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Introduction to Sedimentology 2nd Edition S.M. Sengupta
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): S.M. Sengupta
ISBN(s): 9788123914916, 8123914911
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 27.47 MB
Language: english
 Reference Copy
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Second Edition

Supriya Mohan Sengupta D.Se., F.N.A.

Ex-Professor & Head, Deptt. of Geology & Geophysics,
Indian Institute ofTeehnology, Kharagpur

~
CBS
CBS PUBLISHERS & DISTRIBUTORS
NEW DELHI • BANGALORE (India)
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ISBN: 81-239-1491-1

Second Edition: 2007

Reprint: 2008

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 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

It is more than ten years since the first edition of Introduction to Sedimentology appeared
in print. It is gratifying to learn that students found the book useful. In the second
edition a new chapter on Structures of Chemical and Biological Origin has been added.
The discussion on carbonate sediments on shelf has been expanded and most of the
other chapters have been revised and updated.
Prof. Asru Kumar Chaudhuri (Geological Studies Unit, Indian Statistical Institute,
Kolkata) provided useful suggestions for the newly added chapter on. Structures of
Chemical and Biological Origin. Dr. Harendra Nath Bhattacharyay and Dr. Prabir
Dasgupta (Department of Geology, Presidency College, Kolkata), Dr. Sarbani
Patranabis Deb (Geological Studies Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata) provided
photographs for my use. Dr. Siddhartha Sankar Das (Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, University of Allahabad), and Dr. Rajat Mazumder (Department of Geology,
Asutosh College, Kolkata) provided useful suggestions. Dr. Saumitra Misra (lIT,
Kharagpur) assisted in copy editing and proof reading. Mr. Chinmoy Mukherjee drew
the revised and newly added text figures. Some well-known publishers permitted me
to reproduce illustrations from their publications. Their names appear in appropriate
places in the text.
Department of Ocean Engineering & Naval Architecture, lIT, Kharagpur provided
facilities for this work. Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, through the.
INSA Honorary Scientist Scheme, defrayed the cost of preparation of the manuscript.
Mis CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi took active interest in this publication.
I am gra.teful to all the individuals and institutions mentioned above.

P-45IB, Hijli Cooperative Development Supriya Mohan Sengupta

Society
Kharapgur (W.B.) 721 306
 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

Sedimentology covers only a small part of the geology curriculum in most universities.
Students of geology naturally do not find the time necessary to master comprehensive
texts in sedimentology. While gathering piecemeal information from specialized texts
they also often fail to appreciate the connections between the various aspects of the
discipline.
The purpose of this book is to present a concise account of all the major branches of
sedimentology (except chemical and biogenic structures) and to highlight the connecting
links between them. The presentation is based on my conviction that in spite of the
sophistications introduced in the current sedimentological literature, much of the subject
can still be learnt by mastering a few basic principles. Once these have been grasped, it
should not be difficult, following the references cited, to obtain specialized knowledge
on any selected topic.
. This book is expected to cater to the needs of students at various levels. The first
four chapters are written in a style suitable for the undergraduate students. The first
few sections of Chapters 7 (Tectonics and Sedimentation) and 8 (Stratigraphy and
Sedimentation) should also be preferably taught at this level. The rest of the book is
meant for those at the graduate level.
A book of this type could not have been prepared without borrowing heavily from
published sources. I am grateful to the authors and publishers who have freely permitted
me to reproduce information from their publications. Their names appear in appropriate
places in the text. Dr. Indranil Banerjee of the Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum
Geology, Calgary, Canada, critically read an earlier version of the manuscript, provided
valuable suggestions, and also made available to me a large volume of current
sedimentological literature. I am indebted to him for all his help. J have also profited
through discussions with Professor K. N aha of the Indian Instihlte of Technology
(IIT), Kharagpur who reviewed some of the chapters.
Others who provided information during preparation of the manuscript and read
earlier versions of the topics mentioned against their names include: Dr. Sibdas
Bandyopadhyay (Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta; Statistical Analysis), Dr. Abhijit
Basu (Indiana University, Bloomington, USA; Provenance), Prof. Ajit K. Bhattacharyya
(Jadavpur University, Calcutta; Depositional Environments), Prof. Amitabha
Chakrabarti (IIT, Kharagpur; Sedimentary Structures, Tidal Flats), Prof. R. L. Folk
(University of Texas, Austin, USA; Carbonate Sediments), Prof. G.M. Friedman
viii Preface to First Edition

