experiment and so advanced the theory applied that certain Studies were conducted on calibrating and implementing
factors were not taken into account. Scientific knowledge is the pavement management system (PMS) of HDM-4 in
limited to observed facts, and we cannotfully comprehend Gauteng Province in South Africa. They discussed the
the complex correlations that would make modeling very impact of calibrated performance models on pavement
sensitive to unmeasured variables or truncation of the management decisions[6]. Using the same approach,
model input. Consequently, using model equations in researchers presented common examples and procedures
HDM-4 without calibration may cause a divergence in the for Eastern European countries to get the adequate
pavement performance forecast and the results obtained on calibration and use of HDM-4 for pavement management
particular road sections from the pavement observations[3]. systems[7].

Within the pavement performance models based on HDM- 1.2 Calibration Levels HDM-4
4, pavement history, and condition information should be
Calibration is essential for adjusting model predictions
collected over an extended period so the natural degradation
to align more accurately with real-world applications
of distresses may occur without any intervention. In India,
of traffic theory, enabling reliable forecasts of future
the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in New Delhi
conditions under specific circumstances. The accuracy
has taken the Pavement Performance Study for Existing
of these predictions depends on how closely the model’s
Pavement Sections (PPS-EPS), which examined the
outputs reflect what would actually occur in real-life
performance of one test section over 3-5 years[4]. However,
scenarios. The HDM-4 calibration factor enhances the
this study has created pavement deterioration models for
model’s flexibility, allowing it to be modified to improve
different distress modes on bituminous pavements. The
the accuracy of its predictions by adjusting for real-
fundamental calibration approach illustrated in HMD-4 has
world variations through this calibration parameter. The
been adopted to calibrate the HDM-4 road deterioration
calibration process encompasses three distinct levels: Level
models for Indian conditions. It has been made possible
1, Basic Application, comprises the first stage of model
by comparing the predictions generated by the individual
application and may be largely based on desk studies and
models run with the PPS-EPS and the HDM-4 systems
default values using field surveys only for the estimation

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 37

 TECHNICAL PAPER

of the most sensitive parameters; Level 2, Calibration,

requires the measurement and estimation of additional
input parameters and the implementation of moderate field
surveys to adjust the key predictive relationships into their
specific local conditions; and Level 3, Adaptation, implies
an extensive field investigation and These levels reflect
varying levels of workload, running from weeks, months,
and years, in the case where more intricate data acquisition
and resource consuming activities take place[8].

1.3 Sensitivity of Road Deterioration (RD) and

Works Effects (WE) Models Fig.1 RDWE Distress Interactions[8]

Multiple interdependencies significantly influence the run Table 1 HDM sensitivity classes[8]
of the RDWE model, as shown in Fig.1. These dependencies Impact Sensitivity class Impact elasticity
are summarized in Table 1, which illustrates how the High S-I > 0.50
individual input parameters are subject to variations and Moderate S-II 0.20 – 0.50
how they affect both the physical conditions and costs Low S-III 0.05 – 0.20
and returns on economies. These parameters influence Negligible S-IV < 0.05
pavement performance, maintenance, and economic
returns. Bennett and Paterson[8] performed basic tests using Table 2 Sensitivity classes for RDWE variables[8]
HDM RUE (Road User Effects) and RDWE sub-models
to rank the sensitivity levels and find them out. The ceteris
paribus method, as applied, required the factoring of the
experiments, which involves changing one constant factor[8].
One of the metrics used to measure sensitivity was impact
elasticity, which indicated how the percentage change of
a given result was related to the percentage change of a
certain input parameter. In contrast, other parameters were
held constant at a mean value. The sensitivity classes, which
range from high to moderate to lower to also negligible,
were designated according to our model analyses. Items of
data or model coefficients for moderate to high plausibility
and significance (S-I and S-II) need more attention. In
contrast, the items with low to negligible impacts (S-III and
S-IV) may be addressed if there is time or resources, often
by using the HDM default values.

Higher S-I and S-II impact data items or model coefficients

may require more attention, whereas low- and negligible-
S-III and S-IV impact data items or model coefficients 1.4 Concept of Information Quality Level for PMS
may be addressed once possible, often relying on HDM’s The Information Quality Level (IQL) concept, proposed
default values. Bennett and Paterson[8] go on to describe by Paterson and Scullion (1990)[9], allows us to categorize
these consequences, categorizing them into different types road management information according to the complexity
and sensitivity levels. The calibration factors mentioned and nature of the decision-making process and engage in
in Table 2 illustrate the influence of the effects like informed choices regarding the collection and treatment
Environment, Cracking Initiation, Cracking Progression, of data. This feature aids in condensing the information
Rut Depth Progression, and a General Factor of Roughness into smaller pieces of the dying quotient level or grouping
on HDM analysis results, from moderate to low extent[8]. the information into larger items at subsequent levels.

38 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Their IQL rations are from IQL-1, which are detailed where rutting is less pronounced or absent on Indian roads[3].
fundamental data, to IQL-5, which are top-level indicators, Refer to Table 4 for definitions of terms given in Table 3.
each of which serves a particular purpose. In most cases,
IQL-2 is the standard for agencies and primary roads, and Table 3 Comparison of Indian and HDM-4 Pavement
this level is enough for detailed engineering and project- Deterioration Models[3]
oriented decisions. Imprecise questioning with lower IQLs
usually entails higher costs and requires relatively complex
equipment or devices. HDM, on the other hand, which
operates mostly at IQL-2, adopts a fairly detailed level of
modeling to ensure universality and practical utility.

The HDM-4 data requirements, which are classified as

IQL-2 and IQL-2B, cover a wide range of data essential for
plausible and effective road management analysis[8]. They
highlight the road geometry, pavement condition, structure,
unpaved roads, environment, and traffic. At IQL-2, we need
detailed inputs, such as particular parameters defining the
road width and pavement roughness, often measured by
1.6 Objectives of the study
hand. However, competent estimation methods are available,
particularly competent for visual means, when simpler The study’s main objective is to conduct a sensitivity
assessments are performed at IQL-2B. Similar to the case, analysis of different calibration factors utilized in HDM-4
at the IQL-2B approach, the design for pavement systems, software for predicting future pavement conditions. This
unpaved roads, environment, and traffic are standardized, involves subjecting the selected road network to six different
enabling a class-type estimation method. Calibration of maintenance strategies and comparing them with a base
factors with the major effects becomes vital, usually carried alternative with different calibration factors. Additionally,
out at Calibration Level 2, to maintain the model reliability the study aims to forecast the impact of calibration factors
since the underlying relation has shown stability over many on the overall budgeting of maintenance activities for a
countries. The data collection for the PMS mainly takes place selected road network within a network-level assessment.
at the IQL-2 level, with some items at IQL-2B. Considering
this, calibration level 2 calibration is appropriate because 2. METHODOLOGY
they have a high to moderate impact on factors.

1.5 Pavement Deterioration Models

The comparison between Indian pavement deterioration

models and HDM-4 road deterioration model equations
highlights several distinctions and similarities, as shown
in Table 3. The equations for cracking and ravelling in
both models are quite similar but have differences in the
percentage area affected at initiation age. Adjustments in
calibration factors have been made to align them. Pothole
initiation models share similarities in considering initiation
age, but the HDM-4 model imposes additional constraints
based on other distresses, unlike Indian models. Roughness
models are comparable, incorporating structural, cracking,
potholing, and environmental components. However, the
HDM-4 model includes a rut depth component not present
in the Indian model, reflecting differences in road conditions
and maintenance practices. Calibration adjustments may be
necessary considering these variations, particularly in areas Fig. 2 Methodology Adopted for the Study

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 39

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 4 Description of Terms Used in Models[3]

The present study focuses on evaluating approximately Table 5 Homogeneous Sectioning Criteria
1976 km of non-core road infrastructure for prioritization, Road Roughness (IRI)
which is segmented into 761 homogenous section sbased Service Very Total Percentage
Volume Good Average Poor
Poor
on traffic and roughness parameters, based on the local (PCU) (0 to 3.4 (3.4 to 4.6 (4.6 to
(7 to
IRI) IRI) 7 IRI)
condition, as shown in Table 5. These sections exhibit 18 IRI)
a varying annual average daily traffic (AADT) ranging Low
Traffic (0 40 178 386 55 659 87%
from 63 to 6763 Passenger Car Units (PCUs). Pavement to 2000)
inventory and condition data are collected using a Medium
Network Surveying Vehicle (NSV) and a Falling Weight Traffic
33 20 33 6 92 12%
Deflectometer (FWD), respectively. A classified traffic (2000 to
6000)
volume count survey is undertaken at predetermined High
sections, with projections made for future traffic volumes Traffic
1 2 4 1 8 1%
following Indian traffic projection guidelines (IRC 64). (6000 to
15000)
Vehicle fleet characteristics are gathered following Indian Total 74 200 423 62 759
standard specifications to serve as input for Highway
Percentage 10% 26% 56% 8% 100%
Development and Management (HDM) software. The
HDM models are calibrated to suit Indian road conditions Six strategic approaches tailored to Indian non-core roads
using six distinct calibration values. are developed and analyzed. Predicted pavement roughness

40 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

resulting from these strategies is compared with current

maintenance protocols employed by the state public works
department. In-depth economic assessments are conducted
for all six calibrated models to gauge the sensitivity of
calibration values in predicting pavement performance and
to determine the most effective strategy.

3. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

The study area comprises approximately 1976 km of roads

in the Ananthapuram district, including Main District
Roads (MDR), Other District Roads (ODR), and village
roads, commonly called non-core roads due to their lower
traffic volume. This study analyzes only bituminous Fig. 5% Distribution of Cracking Area
pavement surfaces, excluding cement concrete pavements.
Models are calibrated accordingly. Gravel or earthen roads
are recommended for direct reconstruction.

The selected network exhibits varying roughness, ranging

from 1.56 to 12.48 m/km, with the total cracking area
(comprising all crack types) ranging from 0 to 79% and rut
depth varying from 0.9 to 46.78 mm. The road network map
used in the study is presented in Fig. 3, and the percentage
distribution of IRI, Cracking Area, and Average Rut depth
is represented in Fig. 4, 5&6, respectively.

Fig. 6% Distribution of Rutting

4. DATA FOR HDM-4 ANALYSIS

4.1 Road Inventory and Condition Data

The work involves the collection and analysis of various data

sets related to road infrastructure and pavement conditions in
the Ananthapuram district. These datasets include geometric
data detailing chainage, grade, cross slope, curvature, and
speed. Profiler data provides information on the International
Roughness Index (IRI), rut depth, and macrotexture.
Pavement-related data covers pavement surface type, ravelling
Fig. 3 Road Network- Ananthapuram District severity, cracking extent, patching severity, and surface
failures. Inventory data includes lane, shoulder, intersection,
and barrier types. Falling Weight Deflectometer data includes
road ID, location, surface type, plate radius, and deflection
measurements at different radial distances. This information
is utilized to validate calibration factors and prioritize road
maintenance activities in the district.

4.2 Vehicle Fleet Data

The work involves analyzing the vehicle fleet using the

road network, which includes various types categorized
Fig. 4% Distribution of Roughness (m/km) based on dimensions, load capacity, and performance.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 41

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Standards in HDM-4 define categories, classes, and types strategies are being considered to enhance the overall riding
for these vehicles. In Indian roads, both motorized (MT) quality of the Non-Core Road Network (NCRN). The
and non-motorized (NMT) vehicles are encountered, but operational standards for implementing these strategies are
since NMT vehicles have less significance in maintenance, outlined in Table 11.
the study focuses solely on motorized vehicles. Fig.7
represents the motorized vehicles classification.

Table 6 represents the primary vehicles observed during

the volume count survey. These vehicles are primarily
taken into account during volume count surveys. The
tyre characteristics of the vehicles considered, price list
of vehicles, vehicle characteristics, and crew wages are
listed in Tables 7, 8, 9 & 10, respectively. The data about
the aforementioned tables are collected from respective
vehicle agents and online resources.

4.3 Maintenance Strategies Adopted for the Study

After analyzing the current road conditions, several Fig.7 Motorized Vehicle Classification

Table 6 Vehicles Included in the Current Study and Their HDM-4 Codes
Sl. No. Base Type Model Company Vehicle Code
1 Multi Axle Vehicle 3718 iL Ashok Leyland 10
2 3 Axle Vehicle 2516 iL Ashok Leyland 09
3 2 Axle Vehicle 1616 iL Ashok Leyland 08
4 Full Bus Lynx School Bus Ashok Leyland 14
5 Tractor with Trailer Bhoomiputra 275 DI Ashok Leyland 08
6 Tractor Bhoomiputra 275 DI Mahindra 07
7 Mini Bus Mitr Ashok Leyland 11
8 Light Commercial Vehicles Trax Cargo King Force Motors 04
9 Car Indica BS4 Tata Motors 01
10 Auto Rickshaw Compact 4S Bajaj 04
11 Motor Cycle Glamour Programmed FI Hero Moto crop 00

Table 7 Tyre Characteristics of Considered Vehicles

Tyre Name Vehicle Tyre Type Tyre Size Width Dia Weight Cost
Code (m) (m) (kg) (Rs)
Muscle Rib 10 Radial 11R20 16PR 0.29 1.08 13.7 18,250
Super Lug 09 Radial 10-20 16PR 0.275 1.07 12.4 18,050
Super Lug-50 08 Radial 8.25-20 16PR 0.241 1.01 12.4 17,300
Steel Muscle-S1T4 14 Radial 8.25-20 14PR 0.235 0.983 11.2 14,400
Shakti Rear 08 Radial 12.4-28 12PR 0.315 1.27 12.4 14,980
Shakti Rear 07 Radial 12.4-28 12PR 0.315 1.27 7 14,980
Super Miler 11 Radial 7.50-20 12PR 0.225 0.955 4 13,250
Highway 04 Radial 7.00-16 8PR 0.20 0.783 4 7,120
ZVTS Tubeless 01 Radial 155/80 R13 0.159 0.575 6.2 2,725
Auto Miler 04 Radial 4.00-8 0.115 0.423 4 1,125
Nylo Grip Zapper Y 00 Radial 3-8 6PR/52PR 0.81 0.628 2 1,800

42 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 8 Vehicles Price list

Vehicle Price of the vehicle Price for extra Total cost of the Vehicle Type of fuel and fuel Cost of lubricant
Code without extra fittings fittings (Rs.) cost (Rs) oil (Rs.)
10 25,95,438 2,75,000 28,70,438 Diesel-54.86 350
09 19,53,676 5,50,000 25,03,676 Diesel-54.86 350
08 14,51,401 2,30,000 16,81,401 Diesel-54.86 350
14 19,26,000 59,000 19,85,000 Diesel-54.86 350
08 6,27,000 29,960 6,56,960 Diesel-54.86 350
07 5,30,000 45,000 5,75,000 Diesel-54.86 350
11 11,56,779 51,000 12,07,779 Diesel-54.86 350
04 6,00,000 30,000 6,30,000 Diesel-54.86 350
01 4,38,959 72,145 5,11,104 Diesel-54.86 350
04 2,00,000 13,500 2,13,500 Petrol-67.69 250
Table 9 Vehicle Characteristics
Unladen Rated
No. of Operating Driving Breaking Ground
Vehicle Vehicle Width Height Frontal Engine
PCU wheels Vehicle Weight Power Power Clearance
Code Weight (m) (m) Area (m2) Power
and axles (Tonnes) (Kw) (Kw) (m)
(Tonnes) (Kw)
10 4.5 14 - 5 37 8.20 2.432 3.575 8.10 101.57 114.10 134.23 0.260
09 3 10 – 3 25 6.12 2.432 3.250 7.27 96.74 108.67 119.32 0.260
08 3 06 – 2 16.2 4.82 2.425 3.100 6.89 77.82 62.62 89.45 0.260
14 3 06 – 3 11 8.50 2.500 3.200 7.40 81.47 81.47 88.26 0.231
08 4.5 06 – 3 6 3.50 2.500 2.200 4.75 19.84 19.84 28.34 0.300
07 1.5 04 – 2 2 1.82 1.636 2.195 3.00 12.30 12.30 28.34 0.320
11 1.5 06 – 2 6.05 4.03 2.080 2.630 5.00 37.70 37.70 87.00 0.198
04 1 04 – 2 2.85 1.70 1.660 2.105 3.10 18.65 18.65 44.75 0.235
01 1 04 – 2 1.50 1.08 1.665 1.500 2.30 18.00 18.00 51.59 0.165
04 1 03 – 2 0.70 0.34 1.300 1.704 2.00 03.00 03.00 09.00 0.150
00 0.5 02 – 2 0.13 0.13 0.735 1.070 0.79 02.24 02.24 69.72 0.150

Table 10 Crew wages of Different Vehicle Drivers and Cleaners

Salary/year Salary/month Salary/Hour Numbers per Total
Sl. No. Particulars Wages (Rs)
(Rs) (Rs) (Rs) Vehicle wages (Rs)
1 Bus Driver 3,84,000 32,000 192.2 2 384.4
744.8
2 Bus Conductor 3,60,000 30,000 180.2 2 360.4
3 LCV Driver 1,44,000 12,000 072.1 1.5 108.2
138.2
4 LCV Cleaner 60,000 5,000 30.00 1 30.00
5 Truck Driver 1,80,000 15,000 90.10 1.5 135.2
177.3
6 Truck Cleaner 84,000 7,000 42.10 1 42.10
7 MAV Driver
*
2,16,000 18,000 108.1 1.5 162.2
212.7
8 MAV cleaner 1,00,800 8,400 50.50 1 50.50
9 Tractor Driver 60,000 5,000 30.00 1 30.00 30.00
10 Mini Bus Driver 1,44,000 12,000 72.10 1 72.10
108.1
11 Mini Bus Cleaner 72,000 6,000 36.00 1 36.00
12 Car Driver 1,20,000 10,000 60.10 1 60.10 60.10
*MAV – Multi Axle Vehicle

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 43

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 11 Maintenance Standards Adopted for the Study

