Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Radiations

• Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing

through the earth’s atmosphere is known as
Terrestrial Radiation.

• The terrestrial radiation expressed as power received

per unit area (i.e. W/m2) is known as Solar Irradiation.

• The term Solar Insolation (incident solar radiation) is

defined as solar radiation energy received on a given
surface area in a given time (in J/m2 or kWh/m2).
Propagation of solar radiation through atmosphere
 Depletion in solar intensity
• The radiation available on earth’s surface is less
than that is received outside the earth’s
atmosphere

• Reduction in intensity depends on the

atmospheric conditions (amount of dust particles,
water vapour, ozone content, cloudiness, etc.)

• It also depends on the distance traveled by beam

radiation through atmosphere before it reaches a
location on earth’s surface.
Direction of sun’s ray with respect to atmosphere
• The path length of solar beam through the atmosphere is
accounted for in the term ‘Air Mass’ (m)

• It is defined as the ratio of the path length through the

atmosphere, which the solar beam actually traverses up to
the ground to the vertical path length (which is minimum)
through the atmosphere.

where α is inclination angle

and θZ is zenith angle
Latitude
Longitude or Meridian
• Longitudes are drawn in multiples of 15o (360/24).
Thus 15o =1 hour (or) 1o = 4 min

• They help in creating time zones

• Each country has a standard longitude with which

watch (clock) time is defined

• For India, the standard meridian is 82.5oE

longitude(passes through Orissa, Chhattisgarh,
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya
Pradesh)

• The time difference between Greenwich (0o) and

India = 82.5/15 = 5.5 hours ahead of GMT
• The zenith is an imaginary point directly "above"
a particular location, i.e. in the vertical direction.

• The opposite direction, i.e. the direction in which

gravity pulls, is toward the nadir.
 Solar Time (Local Apparent Time)
• Based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across the
sky (Vs clock time)

• Solar noon is the time the sun crosses the local meridian of
the observer

• At solar noon, the sun will be at zenith of the observer

• Movement of the sun is symmetrical about solar noon, to

an observer

• Solar Time does not coincide with the local watch time
 • Based on the longitude and standard meridian of that
country, “Time Difference” between the local time
(based on the local meridian) and standard time
(based on standard meridian) will be 4 (Lst - Lloc), in
minutes, where Lst is the standard longitude for a
country and Lloc is the local longitude.

• The sun traverses one degree of longitude in 4

minutes (as earth takes 24 hours to complete one
revolution). The standard time is converted to solar
time by incorporating two corrections, as follows:

The (+ve) sign is used if the standard meridian of the country lies in
western hemisphere (with reference to prime meridian) and (–ve) if it
lies in the eastern hemisphere.
 Equation of Time (E)
• E is the correction arising out of the variation in the
length of the solar day due to variations in earth’s
rotation and orbital revolution, and is called equation
of time.

• The solar day, which is the duration between two

consecutive solar noons, is not exactly of 24 hours
throughout the year.

• E can be determined either by calculation using

following equation (within an accuracy of half a
minute) or from the chart given in the next slide
 Equation of Time (E)
• E (min) = 9.87 sin 2B - 7.53 Cos B - 1.5 Sin B

where,
B = 360 (n-81)/364 (in degrees)
n = day of the year, starting from 1st January

• For India (east of Greenwich),

Solar time = Watch Time - 4 (Lst - Lloc) (min) + E(min)

• For America (west of Greenwich),

Solar time = Watch Time + 4 (Lst - Lloc) (min) + E(min)
The equation of time as function of day of the year
 Hour Angle (𝞈)
• Angular displacement of the sun east or west of the
local meridian due to the rotation of earth on its axis
(15 degrees per hour)
• 𝞈 is taken as +ve in the morning and –ve in the
afternoon
• 𝞈 = [12:00 – Solar Time] (in hours) × 15 deg

𝞈
 Numerical Problem
• Calculate the hour angle in Mumbai at 1:30
PM (IST) on 15th November. The longitude and
latitude of Mumbai are 72o49’ E and 18o54’N.
The standard longitude for IST is 81o 44’E.
 Solar Radiation Geometry
Latitude(Angle of Latitude): 𝞍
The latitude of a location on
earth’s surface is the angle
made by radial line, joining the
given location to the center of
the earth, with its projection on
the equator plane.