(North-eastern SCIence Foundation, Inc, USA, SedImentary Textures) Dr SIbdas

Ghosh (GeologIcal Survey of IndIa, Calcutta), Prof Mandakmi Majumdar (lIT,
Kharagpur, Hydrauhcs), Prof. G V. MIddleton (McMaster UniverSIty, HamIlton,
Canada, History of Sedimentology), Prof. Asoke Mookherjee (nT, Kharagpur), Prof.
H Okada (Kyushu Umverstty, Japan, SII1C1clasttc Sedlmentary Rocks), Prof H. G.
Readmg (UnIversity of Oxford, Oxford, UK.), Prof K. K Roy (liT, Kharagpur;
Wirehne Logging) Prof S K. Sen (UT, Kharagpur), Dr R N. SIngh and Dr. R.
Snnlvasan (NatIonal GeophYSIcal Research InstItute, Hyderabad; TectOnICs and
SedImentatIon) Prof. A. Sundborg (Uppsala Umversity, Uppsala, Sweden; HydraulIcs
and Sediment TransportatIOn) Profs. A ChakrabartI, C. N Rao and D. P. Sen of lIT,
Kharagpur, and Dr D K. Saha of lSI, Calcutta allowed me to use thm sectIons and
photographs from thea unpublished collectIOns. Dr. B Mishra helped m
photomIcrography Drs Abha Chatterjee and B P. Sandilya provided translatIons for
the French and German terms respectIvely I am grateful to all those mentioned above.
The contents of thIS book are based on the courses gIven by me at vanous levels
at lIT, Kharagpur. I recall WIth appreCIatIOn the comments and suggestions received
from my students from time to tIme Some of my M. Tech Students, partIcularly,
Asesh Kumar Majl aSSIsted In copy edItmg, Indexmg and computational work at
dIfferent stages My WIfe Ila (Sujata) took care of my mundane problems thereby
leavmg me free to work on the manuscnpt
A large part of the cost of preparatIOn of the manuscnpt was defrayed by the
CUrrIculum Development Cell of lIT, Kharagpur under the Quality Improvement
Programme (QIP) It IS a pleasure to acknowledge the help and co-operation received
from Prof G L. Datta and the QIP staff at varIOUS stages of preparation of the
manuscnpt Mr Subrata Gin typed the final verSIon of the manuscript. Mr. Tapan
Sarkar drew most of the text figures Mr. S Ghosh proVIded photocopies of the halftone
IllustratlOns. But for; the persuaSlOn and Interest of the staff of MI s Oxford & IBH
PublIshmg Co Pvt Ltd, thIS work would not have been undertaken. I thank all of
them

Department of Geology & Supriya Sengupta

GeophYSICS
lIT, Kharagpur
 CONTENTS

Preface to Second Edition ., ..................................................................................... v

Preface to First Edition .... ..................................................................................... vii

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1
Scope of Sedimentology ................................................................................ 1
History of Development ................................................................................ 1
The Early History ..................................................................................... 1
Developments Since Late 19th Century ...................................................... 3
Recent Trends in Sedimentology ............................................................... 5
Literature on Sedimentology ......................................................................... 5

2. PROCESSES OF SEDIMENTATION .............................................. 8

Surface Processes and Rock Weathering ........................ , ............................... 8
Mineral Stability .................................................................................... ..... 10
Source of Sediments .................................................................................... 13
Quartz and Feldspar as Provenance Indicators ......................................... 14
Heavy Minerals as Provenance Indicator ................................................. 16

3. SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGy .................................................... 17

Rocks of Mechanical Origin ........................................................................ 18
Rudaceous Sedimentary Rocks (Conglomerates and Breccias) ................. 18
Arenaceous Sedimentary Rocks .............................................................. 19
Classification of Sandstones ................................................................ 21
Description of Sandstones ................................................................... 23
Chemical Composition of Sandstones ................................................. 28
Lutaceous (Argillaceous) Sedimentary Rocks .......................................... 30
Rocks of Chemical and Biochemical Origin ................................................. 33
Carbonates ............................................................................................. 33
Chemical Sediments Other than Carbonates ............................................ 46
ix
x Contents

Volcaniclastic Rocks ................................................ '" ................................ 52