44 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

TECHNICAL PAPER

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 45

 TECHNICAL PAPER

4.4 Climatic Classification deterioration, exhibit variations corresponding to the

country’s diverse topography. These factors are derived
India’s geography covers various climatic zones, classified from equations delineated in Table 3, specifically tailored
based on factors such as temperature, precipitation, and for the unique characteristics of various regions nationwide.
vegetation. The country experiences diverse climatic The comparative analysis compares these calibration
conditions, ranging from alpine climates in the Himalayan factor values with the default parameters integrated into
regions to tropical climates in the southern peninsula. HDM-4. Table 12 provides a comprehensive overview,
The northern part of India, including states like Jammu,
presenting the distinct calibration factor values assigned
Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh, features alpine and
to different geographical regions of the country. This
subalpine climates characterized by cold winters and
nuanced approach ensures that road maintenance strategies
mild summers. Moving southwards, the Indo-Gangetic
are finely tuned to the specific environmental conditions
plains exhibit a subtropical climate, with hot summers and
prevalent in each region, thereby optimizing infrastructure
relatively cold winters. Along the western coast, states
management practices on a national scale. The calibration
like Maharashtra and Karnataka experience a tropical
factors adopted for the analysis is listed in Table 12 and
monsoon climate, marked by heavy rainfall during the
can be described below;
southwest monsoon season from June to September. The
north eastern states, including Assam and Meghalaya, have
i) Case 1: Calibration factors suitable for Humid
a humid subtropical climate, receiving abundant rainfall
Sub-Tropical and Arid regions
throughout the year. In contrast, the north western regions
of Rajasthan and Gujarat are arid and semi-arid, with hot ii) Case 2: Calibration factors suitable for
desert climates. Overall, India’s climatic classification Tropical Savannah, wet & dry
reflects its diverse geography, influenced by factors such iii) Case 3: Calibration factors suitable for Aird,
as latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. The climatic Steppe & Hot climate
regions of Indian geography are shown in Fig.8.
iv) Case 4: Calibration factors suitable for
4.5 Calibration Factors Adopted Tropical monsoon
The calibration factors, which impact the rate of road v) Case 5: Default Values given in HDM-4

46 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

maintenance and improvement options to meet the

network’s specified performance standards. This involves
aligning work selections within the government’s
budgetary constraints to attain the desired level of service.
HDM-4 facilitates this process by maximizing the Net
Present Value (NPV) benefit and minimizing costs for a
target International Roughness Index (IRI), considering
various funding scenarios over a long-term analysis period.
Recommendations from state agencies can inform analyses
of different scenarios to finalize budgets and service levels.
Standard reports are then used to disseminate this information
to decision-makers. Predicted pavement performance
is illustrated in Fig.9 to 13, while Tables 13 to 17
summarize economic indicators for different calibration
factors utilized[11]. Detailed Distribution 6 Alternatives
of strategic analysis of NCRN Road Sections in Krishna
Fig. 8 INDIA Climatic Regions (Source: Maps of India)
District is shown in Tables 18.
5. Results
5.2 Programme Analysis
The strategy and programme analysis was conducted
Program analysis was conducted for the minimum
using the HDM-4 tool. An economic assessment was
responsive strategy, primarily due to its higher B/C ratio
undertaken for the chosen sections to establish a pavement
and IRR for Case 5. Treatments were prescribed based on
management program grounded on their performance for the outcomes generated by the HDM-4 software. Although
various calibration factors. Budget projections were made the best responsive/best schedule strategy aimed for a
for the subsequent ten years, applying a 12% discount rate lower IRI, it was deemed unsuitable as a maintenance
recommended by Indian guidelines (IRC:SP:30, “Manual strategy from an economic standpoint, given its lower
on Economic Evaluation of Highway Projects in India”[10]. B/C ratio and IRR. Fig.14 illustrates the fluctuation of IRI
The aim was to create an unconstrained work program for values, while Table 19 presents a summary of economic
the selected sections over the next decade, predicting the indicators derived from the program analysis for Case 5.
necessary funding levels to uphold the adopted improvement
standards. Non-motorized vehicles were disregarded in the
analysis due to their minimal impact. Economic analysis
relied on metrics such as the benefit-to-cost (B/C) ratio and
savings in Vehicle Operating Costs (VOC). Consequently,
the most effective strategy was identified, followed by a
program analysis specific to that strategy[11].

5.1 Strategy Analysis

Optimization aims to enhance efficiency in choosing Fig. 9 Strategy Analysis Results (Case 1)
Table 12 Deterioration Factors Adopted for the Analysis
Sl. Factor Name as per Recommended Values as
Distress Type and Mode Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
No. HDM-Model per HDM-4 Model
1 Cracking Initiation Kci 0.1-20 0.425 2.15 1 1.19 1
2 Cracking Progression Kcp 0.1-20 1.205 1.05 2 1.42 1
3 Roughness Progression Kgp 0.1-20 0.84 4.95 1.3 2.36 1
4 Roughness Environmental Kge 0.1-20 NA 10.05 2 6.03 5
5 Raveling Initiation Kvi 0.1-20 0.565 1 0.5 0.69 1
6 Raveling Progression Kvp 0.1-20 0.57 0.625 NA 0.6 1
7 Pothole Initiation Kpi Not Available 0.445 NA NA 0.45 1
8 Pothole Progression Kpp Not Available 0.92 NA 2 1.46 1

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 47

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Fig 10 Strategy Analysis Results (Case 2) Fig. 12 Strategy Analysis Results (Case 4)

Fig. 11 Strategy Analysis Results (Case 3) Fig. 13 Strategy Analysis Results (Case 5)
Table 13 Economic Indicators Summary in Crore Rupees (Case 1)
Benefit/RAC B/C Avg.
Alternative CAP* Recurrent Cost RAC* Benefits* Targeted IRI
Ratio Ratio IRR*
Base Alternative 239.18 12.05 251.23 - - - - 4.40
Best Schedule 270.24 17.032 287.27 58.44 0.2 0.22 81.5 2.30
Best Responsive 430.58 174.23 604.81 -250.86 -0.41 -0.58 69.1 3.80
Fair Responsive 185.77 13.69 199.46 112.43 0.56 0.61 63.5 3.50
Fair Schedule 314.61 121.29 435.91 -114.45 -0.26 -0.36 140.3 2.85
Minimum
136.02 13.26 149.29 141.41 0.95 1.04 97.9 4.65
Responsive
Minimum
265.16 84.30 349.47 -68.52 -0.2 -0.26 121.6 3.70
Schedule
*CAP - Agency Capital Costs, RAC - Total Agency Costs, Benefits - Savings in VOC & Time Cost, Avg. IRR - Average Internal Rate
of Return
Table 14 Economic Indicators Summary in Crore Rupees (Case 2)
Recurrent Benefit/RAC B/C Avg. Targeted
Alternative CAP* RAC* Benefits*
Cost Ratio Ratio IRR * IRI
Base
201.99 13.06 215.05 - - - - 4.40
Alternative
Best Schedule 275.02 16.99 292.01 26.66 0.09 0.10 40.51 2.05
Best
316.42 174.65 491.06 -165.18 -0.34 -0.52 -1.19 3.65
Responsive
Fair Responsive 185.27 14.15 199.42 84.86 0.43 0.46 28.64 2.80
Fair Schedule 314.61 121.30 435.91 -142.10 -0.33 -0.45 0.49 4.55
Minimum
133.59 13.68 147.27 115.52 0.78 0.86 22.28 5.00
Responsive
Minimum
265.16 84.31 349.47 -96.17 -0.28 -0.36 -2.41 3.62
Schedule

48 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 15 Economic Indicators Summary in Crore Rupees (Case 3)

Recurrent Benefit/RAC B/C Avg. Targeted
Alternative CAP* RAC* Benefits*
Cost Ratio Ratio IRR* IRI

Base
201.99 13.062 215.05 - - - 30.02 4.65
Alternative
Best Schedule 128.55 13.23 141.79 183.80 1.3 1.43 45.13 4.30
Best
270.24 17.031 287.27 46.54 0.16 0.17 -4.98 3.70
Responsive
Fair Responsive 430.58 174.23 604.81 -313.02 -0.52 -0.73 29.32 2.05
Fair Schedule 185.26 14.15 199.41 101.91 0.51 0.55 2.38 4.55
Minimum
314.61 121.29 435.91 -175.09 -0.4 -0.56 3.18 2.80
Responsive
Minimum
265.16 84.30 349.47 -134.41 -0.38 -0.51 0 3.70
Schedule

Table 16 Economic Indicators Summary in Crore Rupees (Case 4)

Recurrent Benefit/RAC B/C Avg. Targeted
Alternative CAP* RAC* Benefits*
Cost Ratio Ratio IRR* IRI
Base
201.99 13.06 215.05 - - - - 4.60
Alternative
Best Schedule 270.24 17.03 287.27 37.66 0.13 0.14 43.92 3.70
Best
430.58 174.23 604.81 -271.64 -0.45 -0.63 -5.00 2.05
Responsive
Fair Responsive 185.26 14.15 199.41 91.71 0.46 0.5 29.16 4.55
Fair Schedule 314.61 121.29 435.91 -135.23 -0.31 -0.43 2.32 2.80
Minimum
135.28 13.27 148.55 122.12 0.82 0.9 29.92 4.65
Responsive
Minimum
265.16 84.30 349.47 -89.30 -0.26 -0.34 3.24 3.70
Schedule