The latitude is positive for

northern hemisphere and
negative for southern
hemisphere.
 Solar Radiation Geometry
Declination: 𝝳
It is defined as the angular displacement of the sun from the
plane of earth’s equator.

It is positive when measured above equatorial plane in the

northern hemisphere.
Variations in sun’s declination
[in radians]

where n is day of the year counted from 1st Jan

 Solar Radiation Geometry
• Inclination Angle (Altitude) (α)
The angle between sun’s ray and its projection on horizontal
surface is known as inclination angle

• Zenith Angle, (θZ)

The angle between sun’s ray and perpendicular(normal) to the
horizontal plane.

• Solar Azimuth Angle (γS)

The angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south and
the projection of sun’s ray on the horizontal plane.
It is taken as +ve when measured from south towards west.
Solar inclination angle, solar azimuth angle and zenith angle
• Slope (Tilt Angle), (β)
It is the angle between inclined plane surface, under
consideration and the horizontal.
It is taken to be +ve for the surface sloping towards
south.
• Surface Azimuth Angle, (γ)
It is the angle in horizontal plane, between the line due
south (OS) and the horizontal projection of normal to
the inclined plane surface (OQ).
It is taken as +ve when measured from south towards
west.
• Angle of Incidence, (θi)
The angle between sun’s ray incident on the plane
surface (collector) and the normal to that surface.

Angle of latitude, tilt angle, angle of incidence

 • Angle of Incidence, (θi)
In general, the angle of incidence can be
expressed as,
 Numerical Problem
• Calculate the angle of incidence of beam
radiation on a plane surface, tilted by 45° from
horizontal plane and pointing 30° west of
south Calculate the hour angle located in
Mumbai at 1:30 PM (IST) on 15th November.
The longitude and latitude of Mumbai are
72o49’ E and 18o54’N. The standard longitude
for IST is 81o 44’E.
Answer θi = cos–1(0.79619) = 37.23°
 Solar Day Length
• At sunrise the sunrays are parallel to the
horizontal surface.
• Hence the angle of incidence is θi = θz = 90°,
and the corresponding hour angle, ωs - the
hour angle sunrise (or sunset) – is given by

duration of sunshine hours, td or daylight hours is given by

 Extraterrestrial Radiation on Horizontal Surface
(assuming no loss in atmosphere)

• At any point of time, the solar radiation

(power) outside the atmosphere incident on a
horizontal plane is given as
Note: θi = θz for a horizontal plane

Solar Constant (ISC), 1367 W/m2

..hourly radiation, monthly radiation, diffuse radiation, global radiation, all
calculations for inclined surfaces, etc....
Numerical problems till previous slide
 Solar Thermal Systems
• In cold climate regions, large amount of low-grade thermal energy
is required for heating air for comfort and hot water for washing,
cleaning and other domestic and industrial needs.

• Solar energy is best suited for low-grade thermal applications.

• Even in high temperature heating applications a significant

amount of fuel can be saved by using solar energy for preheating
(up to about 180 °C).

• Solar thermal energy is also being utilized in drying and process

industries.

• It can also be converted and utilized as mechanical and electrical

energy in the same way as in any conventional thermal system.
 Solar Collectors
• Solar power - low density per unit area (1 kW/sq. m. to 0.1
kW/sq. m.).

• Solar thermal collector essentially forms the first unit in a

solar thermal system.

• It absorbs solar energy as heat and then transfers it to heat

transport fluid efficiently.

• The heat transport fluid delivers this heat to thermal

storage tank / boiler / heat exchanger, etc., to be utilized in
the subsequent stages of the system
Classification of Solar Collectors
concentrating type collectors

• Solar radiation is converged from large area into

smaller area using optical means.