Diagenesis ................................................................................................... 53
Diagenesis of Siliceous Sediments ........................................................... 54
Diagenesis of Carbonates ....................................................................... 56
Appendix: Techniques of Sedimentary Petrography .................................... 59

4. SEDIMENTARY TEXTURE ......................................................... 61

Grain-Size ................................................................................................... 61
Concept of Particle Size .......................................................................... 61
Grain-Size Measurement ......................................................................... 62
Analysis and Interpretation of Grain-Size Data ....................................... 67
Roundness and Shape ................................................................................. 71
Roundness .............................................................................................. 72
Shape ..................................................................................................... 76
Grain-to-Grain Relationship ........................................................................ 79
Packing .......................................................................................... '"'''''' 79
Porosity .................................................................................................. 80
Permeability ............................................................................................ 81
Appendix: Techniques of Granulometric Analysis ....................................... 82

5. HYDRAULICS, SEDIMENT TRANSPORTATION AND

STRUCTURES OF MECHANICAL ORIGIN .................................. 88
Hydraulics of Open Channel Flows ........................................ '''' ................. 88
Physical States of Flow ........................................................................... 88
Structures of Turbulent Flow ................................................................... 90
Sediment Transportation ............................................................................. 91
Sediment Transportation by Water and Wind .......................................... 95
Bed Configuration During Sediment Transportation .................................... 99
Structures Related to Current Ripples .................................................... 106
Structures Related to Wave Ripples ....................................................... 113
Structures Related to Flat Beds .............................................................. 117
'Deformed Beddings .. , ............................................................................... 124

6. STRUCTURES OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL ORIGIN ........ 128

Structures of Chemical Origin ................................................................... 128
Concretions and Nodules ...................................................................... 128
Products of Pressure Solution: Stylolites ................................................ 130
Occurrence and Implications of Structures of Chemical Origin .............. 131
Biogenic Sedimentary Structures ............................................................... 133
Stromatolites ........................................................................................ 133
Trace Fossils ......................................................................................... 140
 Contents xi

7. SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS AND FACIES ........................ 147

Introduction: Facies Modelling .................................................................. 147
Marine Environments ............................................................................... 147
Continental Shelf .................................................................................. 147
Continental Slope ................................................................................. ISS
Continental Rise and Deep-sea Fans ..................................................... 155
Abyssal Plain Deposits .......................................................................... 159
Marine Sediments in Stratigraphic Record ............................................ 160
Non-Marin Environments .......................................................................... 164
Glacial Environment ............................................................................. 164
Eolian Environment .............................................................................. 168
Lacustrine Environment ........................................................................ 174
Fluvial Environment ............................................................................. 178
Mixed Environments ................................................................................. 190
Barrier Island and Beach Facies ............................................................. 190
Stratigraphic Sequences in Mixed Environments ............................... 194
Tidal Flat Facies ................................................................................... 194
Siliciclastic Tidal Flat ........................................................................ 195
Carbonate Tidal Flat ......................................................................... 197
Stratigraphic Sequences in Carbonate Tidal Flats .............................. 198
Deltaic Environment ............................................................................. 200

8. TECTONICS AND SEDIJ'vIENTATION ........................................ 207

Sedimentary Basins ................................................................................... 207
Geosynclinal Concept ............................................................................... 207
Plate Tectonics Concept ............................................................................ 213
Plate Movements and Basin Formation ..................................................... 215
Basins in Extensional Setting ................................................................ 215
Basins in Compressional Setting ............................................................ 218
Basins in Strike-slip and Transform Fault Zones .................................... 219
Tectonic Control of Sandstone Composition .............................................. 21 9
Basin Classification and Description .......................................................... 22 3
Downwarp Basins ................................................................................. 223
Rift Basins ............................................................................................ 227
Interior Basins ...................................................................................... 231
Foreland Basins .................................................................................... 234
Subduction Basins ................................................................................ 236
Pull-apart Basins ................................................................................... 236
Delta Type Basins ................................................................................. 239
Composite Basins with Multiple History ............................................... 240
xii Contents

9. STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATlON ................................. 245

Classical Concepts in Stratigraphy ............................................................. 245
Estimation of Geologic Time ................................................................ 245
Dual Hierarchy in Stratigraphy ............................................................. 246
Relationship Between Sedimentary Units .................................................. 248
Vertical and Lateral Relationships ......................................................... 248
Cyclicity ............................................................................................. ,. 256
Correlation ........................................................................................... 259
Sequence Stratigraphy ............................................................................... 267
History ................................................................................................. 267
Basic Concepts ...................................................................................... 269
Terminology ......................................................................................... 271
Depositional Sequences ........................................................................ 271
Application of Sequence Stratigraphy .................................................... 277

10. BASIN ANALYSIS: A SYNTHESIS .............................................. 279

Introduction .............................................................................................. 279
Basin and its Lithic Fill ............................................................................. 281
Mapping, Petrography & Sedimentary Structures .................................. 281
Palaeo slope and Palaeocurrent .............................................................. 282
Depositional Environment ............................................................... " ... 291
Palaeohydraluic Interpretations in Fluvial Channels .............................. 294
Diagenesis and Maturation ................................................................... 297
Sediment Chemistry .............................................................................. 298
Basin Evolution and Tectonics .............................................................. 298
Appendix: Techniques of Palaeocurrent Aoalysis ...................................... 301

References .................................................................................................................. 307

Subject Index ............................ ........................................................................... 329
 1

INTRODUCTION

SCOPE OF SEDIMENTOLOGY
Sedimentology deals with the processes and products of sedimentation. Sediments are
produced either by disintegration and alteration of pre-existing rocks or by precipitation
from solution. The particles ejected out of volcanoes and the dust particles of cosmic
origin also add to the sediment mass of the earth in a limited way. Sediments are
transported by running water, wind or moving ice to various depositional environments.
The process of sediment transportation is often accompanied by the production of
rhythmic bed forms or more complex structures which, when well preserved, provide
clues to the palaeoenvironment and palaeocurrent.
Sediments produced out of mechanical or chemical processes are consolidated into
sedimentary rocks by the pressure of overburden, recrystallization and cementation.
Textures of sedimentary rocks bear the imprint of the nature of the changes ( diagenesis)
undergone during consolidation of sediments into sedimentary rocks. The whole process
of rock decay, sediment transportation, deposition, precipitation and diagenesis takes
place at or near the surface of the earth at normal pressure-temperature lionditions
(Fig. 1.1). This distinguishes the sedimentary processes from the igneous and
metamorphic processes where a higher order of temperature and pressure is involved.
Sedimentary rocks cover wide areas of the earth's surface although they account for
only about 5% of the crustal volume. Thus they form only a thin veneer on the outermost
part of the earth's surface. The average thickness of the sediment cover on the continental
crust is about 2 km but in the ocean basin only about 1 km.
Sediments laid down in layers within depressions (basins) in the earth's crust are
preserved to constitute a stratigraphic record. The ultimate aim of a sedimentological
study is to unravel the chain of events responsible for production of particular
stratigraphic sequences.

HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT
The Early History
The pioneers responsible for laying the foundation of sedimentology were not geologists
by profession. The basic principles of stratigraphy and sedimentation developed out of
studies by naturalists belonging to different disciplines. In the mid-17th century, a
Danish physician-cum-clergyman, Nicolaus Steno (1638 - 1687), noticed that layers
1
2 Introduction to Sedimentology

of sediments are always laid down in water in a sequence in which the oldest one lies at
the bottom and the youngest one on top. This observation led to the formulation of a
very fundamental rule known as the Law of Superposition. Steno's second law, called the
Law of Original Horizontality, states that the primary bedding of the layers of sediments
laid down in water always parallels the surface of the earth. His third law, the Law of
Original Continuity, states that all water-laid strata, must continue laterally. A corollary
to this law, which came to be recognized by the eighteenth century, states that a
truncation of an original sedimentary layer implies removal of the original sediments,
either by erosion or due to faulting.
1st Cycle
sediments Diagenes'
~---: IS
Igneous/ & Uplift
Metamorphic
Source
Normal
PoT

Metamorphic
rock ----?1A

Greater than
normal P-T

Fig. 1.1: Modern version of the fundamental rock cycle conceived by James Hutton nearly
200 years ago (based on Siever 1983).