Table 17 Economic Indicators Summary in Crore Rupees (Case 5)

Recurrent Benefit/RAC B/C Avg. Targeted
Alternative CAP* RAC* Benefits*
Cost Ratio Ratio IRR* IRI

Base
202.01 13.062 215.07 - - - - 4.50
Alternative
Best Schedule 270.90 17.02 287.93 38.79 0.13 0.14 44.52 2.20
Best
430.58 174.23 604.81 -269.41 -0.45 -0.63 -5.34 3.80
Responsive
Fair Responsive 183.35 9.921 193.27 128.81 0.67 0.7 30.58 3.95
Fair Schedule 314.61 121.29 435.91 -131.04 -0.3 -0.42 3.48 2.50
Minimum
128.61 6.93 135.54 173.02 1.28 1.35 26.2 4.05
Responsive
Minimum
265.16 84.30 349.47 -87.07 -0.25 -0.33 5.01 3.70
Schedule

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 49

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 18 Detailed Distribution 6 Alternatives of NCRN Road Sections in Krishna District (Strategic Analysis)
Road Roughness (IRI)
Service
Average (3.4 to 4.6 Very Poor (7 to 18 Total Percentage
Volume Good (0 to 3.4 IRI) Poor (4.6 to 7 IRI)
IRI) IRI)
Best Best Best Best
15 74 146 17 252 33%
Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
Fair Fair Fair Fair
6 35 84 13 138 18%
Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
Low Traffic 19 69 156 17 261 34%
Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
(Below 2000
PCU) Best Best Best Best
0 0 0 0 0 0%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Fair Fair Fair Fair
0 0 0 0 0 0%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
0 0 0 8 8 1%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Best Best Best Best
0 0 5 1 6 1%
Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
Fair Fair Fair Fair
18 19 20 0 57 7%
Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
Medium Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
15 1 8 5 29 4%
Traffic Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
(2000 to Best Best Best Best
6000 PCU) 0 0 0 0 0 0%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Fair Fair Fair Fair
0 0 0 0 0 0%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
0 0 0 0 0 0%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Best Best Best Best
1 2 2 0 5 1%
Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
Fair Fair Fair Fair
0 0 2 0 2 0%
Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
High Traffic Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
0 0 0 1 1 0%
(6000 to Responsive Responsive Responsive Responsive
15000)
Best Best Best Best
0 0 0 0 0 0%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Fair Fair Fair Fair
0 0 0 0 0 0%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
0 0 0 0 0 0%
Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule
Total 74 200 423 62 759
Percentage 10% 26% 56% 8% 100%

Table 19 Economic Indicators Summary in Crore Rupees (Case 5)

Benefit/RAC Avg.
Alternative CAP* Recurrent Cost RAC* Benefits* B/C Ratio Targeted IRI
Ratio IRR*

Base Alternative 201.99 13.06 215.05 - - - 0 4.55

Minimum
198.96 20.42 219.38 280.75 1.30 1.40 26.20 4.15
Responsive

50 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 TECHNICAL PAPER

process should also consider further considerations such as

risk assessment and qualitative factors.

Fig.14 Strategy Programme Analysis Results (Case 5)

6 DISCUSSIONS
Fig. 16 Variation of B/C IRI for different cases
Upon analysis, it is evident that Case 3, with a targeted
IRI of 4.30 m/km and a B/C ratio of 1.43, stands out with 7. CONCLUSIONS
the highest B/C ratio among the cases presented. This
indicates that Case 3 offers the highest potential return on The study discussed sensitivity analysis of HDM-4 models
investment compared to the other alternatives. Despite not for designing an effective road asset resilient management
having the highest IRR, the B/C ratio suggests that Case 3 system based on India’s climatic variability. The adjustment
is economically viable and warrants consideration. Cases 2, method bears a local focus that covers multiple areas to
4, and 5 have relatively lower B/C ratios, indicating lower improve maintenance mechanisms for Indian roads and
returns than the investment. However, Case 2 stands out as allocate resources wisely. Empirical studies that have
having the lowest B/C ratio among the cases, suggesting relied on the long list of features of the HDM-4 instrument
it may be the least economically favourable option. The have included all the economic, technical, social, and
variation of targeted IRI and B/C ratios for different cases environmental dimensions. A robust calibration methodology
of calibration values are shown in Fig. 15 and Fig. 16, needs to be devised to efficiently calibrate deterioration
respectively. models through extensive data collection and analysis of
pavement distress, traffic patterns, soil characteristics, tire
and vehicle attributes, and environmental influences.

The Ananthapuram district case study in Andhra Pradesh

practically illustrates our tactics. Using the approach of
separating the road network segments into homogeneous
sections and the analysis of many calibration factors, we
compared different maintenance standards across the period
of 10 years. This strategic analysis focuses on selecting
preventive maintenance alternatives, which consider both
growth and cost-effectiveness in the long term. Finally, the
chosen strategy is tailored to the highest return on investment.

Fig. 15 Variation of Targeted IRI for different The results set the stage for calibration alternatives as the
cases core player in optimizing the maintainability and validity of
maintenance techniques. Case 3, which has a predicted IRI
Overall, the analysis suggests that the choice of calibration of 4.30 m/km and the most favourable B/C ratio of 1.43,is
alternatives significantly impacts the maintenance the most economically sound compared to the others.
strategy's economic viability and performance. In Calibration in this approach is crucial and determines
conclusion, Case 3, with its higher B/C ratio, emerges whether maintenance decisions will be made toward
as the most economically attractive option among the good outcomes or vice versa. The study demonstrates that
alternatives considered. However, the decision-making calibration factors have significantly less significance in

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 51

 TECHNICAL PAPER

predicted performance, proven in predicted IRI values 3. Jain, S. S., Aggarwal, S., & Parida, M. (2005). HDM-4
varying from 4.05 to 5.00 m/km. However, the accuracy Pavement Deterioration Models for Indian National Highway
Network. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(8),
of input data for HDM plays a crucial role in predicted 623–631. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947x(2005)131:8(623).
pavement performance. 4. CRRI (1994) “Pavement Performance Study on Existing
Pavement Sections”, Final Report, Central Road Research
In summary, this research provides considerable pointers Institute, New Delhi.
that can be used to adjust the calibration of HDM-4 5. Thube, D. T. (2013). Highway Development and Management
deterioration models to produce adequate information Model (HDM-4): Calibration and Adoption for Low-Volume
needed to manage road assets across the diverse climatic Roads in Local Conditions. International Journal of Pavement
regions in India. The approach suggested is structured so Engineering, 14(1), 50–59. doi:10.1080/10298436.2011.606320.
that economic and performance concerns may be balanced. 6. Rohde, G. T., Zooste, F., Sadzik, E., and Henning, T. (1998).
“The calibration and use of HDM-IV performance models
However, it remains crucial to understand that further in a pavement management system. Proc., 4th Int. Conf. on
research, incorporating risk assessment and qualitative Managing Pavements.
factors, is still needed to develop the decision-making 7. Caroff, G., Freneat, E., Riviere, N., and Spernol, A. (2001).
process and ensure sound pedestrian design for India’s The Calibration of the HDM-4 Model in Eastern Europe,
roads. Routes/Roads, World Roads Association, No. 311, pp 47–58.
8. Volume 5 – A Guide to Calibration and Adaptation, Version
1.0, Benett, C.R. and Paterson, W.D., The Highway
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Development and Management Series.
9. Paterson, WDO and Scullion, T. (1990). Information System
The first and second authors would like to express their for Road Management: Draft Guidelines on System Design
sincere gratitude to Former Associate Director, AECOM and Data Issues. World Bank Technical Paper INU 77,
India Pvt. Ltd and present Director at KSVR Infra Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, The
Consultants LLP, Bengaluru, for his invaluable support World Bank, Washington, D.C.
and guidance during our internship and dissertation. The 10. IRC:SP:30–2019; Manual on Economic Evaluation of
Highway Projects in India - 3rd Revision IRC.
former Associate Director, AECOM provided us with an
11. Gowda S, Kavitha G, Gupta A (2022) Economic Analysis and
excellent opportunity and generously shared his expertise, Prioritisation of Non-Core Roads in India: a Case Study. Int J
offering crucial assistance regarding software usage and Pavement Res Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42947-022-00250-2
data requirements. His mentorship and encouragement 12. Veeraragavan, A., & Chakraborty, N. (2000). Prioritisation
significantly contributed to the success of our project. of Pavement Maintenance based on Economic Criteria. In
first European Pavement Management Systems Conference-
Proceedings and final Program, book of Abstracts. https://
REFERENCE trid. trb. org/ Resul ts?q= & seria l=% 22FIR ST% 20EUR
OPEAN% 20PAV EMENT% 20MAN AGEME NT% 20SYS
1. Haas, R., W.R. Hudson, and L. Cowe Falls, Pavement Asset TEMS% 20CON FEREN CE% 20% 20PRO CEEDI NGS%
Management, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, N.J. and 20AND% 20FIN AL% 20PRO GRAM% 2C% 20BOOK%
Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Mass., 2015. 20OF% 20ABS TRACTS% 22.
2. Hudson, W.R., S.W. Hudson, G. Way, and J. Delton, “Benefits 13. Roy, N., Issac Kuncheria, P., & Veeraragavan, A. (2003).
of Arizona DOT Pavement Management System After Highway Development and Management tool (HDM-4):
16 Years’ Experience,” Pre-Print CD-ROM, 79th Annual Calibration to Indian Conditions and its Application-Case
Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Jan. 9–13, Study. Highway Research Bulletin No, 69, 73–96. HTTPS://
2000, Washington, D.C. DOI. ORG/ 10. 1080/ 10298436. 2011. 606320.