• Beam radiation, which has a unique direction and

travels in a straight line, can be converged by
reflection or refraction techniques.

• Main advantage of concentrating type collectors is

that high temperatures can be attained due to
concentration of radiation. This also yields high
temperature thermal energy.
 Classification of Solar Collectors
non-concentrating (flat plate) collectors

• They absorb both beam as well as diffuse radiation

• As the collector is installed outdoors and exposed to

atmospheric disturbances (rain, storm, etc.), it is more likely
to withstand harsh outdoor conditions.

• Because of simple stationary design, it requires little

maintenance.

• Main disadvantage is that because of absence of optical

concentration, the area from which heat is lost is large - high
temperatures cannot be attained.
concentrating type collector
non-concentrating (flat plate) collector
 Components of Solar FPC

• Absorber plate
• Glass cover
• Risers
• Header
• Cold water inlet & hot
water outlet
• Connector tubes
• Storage Tank
The sacrificial anode: a long metal rod, made of magnesium or
aluminum, which extends through the tank's interior.

It attracts particles of iron, limestone or other minerals present in

the water through an electrochemical process and corrodes in
place of the tank.
Components of Solar FPC
Top cover
- glass or plastic
- High transmittance for
solar radiation & low
transmittance for heat
(infra-red)

Insulation
- 50 mm thickness of mineral wool or glass
wool at back and the sides of the collector

-At least 20 mm of mineral wool or glass wool

for the storage tank

-Pipes have to be suitably insulated

Principle of Thermosiphon / Natural Circulation in Solar
FPC Water Heaters
Header & Riser pipes under the
absorber plate
Selective Coating to increase absorption of solar
energy
 Stagnation Temperature
• Stagnation temperature is the temperature of a solar
heating system during no flow conditions.

• At stagnation in a solar collector, no useful energy is taken.

This temperature is specified for a given irradiance and
ambient temperature.

• This temperature is taken into account when while selecting

the absorber material, coatings, safety valves etc.

• Especially in summers when there is less demand for hot

water and more solar energy is available, the danger of
stagnation related accidents arise.
 Stagnation Temperature
• Steam formation leading to increased pressure and
‘water hammering’.

• Water hammering is a pressure surge caused by a

rapid change in flow velocity in the pipeline. This
phenomenon is referred to as "water hammering"
because the pressure surges are frequently
accompanied by a noise that sounds as if the pipeline
were being pounded with a hammer.

• Several safety precautions need to be taken to avoid

damages to the installation and also to the humans.
Parameters affecting the performance of a
Flat Plate Collector
• Selective coating properties
• Number of transparent covers
• Spacing between cover and absorber
• Collector tilt
• Fluid inlet temperature
• Incident solar energy
• Insulation properties
• Dust on the top cover
Solar Water Heating System: Natural Circulation Vs
Forced Circulation
Evacuated Tubular Collectors
A getter is a deposit of reactive material that is placed inside a vacuum
system to complete and maintain the vacuum.

The getter removes small amounts of gas from the evacuated space. The
getter is usually a coating applied to a surface within the evacuated
chamber.

The “getter” material can adsorb or chemically react with all active gases
such as O2, H2O, CO, CO2 and N2 by a chemical reaction under vacuum .
Ex: aluminium, magnesium, calcium, sodium, strontium, caesium,
phosphorus
Possible water flow arrangements in ETC’s
Heat Pipe
based ETC
 ETC advantages over FPC
• Capture sunlight better as they have a greater surface area
exposed to the sun at any time
• Are more efficient in transferring solar heat
• Can be used in subzero temperatures
• Are durable and if a tube is broken, it can be individually replaced
• Provide excellent performance in overcast conditions and colder
climates
• Require a smaller area than comparable flat plate collectors, for a
given amount of heat production
• Do not have the same level of corrosion problems as flat plate
collectors
• Less variation of output due to angle of the sun/orientation
• Costs higher than FPC (disadvantage)