These laws, which for centuries provided the basis for geological mapping and
stratigraphic correlation, no doubt have their limitations. For example, ripple migration
on a sediment bed may cause the original layers to be deposited at an angle to the
horizontal plane. Similarly, variations in depositional condition at the time of
sedimentation (facies change) can interrupt the lateral continuity of sediment layers.
Surprisingly, Steno's fundamental laws did not find practical application for nearly
a century. Johann Gottlob Lehmann is believed to be one of the flrst to have applied
the Law of Superposition to large-scale geological mapping in parts of Germany in the
mid-18th Century. In 1815, a British civil engineer, William Smith (1769-1839),
produced the fust stratigraphic section from the records maintained at the construction
site. His field studies also led to the production of the fIrst geological map of Britain.
In 1785, James Hutton (1726-1797), a Scottish physician, recognized the cycle of
weathering, erosion and transportation by running water (see Fig. 1.1). He also observed
 Introduction 3

that after consolidation the sediments laid down in the sea produce stratified deposits.
According to many, Hutton's appreciation of the immensity of geological time and his
rejection of supernaturalism in providing explanations for geological phenomena
marked the beginning of rational thinking in geology. Hutton's ideas were publicised
during his lifetime by his friend, John Playfair, and nearly half a century later, by
Charles Lyell (1797 - 1875). Lyell, who expanded and modified the Huttonian thesis,
was quick to recognise that the changes that have taken place in the geological past can
be explained by the processes that are taking place today. In other words, the laws of
nature guiding the earth processes have remained invariant, although the earth itself
has changed with time. This concept of uniformity in the earth processes came to be
known as the Principle of Un ifonn itarian ism.
With time, many corollaries of uniformitarianism like 'the present is a key to the
past' (a phrase coined by Geikie in 1882), developed from the original Huttonian-
Lyellian percept. Some of these, such as 'the rates of the earth processes have remained
constant', or that uniformitarianism should be called 'actualism' because it refers to
actual or real events, have been challenged by later workers on the ground that they
are fallacious. In spite of these criticisms it must be remembered that the Huttonian-
Lyellian concept has been the basis for most of our geological thinking. Many of the so
called fallacious concepts developed from the beliefs of later workers and can hardly
be traced to the original writings of James Hutton or Charles Lyell.
James Hutton was dedicated to the 'volcanist' idea that the internal heat of the earth
is wholly responsible for the earth processes. This was in marked contrast to the
'Neptunist' concept, patronized by Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749 - 1817), that all
rocks except recent volcanic lavas are produced from chemical or mechanical deposits
in a universal ocean. So profound was the influence of the latter school on contemporary
geologists that the idea of lateral change in depositional events (facies change), introduced
by Gressly in 1833, did not find easy acceptance either in Europe or in North America
for a long time. Geologists were still under the spell of the Neptunist belief that all rock
layers initially laid down in a universal ocean, must also be continuous, without change.
An important event in mid-19th century was the observation by James Hall in the
Appalachian mountains of North America that the thickest sediments accumulate in
long, linear belts of subsidence in the earth's crust. This observation eventually led to
the formulation of the concept of geosyncline, a model that dominated the
sedimentological world for nearly a century.

Developments Since Late 19th Century

The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed rapid developments. Studies
by pioneers such as Henry Clifton Sorby (1826 - 1908) in England led to the foundation
of sedimentology as we know it today. Sorby was not only interested in the study of
sedimentary structures and their implications, but was also one of the first to make
extensive use of the petrographic microscope in the study of sedimentary rocks. He
produced two classical volumes on sedimentary petrography and also a monograph
on cheritified limestones. A few years later, another important study on lithogenesis,
by Johannes Walther, appeared in Germany. Walther also formulated the Law of Facies
Succession, which still bears his name (see Chapter 9).
4 Introduction to Sedimentology