RELEASED OF NEW/REVISED IRC PUBLICATION

IRC:5-2024 “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section I- General Features of
1.
Design” (Ninth Revision)
IRC:40-2024 “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges Section IV-(Brick, Stone and
2.
Cement Concrete Block Masonry) (Third Revision)
IRC:78 (Part-I)-2024 “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges Foundations and
3.
Substructure” Part-I General Features and Working Stress Design (Third Revision)
4. IRC:SP:140-2024 “Guidelines for Design of Short Slab Concrete Pavements for Highways and Expressways”
5. IRC:SP-142-2024 “Manual for Red Light Violation Detection System”
6. IRC:SP:144-2024 “Guidelines for Detailing of Steel Bridges”

52 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 Notification No.70
Amendment No.7/IRC:112-2020/June, 2024 (Effective from 1st November, 2024)
TO
IRC:112-2020 Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges (First Revision)
S. No. Clause No. For Read
1 4.1 Add at the end of clause 4.1:
Page 14 The design rules for plain & lightly reinforced concrete
are given in Annexure A-10
2 7.3(5) (5) Strut and tie model may be used in the analysis of discontinuity (5) Strut and tie model may be used in the analysis of
Page 43 regions. Struts representing compressive stress field and ties provided by discontinuity regions. Struts representing compressive
reinforcement, meet at connecting nodes forming statically stable truss stress field and ties provided by reinforcement, meet
system. The reinforcement carries full design force of the tie over its full at connecting nodes forming statically stable truss
length and hence is required to be adequately anchored beyond the node. system. The reinforcement carries full design force
Adoption of model developed on the basis of stress trajectories in compression of the tie over its full length and hence is required to
and tensile regions, established from linear elastic analysis or following be adequately anchored beyond the node. Adoption
direct and simple load path method, should be preferred as it will help in of model developed on the basis of stress trajectories
achieving crack control at serviceability conditions. Specialist literature may in compression and tensile regions, established from
be referred for details. linear elastic analysis or following direct and simple
load path method, should be preferred as it will help
in achieving crack control at serviceability conditions.
Annexure A-9 to be referred for details.
NOTIFICATION

3 7.1.7 (4) & (5) (4) In checking compressive stresses in the struts, consideration should be Point (4) & (5) have been deleted and (6) is
Page 42 given to a possible reduction in strength due to transverse tensile stresses or renumbered as (4)
cracking or the influence of shear. The average design compressive stress in
the struts may be taken as v.fcd. In the absence of other data, v may be taken
as 0.6, including an allowance for sustained loading. Higher values for v (even
v >1) may be justified based on a triaxial state of compressive stress, provided
it can be shown that the complementary transverse compression can be realised
in practice.

(5) The design stress in the ties is limited to fyd

(6) Detailing should comply with Sections 15 & 16.
4 Annexure A-9 New Annexure A-9: Strut and Tie Models is added.
5 Annexure New Annexure A-10: Plain and Lightly Reinforced
A-10 Concrete Structures is added.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 53

 NOTIFICATION

Annexure A-9 ν = 1 - fck /310 .......................................................Eq(A9-3)

Strut and Tie Models For struts between directly loaded areas, such as corbels
A9.1 Analysis with strut and tie models or short deep beams, alternative calculation methods are
given in 10 2.2 and 10.2.3
Strut and tie models may be used for members where a
linear distribution within the cross section is assumed, e.g. A9.3 Ties
plane strain (B-region) and also where a non- linear strain The design strength of transverse ties and reinforcement
distribution exists (e.g. supports, near concentrated loads should be limited in accordance with 6.2 and 6.3.
or plain stress) i.e. D-region. Reinforcement should be adequately anchored in the nodes.
Strut-and-tie models consist of struts, representing Reinforcement required to resist the forces at the
compressive stress fields, and of ties, representing the concentrated nodes may be smeared over a length (see
reinforcement, and of the connecting nodes. The forces in Fig. A9-3 a) and b). When the reinforcement in the node
the elements of a strut and tie model should be determined area extends over a considerable length of an element, the
by maintaining the equilibrium with the applied loads in reinforcement should be distributed over the length where
the ultimate limit state. The elements of strut and tie models the compression trajectories are curved (ties and struts).
should be dimensioned according to the rules given below. The tensile force T may be obtained by:

The ties of a strut and tie model should coincide in position

and direction with the corresponding reinforcement.

Possible means for developing suitable strut and tie models

include the adoption of stress trajectories and distributions
from linear-elastic theory or the load path method.

A9.2 Struts

Fig. A9-1 Design strength of concrete struts without

transverse tension

σ = fcd......................................................Eq(A9-1)
Rd,max

It may be appropriate to assume a higher design strength

Fig.A9-3 Parameters for the determination of
in regions where multi- axial compression exists. For fcd
transverse tensile forces in a compression field with
refer clause 6.4.2.8 (1).
smeared reinforcement
The design strength for concrete struts should be reduced
A9.4 Nodes
in cracked compression zones and, unless a more rigorous
approach is used, may be calculated from Equation (A9-2) 1) The rules for nodes also apply to regions where
(see Fig. A9-2). concentrated forces are transferred in a member and
which are not designed by the strut and tie method.
2) The forces acting at nodes shall be in equilibrium.
Fig. A9-2 Design strength of concrete struts with Transverse tensile forces perpendicular to an
transverse tension in-plane node shall be considered.
σRd,max = 0.6νfcd .................................................................................... Eq(A9-2) 3) The dimensioning and detailing of concentrated

54 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 NOTIFICATION

nodes are critical in determining their load- bearing

resistance. Concentrated nodes may develop,
e.g. where point loads are applied, at supports, in
anchorage zones with concentration of reinforcement
or prestressing tendons, at bends in reinforcing bars,
and at connections and corners of members.
4) The design values for the compressive stresses
within nodes may be determined by:
a) in compression nodes where no ties are anchored
at the node (see Fig. A9-4)
σ = k ν’f
Rd,max 1 cd
Fig. A9-6 Compression tension node with
where k1 = 1.0 and σ Rd,max is the maximum stress which can
reinforcement provided in two directions
be applied at the edges of the node.
σ = k ν ’fcd
Rd,max 3

where k3 = 0.75

v) Under the conditions listed below, the design

compressive stress values given in A9-4 (iv) may
be increased by up to10% where at least one of the
following applies:
• triaxial compression is assured,
• all angles between struts and ties are ≥ 55°,
• the stresses applied at supports or at point loads are
uniform, and the node is confined by stirrups,
Fig. A9-4 Compression node without ties • the reinforcement is arranged in multiple layers,
• the node is reliably confined by means of bearing
b) in compression tension nodes with anchored ties arrangement or friction.
provided in one direction (see Fig. A9-5),
vi) Triaxially compressed nodes may be
σ = k ν’ f
Rd,max 2 cd checked according to Expression A2-29 &
where k2 = 0.85 and σ Rd,max
is the maximum of A2-30 (Annexure A2) with an upper limit
σRd,1 and σ Rd,2 σRd,max ≤ k4 ν ’fcd if for all three directions of the
struts the distribution of load is known. k4 = 3.0

vii) The anchorage of the reinforcement in compression-

tension nodes starts at the beginning of the node,
e.g. in case of a support anchorage starting at its
inner face (see Fig. A9-5). The anchorage length
should extend over the entire node length. In
certain cases, the reinforcement may also be
anchored behind the node. For anchorage and
bending of reinforcement, see 15.2.4 to 15.2.6.
Fig. A9-5 Compression tension node with
viii) In-plane compression nodes at the junction of three
reinforcement provided in one direction
struts may be verified in accordance with Fig.A9-
c) in compression tension nodes with anchored ties 4. The maximum average principal node stresses
provided in more than one direction (see Fig. A9-6), (σc0, σc1, σc2, σc3) should be checked in accordance

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 55

 NOTIFICATION

with iv- a). Normally the following may be to analysis, e.g. methods without an explicit check of
assumed: Fcd,1/a1 = Fcd,2/a2 = Fcd,3/a3 resulting in the deformation capacity, shall not be used unless their
σ =σ =σ =σ . application can be justified.
cd,1 cd,2 cd,3 cd,0

ix) Nodes at reinforcement bends may be analysed in A10-4 Ultimate Limit States
accordance with Fig. A9-6. The average stresses A10-4.1 Design resistance to bending and axial force
in the struts should be checked in accordance
with (v). The diameter of the mandrel should be (1) In the case of walls, where the provisions of adequate
checked in accordance with 15.2.2. construction details and curing are specified in the
drawings, the imposed deformations due to temperature
ANNEXURE A-10 or shrinkage may be ignored.

PLAIN AND LIGHTLY REINFORCED (2) The stress-strain relations for plain concrete should
CONCRETE STRUCTURES be taken from clause 6.4.2.8 of this Code.

A10-1 General (3) The axial resistance, NRd of a rectangular cross-

section with a uniaxial eccentricity, e, in the direction of
This section provides additional rules for plain concrete ℎw, may be taken as:
(PCC) structures/members, where the reinforcement
provided is less than the minimum required for
reinforced concrete as per the code. Some examples of
typical members are caissons, piers, abutments, retaining where:
structures, appurtenances such as kerbs etc. 𝜂𝜂𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the design effective compressive strength
specified in clause A 2.9 (2) of Appendix A 2.
Members using plain concrete may include the provision
of steel reinforcement needed to satisfy serviceability 𝑏𝑏 is the overall width of the cross-section see Fig. A10-1
and/or durability requirements. This reinforcement may
be considered for the verification of ultimate limit states ℎ𝑤𝑤 is the overall depth of the cross-section
as well as for the checks of the serviceability limit states. 𝑒𝑒 is the eccentricity of NEd in the direction ℎ𝑤𝑤 and shall
be less than ℎw/2.
A10-2 Materials
Note: Where other simplified methods are used, they
Concrete of suitable grade and un-tensioned should not be less conservative than a rigorous method
reinforcement as specified in the Code only shall be used. using a stress-strain relationship given in clause 6.4.2.8
Design properties of the materials shall be the same of the Code.
as specified in the Code, except those specified in this
Annexure.
A10-2.1 Concrete: Additional design assumptions
The value for α as in clause 6.4.2.8 should be taken as
0.53 for PCC.
When tensile stresses are considered for the design
resistance of PCC members, the stress strain diagram
(clause 6.4.2.8) may be extended up to the tensile design
strength using following equation or a linear relationship.
Fig. A10-1 Notation for PCC walls

A10-3 Structural analysis A10-4.2 Local failure

Since plain concrete members have limited ductility, Unless measures to avoid local tensile failure of the
linear analysis with redistribution or a plastic approach cross-section have been taken, the maximum eccentricity

56 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 NOTIFICATION

of the axial force NEd in a cross-section shall be limited A10-4.5 Ultimate Limit States induced by structural
to avoid large cracks, e.g. provision of local bursting deformation (buckling)
reinforcement at location where large concentrated loads
are applied. A10-4.5.1 Slenderness of columns and walls
The slenderness of a column or wall, 𝜆𝜆 is given by
A10-4.3 Shear
𝜆𝜆 = 𝑙𝑙0/𝑖𝑖 Eq. (A10-8)
1) In plain concrete members account may be taken of
where:
the concrete tensile strength in the ultimate limit state for
shear, provided that either by calculations or by experience 𝑖𝑖 is the minimum radius of gyration
brittle failure can be excluded and adequate resistance can be 𝑙𝑙0 is the effective length of the member which can be
ensured. assumed to be:
2) For a section subject to a shear force VEd and a normal 𝑙𝑙0 = 𝛽𝛽 ⋅ 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤 Eq. (A10-9)
force NEd acting over a compressive area Acc, the absolute
Where:
value of the components of design stress should be taken
as: 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤 clear height of the member
𝛽𝛽 coefficient which depends on the support conditions:
Eq. (A10-3) for columns other than cantilever columns
𝛽𝛽 = 1 should in general be assumed; for cantilever
Eq. (A10-4) columns or walls both 𝛽𝛽 = 2;
for walls other than cantilever wall 𝛽𝛽 -values are
given in Table A10.1

Table A10.1: Values of β for different edge

conditions
Eq. (A10-5)

Eq. (A10-6)

Eq. (A10-7)

where:

𝑓𝑓 is the concrete design strength in shear and

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
compression

𝑓𝑓 is the concrete design strength in compression

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑓𝑓 is concrete design strength in tension

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

3) A concrete member may be considered to be uncracked

in the ultimate limit state if either it remains completely
under compression or if the absolute value of the principal
concrete tensile stress σ does not exceed 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
ct1

A10-4.4 Torsion A – Restrained edge, B - Free edge, C - Transverse

wall / bracing
In case section is subjected to torsional actions, the
sections shall be ensured to be fully in compression to Note: The information in Table A10.1 assumes that the
resist torsional moments. wall has no openings with a height exceeding 1/3 of the

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 57

 NOTIFICATION

wall height 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤 or with an area exceeding 1/10 of the wall Eq. (A10-11)
area. In walls laterally restrained along 3 or 4 sides with
openings exceeding these limits, the parts between the where:
openings should be considered as laterally restrained 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜 + 𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 Eq. (A10-12)
along 2 sides only and be designed accordingly.
𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜 is the first order eccentricity including, where
The 𝛽𝛽 values should be increased appropriately if the relevant, the effects of floors (e.g. possible
transverse bearing capacity is affected by chases or clamping moments transmitted to the wall from
recesses. a slab) and horizontal actions
A transverse wall may be considered as a bracing wall if: 𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 is the additional eccentricity covering the effects
of geometrical imperfections.
¾ its total depth is not less than 0.5 ℎ𝑤𝑤, where ℎ𝑤𝑤
Other simplified methods may be used provided that they
is the overall depth of the braced wall;
are conservative than a rigorous method.
¾ it has the same height 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤 as the braced wall
A10-5 Serviceability Limit States
under consideration;
Stresses should be checked where structural restraint is
¾ its length 𝑙𝑙ℎ𝑡𝑡 is at least equal to 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤 / 5, where 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤
expected to occur.
denotes the clear height of the braced wall;
The following measures should be considered to ensure
¾ within the length 𝑙𝑙ℎ𝑡𝑡 the transverse wall has no adequate serviceability:
openings.
a) regarding crack formation
In the case of a wall connected along the top and - provision of subsidiary structural reinforcement
bottom in flexurally rigid manner by insitu concrete and (surface reinforcement, ties, links, etc. where
reinforcement, so that the edge moments can be fully necessary);
resisted, the values for β given in Table A10.1 may be - provision of joints at appropriate locations;
factored by 0.85. - choice of concrete technology (e.g. appropriate
concrete composition, curing);
The slenderness of walls cast in-situ in plain concrete λ - choice of appropriate method of construction.
should generally not exceed 86 (i.e. 𝑙𝑙0/ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 25). b) regarding limitation of deformations
A10-4.5.2 Simplified design method for walls and - a minimum section size shall be as in A10-6.1.
columns - limitation of slenderness in the case of
compression members.
In absence of a more rigorous approach, the design
resistance in terms of axial force for a slender wall or If reinforcement is provided in plain concrete members
column in plain concrete may be calculated as follows: for any reason whatsoever, the same shall comply with
requirements for minimum cover.
𝑁𝑁 = 𝑓𝑓 × 𝑏𝑏 × ℎ × ∅ (A10-10)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤
A10-6 Detailing of members and particular rules
where A10-6.1 Structural members

𝑁𝑁 is the axial resistance The overall thickness shall not be less than 120 mm.
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

𝑏𝑏 is the overall width of the cross-section Where chases and recesses are included, checks should
be carried out to assure the adequate strength and stability
ℎ is the overall depth of the cross-section of the member.
𝑤𝑤

∅ Factor taking into account the eccentricity, A10-6.2 Construction joints

including second order effects and normal
effects of creep At construction joint locations a nominal reinforcement
for respective elements shall be provided with adequate
For braced members, the factor Φ may be taken as: anchorage on either side of the joint.

58 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 NOTIFICATION

A10-6.3 Durability 𝜎𝜎𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 is the design value of the ground pressure

The durability measures shall be same as specified in the 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the design value of the concrete tensile strength
Code elsewhere. (in the same unit as 𝜎𝜎𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) As a simplification the relation
ℎ𝐹𝐹/ 𝑎𝑎 ≥ 2 may be used.
Whenever reinforcement is provided in member the
appropriate cover corresponding to exposure condition
shall be provided.