The first half of the twentieth century witnessed the initiation of specialised studies
in many different branches of sedimentology. Systematic studies on the processes of
sedimentation and their bearing on stratigraphy were initiated in North America by
Grabau, Barrell and Schuchert. Studies by W.M. Davis (1850 - 1934) and G.K. Gilbert
(1843 - 1918) and later by Twenhofe1 (1875 - 1957), established a close link between
surface processes of the earth, sedimentation and stratigraphy. This marked the
beginning of the use of the present as a key to the past. In 1944 sedimentologists'
interests in modern sediments were revived with the publication of studies on the
Mississippi delta by H.N. Fisk and his associates. Classical studies on modern eolian
deposits (Bagnold 1941; McKee 1979), modern fluvial deposits (Hjulstrom 1935;
Sundborg 1956; Leopold, Wolman and Miller 1964), and modern tidal sediments
(Reineck since 1952, see Reineck and Singh, 1980; van Straaten 1954, 1954a; Ginsberg
1975) have been emulated by sedimentologists throughout the world for nearly half a
century now (see Chapter 7).
Petrographic studies initiated by Sorby in England and Walther in Germany were
continued, among others, by Grabau, Krynine and their students in North America
(Chapter 3). The basic ideas on textural parameters of sediments were formulated during
the first three decades of the present century (Udden 1914; Wentworth 1922; Wadell
1932, 1935; Zingg 1935; see Chapter 4). This was also the time when many of the
procedures for sedimentological analyses were standardised.
The trend of laboratory simulation of sedimentary processes, initiated in France by
Daubree around 1870, was revived by G.K. Gilbert (1914) in North America. Since
that time many of the hydraulic laboratories engaged in experimental studies on
sedimentary processes have contributed greatly to our understanding of the basic
processes involved in sedimentation. That such studies can be of importance to the
perception of many fundamental geological problems was demonstrated in the
Netherlands by Kuenen and Migliorini (1950). This was followed by many more
contributions to experimental sedimentology throughout the world (see Chapter 5).
Vant Hoff's experiments on marine carbonates in the early years of this century and
Correns' experimental studies around 1920 in Germany, marked the beginning of
sedimentary geochemistry. This field of study is presently actively pursued, particularly
in North America (see Kiumbein and Garrels 1952; Garrels and MacKenzie 1971).
A major event of the present century was the revival of interest in palaeocurrent
research, initiated in the nineteenth century in England by He. Sorby. Palaeocurrent
studies by Brinkmann and also by Cloos in Germany around 1930 were rejuvenated in
North America (see Pettijohn 1962), to be followed by development of many
sophisticated techniques in palaeocurrent research (see Chapter 10).
The studies on tectonics and sedimentation, initiated in North America by James
Hall around 1850, were pursued by Shvetsov in Russia, Bertrand in France and many
others throughout the continent. Oceanographic expeditions, mainly by the Dutch
sedimentologists and geophysicists in the East Indies provided valuable input for
refinement of the geosynclinal model - ideas which were pursued and elaborated in
North America (see Kay 1951). These ideas, together with the classical facies concept,
which found aceeptanee in North America around 1930 and the petrographic studies
initiated by Kiynine 1948, provided the background for much of what was achieved
during the first half of the twentieth century.
 Introduction 5

Recent Trends in Sedimentology

Developments until about the first half of the 20th century were mainly the outcome
of individual efforts. The end of the Second World War saw a major change in this
trend. Large-scale oceanographic expeditions by the major nations in the post-war
period, development and deployment of submersibles, deep-toe equipment, side-scan
sonar and undersea TV camera in subsea exploration, large-scale drilling operations at
sea and refinement of core recovery techniques since 1950, have provided information,
which was heretofore unobtainable. Much of what is known today about the silici-
clastic and carbonate deposits of shallow seas has been revealed by these explorations.
Discovery of giant petroleum reserves in carbonate rocks provided impetus for the
study of carbonate petrography and carbonate depositional environments. Intensive
research on carbonates, initiated by the major oil companies, led to the discovery of
what is known today about carbonate petrography and facies. An equally intensive
investigation of the present day carbonate depositional environments in. the Bahamas,
Florida and the Persian Gulf also took place.
Exploration for petroleum opened up new dimensions in organic geochemistry also.
Techniques were developed for working out the maturation and thermal history of
sedimentary basins. Deployment of sophisticated equipment such as X-ray diffraction
(XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron probe
micro analysis (EPMA), cathodo-luminescence (CL) made investigation of fine-grained
sediments and sedimentary rocks with a high degree of precision possible. Isotope
studies (both stable and radio isotopes) provided clues to environmental interpretation.
Application of mathematical and statistical techniques led to the investigation of subtle
interdependence between lithological units and chemical constituents within
stratigraphic sequences.
The ideas developed during the last few decades have been revolutionary in many
ways. Information available from hundreds of thousands of boreholes drilled in search
of hydrocarbon has diverted the attention of sedimento1ogists to the subsurface.
Techniques have been developed for recognition of sedimentary facies from well logs,
cores and well cuttings. Developments in the field of trace fossil study (ichnology) now
allow interpretation of depositional environment from information which, until recently,
was considered insufficient (see Chapter 6). The current emphasis is on facies modeling
from both surface and subsurface data. Developments in the field of seismic exploration
have introduced concepts such as seismic and sequence stratigraphy (see Chapter 9). New
concepts such as allostratigraphy and autostratigraphy have also been introduced.
Simultaneously, the traditional ideas on basin development are being modified from
the point of view of plate tectonics.