A10-6.4 Strip and isolated footings

In the absence of more detailed data, axially loaded strip

and isolated footings may be designed and constructed
as plain concrete provided that:

Eq. (A10-13)

where:

ℎ𝐹𝐹 is the foundation depth

𝑎𝑎 is the projection from the column face
(see Fig.A10.2) Fig. A10.2 Unreinforced isolated footings

NOTIFICATION NO. 71

Amendment No. 2/IRC:SP:59-2019/June, 2024 (Effective from 1st November, 2024)

To
IRC:SP:59-2019 “Guidelines for Use of Geosynthetics in Road Pavements and Associated Works”
(First Revision)
S. Clause No. For Read
No. Page No.
1 Clause No. ……..(b) directional behaviour (uniaxial, biaxial, ……..(b) directional behavior (Geogrid with
1.2.3.2 etc.) one axis, with two axes, with three axes, with
Page No. 6 four axes, with several axes, etc.)
2 Clause No. ……..There is a formalized procedure available ……..Installation damage in the field should
2.3.3.1, to assess installation damage as per ISO 10722. be assessed as per methodology given in
Last two ASTM D5818-06 may be referred for exposure Annexure-A. Field samples should be
sentences of and retrieval of sample to evaluate installation exhumed as per the procedure specified in
Para 1 damage of geosynthetics. ASTM D5818.
Page No. 19
3 Clause No. (1) ……..However, it is recommended to ……..MIF/LCR considered in design should
3.1.3, ensure correct MIF for proper optimized design be validated by conducting Cyclic Plate
2nd last and MIF must be verified by appropriate testing Load Test on field trial patch laid along
sentence of for some trial patch before full fledge execution of main carriageway as per methodology given
Para 3 the work. …….. in Annexure-B. If necessary, i.e. only in
Page case of lower observed value of MIF/LCR
No. 34

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 59

 NOTIFICATION

than that of value proposed in design, the

design should be modified with realized
MIF/LCR and with same actual execution of
work should be done. ……..
4 References 2. IRC:37 “Guidelines for the Design of 2. IRC:37 (2018) “Guidelines for the
Page No. Flexible Pavements” Design of Flexible Pavements” (Fourth
93 & 94 Revision)

Add New References

Indian Codes

• IS:16635 (2017) “Geosynthetics - Wide

Width Tensile Test”

• MoRTH (2013) “Specifications for Road

and Bridge Works” (Fifth Revision)

International Codes

• ASTM D5818 “Standard Practice for

obtaining Samples of Geosynthetics
from a Test Section for Assessment of
Installation Damage"

• ASTM D8462 “Standard Test Method

for Cyclic Plate Load Tests to Evaluate
the Structural Performance of Roadway
Test Sections with Geosynthetics”

• AASHTO R50 “Standard Practice for

Geosynthetic Reinforcement of the
Aggregate Base Course of Flexible
Pavement Structures”

Annexure A

METHODOLOGY FOR INSTALLATION DAMAGE ASSESSMENT IN THE FIELD FOR GEOGRIDS USED
IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
This methodology outlines the procedure for installation damage assessment in the field for geogrids used in flexible
pavements.
Construction sequence for the laying of geogrids and granular layer for the testing shall be adopted as per MoRTH
Specifications for the different layers of subbase and base courses.
1. A trial stretch of minimum length 100 m and full cross-section width should be selected along main carriageway.
2. Prior to the installation of the pavement layer sections it is required to confirm the CBR of the subgrade as per
MoRTH Specifications for Road and Bridge Works.

60 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 NOTIFICATION

3. The selected geogrids, as specified, shall be installed as per the approved pavement design i.e., either at the
interface of subgrade and sub base or at interface of sub base and base course or as per design.

Fig. A.1 Geogrid Laying on Subgrade/Sub Base Top

4. Construction of Sub Base or Base layer depending upon location of geogrid and layer thickness, and gradation, in
the pavement design shall be carried out as per MoRTH Specifications for Road and Bridge Works. Construction
methodology should be customised so that on installed geogrid only the required construction equipment will
be allowed to move over the bare geogrids. Further, the proper nailing i.e. atleaset one nail in 1m x 1m and also
the specified overlap of 300 mm should be ensured. In addition, the materials should not be end tipped onto the
geogrid but should be spread over by the backhoe loader.

5. Geotagged photographs with date & time stamped should be taken during placement and compaction of subbase
and base layer for records. A compaction density check should be done as per MoRTH to ensure the desired
compaction is achieved.

Fig. A.2 Spreading of Subbase and Base Layer Fig. A.3 Rolling of Subbase Layer
6. After compaction, a total of 5 numbers of 2.3 m x 2.3 m patches should be identified on the trial stretch from
where geogrid is to be exhumed. These patches should be well distributed and should cover the entire trial stretch.

7. The compacted layer should be carefully removed, preferably manually, in these patches to expose the geogrid
layer and immediately geotagged photos with date & time stamped to be taken to record the condition of geogrids.
It is absolutely necessary to ensure that no damage, whatever occurs to the geogrid while it is being exhumed as
per ASTM D5818.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 61

 NOTIFICATION

Fig. A.4 Pit being excavated for exhuming Geogrid sample

8. Geogrids should be cut with scissors /cutting tools in each of the patches, and clear geotagged photos with date &
time stamped should be taken to record the damage to the geogrid ribs and junctions.

9. A record should be maintained in the following format (Table A.1) with photographic evidence:

Table A.1 Format of Recording the Physical Damage of Geogrid during Installation
Parameter to observe Total numbers Patch-1 Patch-2 Patch-3 Patch-4 Patch-5

Number of ribs damaged

Number of junctions damaged

10. The number of damaged ribs and junctions should be compared with the total number of ribs and junctions,
respectively.

11. Wide-width tensile strength tests should be done as per IS 16635 on 1 control specimen and 1 exhumed specimen
from each patch in each direction. Results need to be reported in the following format as per Table A.2.

12. A maximum strength loss (Tensile Strength/Stiffness as applicable) of 10.0% is acceptable. In case of Retained
Tensile Strength/Stiffness is less than 90.0%, either geogrid or construction methodology need to be modified and
Installation damages should be assessed afresh.

Table A.2 Format of Recording the Tensile Strength Results of Control Specimen and Exhumed Specimens of
Geogrid
Parameter Patch-1 Patch-2 Patch-3 Patch-4 Patch-5 Average
Wide width Tensile Strength of control specimen (Machine
direction X Cross machine direction) kN/m X kN/m

% Elongation at failure of control specimen (Machine direction X

Cross machine direction)
Wide width Tensile Strength of exhumed specimen from field
(Machine direction X Cross machine direction) kN/m X kN/m

% Elongation at failure of exhumed specimen from field (Machine

direction X Cross machine direction)

Average % Strength Loss (Machine direction)

Average % Strength Loss (Cross machine direction)

Accept/Reject

62 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 NOTIFICATION

Annexure B

METHODOLOGY OF FIELD CYCLIC PLATE LOAD TEST FOR GEOSYNTHETIC-REINFORCED

PAVEMENTS TO DETERMINE LCR OR MIF

1. Introduction

¾ This methodology outlines the procedure used to determine the performance of pavement, with and without
geosynthetic reinforcement (geogrid and geocell), that are built in a controlled manner and tested using a plate,
cyclic load applied to the surface to simulate traffic condition in the field.

¾ Test section performance from this test is normally calculated as a function of life extension but can also be
determined based on structural improvement. Life extension is related to the number of load cycles that can be
accommodated by a particular configuration when compared to a similarly constructed control section. Structural
improvements are based on elemental or system-wide stiffness increases.

¾ The Cyclic Plate Load Test (CPLT) is intended as a performance test to quantify the benefits of geosynthetics in
pavement structures, as per AASHTO R50 recommendations. Performance is predominantly defined in terms of
Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR).

2. Terminology

¾ Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR), the ratio of the number of load cycles of a pavement structure with geosynthetics to
the number of load cycles for the same test section without geosynthetics to reach the same defined failure state.
(Ref. ASTM D8462)

3. Objective

¾ Testing is performed by loading the surface of the roadway using a stationary cyclic load representative of a
typical truck to induce progressive vertical displacement of the surface (rut). (Ref. ASTM D8462)
¾ The purpose of conducting stress-controlled CPLT is to simulate the traffic loading on the pavement to determine
the LCR/MIF of the pavement layer at the site.

4. Measuring Instruments

¾ Loading system for reaction loading.

¾ A hydraulic jack with cyclic loading of approximately 1 Hz frequency with a duly calibrated load measuring
device, such as an electronic load cell, shall be used as prescribed in Fig. B.1.
¾ Bearing Plate - Circular bearing plate of mild steel of 300 mm diameter.
¾ Settlement Recording Device - LVDT.
¾ Datum Beam or Rod - Beam or rod of sufficient strength capable of maintaining straightness when fitted on two
independent supports fitted with arms or magnetic bases for holding LVDT.

5. Test Arrangement

¾ Level the upper surface of the test layer.

¾ The test plate shall be placed over the 6.4 mm thick nitrile rubber pad (40A durometer). Check the level of the
stationary plate by bubble tube.
¾ Ensure that the center of the plate coincides with the center of loading.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 63

 NOTIFICATION

¾ The hydraulic jack should be centrally placed over the plate with the loading column in between the jack and the
reaction beam so as to transfer the load to the plate. If the reaction is drawn from a loaded truck, the hydraulic jack
is supposed to be placed at its center of gravity.
¾ The supports of the reference beam or datum rod shall be placed over firm ground, fixed with LVDT’s resting on
the plate. The LVDT’s shall be so arranged that settlement is measured continuously.
¾ On the contrary, the loading can be mobilized using any other equipment that can produce repeated loads (ESALs)
at a given frequency and amplitude as prescribed in Fig. B.2.