Source
Albritton 1963 ; Dunbar and Rodgers 1957 ; Gilluly, Waters and Woodford 1975;
Hubbert 1967; Mather and Mason 1939; Mclntyre 1963; Miall 1978; Middleton 1973,
1978; Nelson 1985; Shea 1982; Zenger 1986.

LITERATURE ON SEDIMENTOLOGY
In the early part of the 20th century there were hardly any text and reference books on
sedimentology available. Since 1950 the figure has been increasing almost exponentially.
6 Introduction to Sedimentology

Table I. I lists the more important text and reference books on sedimentology under
three heads: I) those dealing with general aspects of sedimentary processes and products,
2) those dealing with specialised sedimentological topics, and 3) those dealing with
methodology for sedimentological research. All the texts mentioned in this table are
written in English. Needless to say, many other well-written texts on sedimentology
exist, particularly in the various European languages.
Table 1.1: Important text and reference works on sedimentology

1910
Hatch & Rastall (1913)
1920
Milner (1922) Twenhofel (1928)
1930
Twenhofel (1932)
Krumbein &
Pettijohn (1938) 1940
Shrock (1948)
Pettijohn, 1st ed. (1949)
Kuenen (1950) Twenhofel (1950) 1950
Krumbein & Sloss, 1st ed. (1951)
Dunbar & Rodgers (1957)
Pettijohn, 2nd ed. (1957)
Carozzi (1960) 1960
Milner, 2 vols. (1962)
Potter & Pettijohn, Krumbein & Sloss, 2nd ed. (1963)
1st ed. (1963) Griffiths (1967)
Folk (1968)
Bouma (1969)
Kukal (1970) 1970

Garrels & MacKenzie (1971) Carver (1971) Blatt, Middletion &

Pettijohn, Potter & Siever (1973), Murray (1972)
Milliman (1974) Reineck & Singh 1st ed. (1973)
Bathurst (1975), Wilson (1975) Pettijohn, 3rd ed. (1975)
Potter & Pettijohn, 2nd ed. (1977) Selley (1976)
Reading, pt ed. (1978) Friedman & Sanders (1978)
Walker, 1st ed. ( 1978) Reineck & Singh 2nd ed. (1980) 1980
Miall (1984) Galloway & Hobday (1983)
Walker, 2nd ed. (1984)
Reading, 2 nd ed. (1986) Lindholm (1987)
Shannon & Naylor (1989)
Miall, 2nd ed. (1989) 1990
Tucker el at. (1990) McLane (1995)
Syvitski (1991) Leeder (1999)
Reading, yd ed. 1996 Nichols (1999)

Texts on specialized Texts on Texts on general aspects of sedimentary

sedimentological topics sedimentological processes and products
techniques
 Introduction 7

The results of current research on sedimentological topics are available in periodicals.

Of these, the following three, published in the English language, are devoted wholly to
sedimentology: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology (now called Journal of Sedimentary
Research) published since 1931 by the Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists (renamed in 1989 as the SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology), Tulsa,
Oklahoma, USA; Sedimentology, the Journal of the International Association of
Sedimentologists (LA.S.), published since 1962, and Sedimentary Geology (published
since 1967 by Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam). These three journals together
publish more than 200 large research papers on sedimentological topics annually.
Sedimentological research papers are also regularly published by many other
geological journals. Notable among them, in the English language, are Bulletin of the
American Association of Petroleum Geologists (A.A.P.G.), Bulletin of the Geological
Society of America, Marine Geology (Elsevier, Amsterdam), Journal of Geology
(Chicago), Geological Journal (Wiley), Lithos (Oslo), Journal of Petroleum Science
and Engineering (Elsevier), Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
(Elsevier), Basin Research (Blackwell), Canadian Journal of Earth Science (Ottawa)
and Geology Today (Blackwell). Several memoirs, special publications, short course
notes, reprint series of A.A.P'G., S.E.P.M., and I.A.S. and the Developments in
Sedimentology Series of Elsevier are devoted wholly to sedimentological topics. The
Lecture Notes Series (Springer) are also often of interest to sedimentologists.
Except for the publications of the Indian Association of Sedimentologists there is
no Indian journal devoted wholly to sedimentology. All the Indian geological journals,
however, frequently publish articles on sedimentology. Notable among them are: Indian
Journal of Geology (formerly, Quarterly Journal of the Geological, Mining and
Metallurgical Society of India) published from Kolkata (Calcutta) for over 70 years;
Journal of the Geological Society of India (published from Bangalore since 1960) and
Indian Journal of Earth Sciences (pubJIlshed since 1974 from Kolkata).
 2