6. Procedure

Fig. B.1 Typical Testing System to the Pavement Section

The testing system consists of a hydraulic actuator for applying cyclic loads to the pavement section. Testing is controlled
using an automated software system. The load is transmitted to the pavement via a 300 mm diameter, 25 mm thick steel
plate. Applied loads are measured using a pressure transducer or load cell.
A cyclic load consisting of a maximum of 40 kN and minimum of 0.5 kN with a frequency of 1 Hz is applied in the form
of sinusoidal/haversine cycles to the surface of the pavement through a 300 mm diameter rigid steel plate to simulate
the field condition, where one load pulse represents 1 ESAL. Individual repeated load pulses have a trapezoidal shape,
as illustrated in Fig. B.2; repeated loading shall be applied to the pavement surface until surface displacement reaches
equilibrium (defined as less than 0.01 mm accumulated permanent displacement per applied load pulse or prescribed
failure criteria 20 mm, whichever earlier is achieved.
The test shall be performed on the upper surface of the test layer of the un-reinforced and reinforced sections. The
settlement/no. of cycles data shall be recorded by automated digital software.

Fig. B.2 Typical Shape of the Repeated Load Pulse

64 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 NOTIFICATION

7. Determination of LCR & MIF

¾ Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR)

The ratio of the number of load applications necessary to reach the constant settlement/specific failure state
(20 mm rut depth) in a geosynthetic reinforced pavement to the number of load applications required to reach the
same state (settlement/rut value) in an unreinforced section.
(1)

Where,

Nr= Number of cycles on reinforced section, and

Nu= Number of cycles on un-reinforced section.
¾ LCR & MIF should be backcalculated using illustrative excel calculation sheet given in separate CD and sample
excel sheets are given at the end.

8. Report
¾ Number of cycle v/s Settlement Graph

Fig. B.3 Settlement and Number of Cycles

¾ Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR)

¾ Layer Coefficient Ratio (LCR)
¾ Modulus Improvement Factor (MIF)
Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR) Layer Coefficient Ratio (LCR) Modulus Improvement Factor (MIF)

Photographs

Fig. B.4 Automatic Cyclic Load System with Software & Loading Arrangement

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 65

 NOTIFICATION

SAMPLE EXCEL SHEETS

TBR
No. of repetitions for 20mm settlement in Reinforced Section 75850
No. of repetitions for 20mm settlement in Uninforced Section 20550

TBR 3.690998

Structural No. of Unreinforced Section

Structural Number of Unreinforced Section

Layer Thickness(mm) Layer Coefficient Drainage Coefficient SN
Bituminous 100 0.436 1 1.71784
Base 245 0.159 1.3 1.995275
Subbase 245 0.148 1.3 1.857237
SN 5.570352

CBR of Subgrade

CBR of Subgrade 7.68 %

Unreinforced Calculation

Guide for Design of Pavement Structures AASHTO 1993

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

Inputs:

Effective resielients modulus of road-

MR psi 11520 log 10 W 18 7.991226
bed material
18 kip
W 18 Design traffic 98000000 ZR*So -0.5769
ESAL
log 10[PSI/4.2-
ZR for 90% reliability -1.282 -0.10914
1.5]
So Overall standard deviation 0.45 Trial SN 5.57
0.40+1094/
PSI Design serviceability loss 1.8 0.462479
((SN+1)^5.19)
9.36*log 10
7.65263
(SN+1)
-0.2
-8.07
2.32*log10 MR 9.42257

7.992301

66 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

 NOTIFICATION

MSA Unreinforced Design

MSA unreinforced design 361717762

MSA Reinforced Calculation

Guide for Design of Pavement Structures AASHTO 1993

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN
Inputs:
Effective resilient modulus of
MR psi 11520 log 10 W 18 8.55837
roadbed material
18 kip
W 18 Design traffic 361717762 ZR*So -0.5769
ESAL

ZR for 90% reliability -1.282 -0.10914

log 10[PSI/4.2-1.5]
So Overall standard deviation 0.45 Trial SN 6.59 O.K
PSI Design serviceability loss 1.8 0.40+1094/((SN+1)^5.19) 0.42955
9.36*log 10(SN+1) 8.239063
-0.2
-8.07

2.32*log10 MR 9.42257

SN Reinforced
6.59

LCR Calculation
Diff. of SN 1.02

SN of reinforced Base 3.01

Layer coefficients of reinforced base 0.240254

LCR 1.511031

MIF Calculation

Modulus of unreinforced Base 4.562249 36496.31

Modulus of reinforced Base 4.88857 77369.55

MIF 2.119928

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 67

 68
Notification No. 72
Amendment No. 1/IRC:SP:32-2023/June, 2024 (Effective from 1st November, 2024)
To
IRC:SP:32-2023 “Guidelines for Safer Commute to Schools” (First Revision)
Sl. Clause No.
Page No. For Read
No.
1 Fig. 6.2

Page No. 38

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

Fig. 6.2 School Ahead Pavement Marking (Case Study
Location: Singapore)
NOTIFICATION

Fig. 6.2 School Ahead Pavement Marking

 Sl. Clause No.
Page No. For Read
No.
2 Fig. 6.4
Page No. 39

Fig. 6.4 Yellow Road Marking to improve the visibility of School

Children Crossing Area

Fig. 6.4 Yellow Carpet Road Marking to improve the

visibility of School Children Crossing Area (Case Study
Location: Korea)

3 Annexure III, Annexure III Additional Safety Measures for School Zones Annexure III Additional Safety Measures for School Zones
(Row 5)
Road Markings and other Safety Measures Road Markings and other Safety Measures
NOTIFICATION

Page No. 53
Synthetic rubber-based sheet coloured/graphic/symbol marking A versatile synthetic rubber sheet with coloured/graphic/symbol
with thickness less than 2 mm with embossed top PVC film with designs or an embossed PVC film top layer is designed for use on
Skid Resistance properties up to 40 British Pendulum Number various surfaces, including asphalt, concrete, tiles and paver blocks.
when tested in accordance to ASTM E 303. Suitable for application It offers skid resistance and is suitable for both indoor and outdoor
in indoor and outdoor (Pedestrian pathways and Cycle Track) on applications.
various surface such as asphalt, concrete, tiles, paver block etc.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 69

 70
Sl. Clause No.
Page No. For Read
No.

Figure Deleted

4 Annexure III
Fig. III.5
Page No. 58

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

Figure III.5 Deleted

Fig. III.5 Walkways and Crossing Facility

NOTIFICATION
NOTIFICATION

Fig. III.5 presents floor marking options to yellow highlight the

waiting areas of pedestrians before crossing the carriageway. The
footpaths need to be properly segregated from main carriageway. Para Deleted
Guardrails shall be provided to streamline the crossing path of
pedestrians and reduce the conflict between pedestrians and other
motorized vehicles.

Before accessing the school zone, School Ahead sign in fluorescent

yellow-green colour shall be provided with permissible speed of
the area. Bollards provided on the footpaths to restrict the entry
of motorized vehicles shall be highlighted with flexible retro
reflective sheeting.
TECHNICAL
ADVERTISEMENT
PAPER

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 71

 TECHNICAL
ADVERTISEMENT
PAPER

72 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

TECHNICAL
ADVERTISEMENT
PAPER

INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024 73

 TECHNICAL PAPER
ADVERTISEMENT

74 INDIAN HIGHWAYS NOVEMBER 2024

TECHNICAL PAPER
 Delhi Postal Registration No DL-SW-17/4194/2022-2024
Delhi Postal Registration No DL-SW-17/4194/2022-2024
UNDER ‘U’ NUMBER U(SW)-12/2022- 2024
UNDER ‘U’ NUMBER U(SW)-12/2022- 2024
At Lodi Road, PSO on dated 28-29.05-2023 LICENCE TO TO
POST
At Lodi Road, PSO on dated 28-29.09-2024 LICENCE POST
ISSN 0376-7256 Newspaper Regd. No. 25597/73 WITHOUT PREPAYMENT
ISSN 0376-7256 Newspaper Regd. No. 25597/73 WITHOUT PREPAYMENT
INDIAN HIGHWAYS PUBLISHED
PUBLISHEDONON
23 23
MAY 2023
OCTOBER 2024
INDIAN HIGHWAYS
` 20/-` 20/- ADVANCE
ADVANCEMONTH,
MONTH,JUNE 2023
NOVEMBER 2024

Edited and Published

Edited by Shri
and Published Sanjay
by Shri SanjayKumar
KumarNirmal,
Nirmal,Secretary
Secretary General, IndianRoads
General, Indian RoadsCongress,
Congress, IRCIRCHQ,HQ, Sector-6,
Sector-6, R.K.R.K. Puram,
Puram,
Kama KotiKoti
Kama Marg, New
Marg, Delhi
New - 1100
Delhi 022.
- 1100 Printed
022. Printedby
byShri
ShriSanjay
Sanjay Kumar Nirmal on
Kumar Nirmal onbehalf
behalfofofthe
theIndian
Indian Roads
Roads Congress
Congress
at M/s
at M/s B. M. Infinity
Printing Advertising
& Writing Services
Papers Pvt.Pvt. Ltd.,
Ltd., Faridabad,
(H-37, Haryana
Sector-63, Noida), (UP)