PROCESSES OF SEDIMENTATION

SURFACE PROCESSES AND ROCK WEATHERING

Sedimentary processes are largely controlled by just two agencies, water and wind.
Thus the hydrological and wind cycles play very important roles in sedimentation.
The hydrological cycle is schematically represented in Fig. 2.1.
About two-thirds of the precipitation that takes place on land finds its way back to
the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration. The rest flows back to the sea
mostly as surface run-off through streams and partly as ground water. The actual amount
of water involved in the different phases of movement varies from place to place,
depending on local geography and climate but by and large a balance in the water
budget is maintained.
Snow
I, I I
.' ,//,/ "'-:QL~,,""',""'(7)~ ct::z, , ( 0 Cit,.-"il Ci u " (Z) Clouds
II
I
t t
Evaporation &
Transpiration

Land 1i !!

Fig. 2.1: Schematic representation of the hydrological cycle. The balance between evaporation
and precipitation in an ideal tropical region is indicated by arrows.

Water is also responsible to a large extent for weathering and decomposition of pre-
existing igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The actual amount of sediment
yield depends not only on precipitation, but also on surface conditions, types of rocks
exposed and density of vegetation cover. Rock weathering can take place by mechanical,
chemical and biological actions. Freezing of water percolating into fractures andjoints
of rock bodies causes expansion and disintegration in cold climate (frost heaving),
because water expands when it freezes. Joints within rock bodies allowing free access
of water play important role in this context. Alternate heating and cooling during day
B
 Processes of Sedimentation 9

and night, and growth of plant roots may also cause physical movement of the joint
blocks.
Earthquakes, the heat of lightning and the impact between large bodies of displaced
rock masses are some of the other causes of mechanical disaggregation. In drier climate,
crystallization of soluble salts within cracks and fissures can disrupt rock bodies.
Mechanical abrasion and deflation are important erosive processes in deserts.
Much of the actual disintegration of rocks takes place by chemical weathering. The
process is particularly effective in tropical, humid climate where rainy seasons follow
the summer months. Dissolved carbon dioxide ionizes rain-water into carbonic acid.
Rain-water therefore, is generally acidic, with the pH ranging between 4 and '7. Lightning
discharges and industrial contamination, particularly sulphurous gases, also produce
some acids although in small quantities. The acidic water can take much of the natural
carbonate into solution. Humus in the soil also makes natural limestones unstable.
Oxidation of organic material in soils also releases CO 2, thereby producing an acidic
microenvironment with a pH as low as 2.
Chemical weathering of silicate minerals is a much more complex process. In
carbonated water, feldspars break down into clay minerals, silicic acid and carbonates
(Holmes and Holmes 1978) :
6H 20 + CO 2 + 2KAISiP8 = AI 2Si 20s(OH)4 + 4SiO(OH)2 + K 2C0 3
orthoclase kaolinite silicic' acid'
Similarly, albite also produces kaolinite:
2NaAISi3 0 g + 2C0 2 + IlH 20 = AI 2Si20s(OH)4 + 2Na + 2HC0 3 + 4H 4Si04
albite kaolinite silicic acid
Kaolinite, in fact, is often the first mineral to form as a product of chemical
weathering. Depending on the chemical composition of the source rock being
weathered, clay minerals such as smectite, illite, chlorite, and other oxides and hydrates
may be produced. Pyrophyllite may be produced by breaking down of plagioclase.
Much of the soda generated by the process of chemical weathering is transported to
the sea by running water, but potash remains in the soil to be absorbed later either by
plant roots or by clay minerals. The average dissolved silica content of the world's
rivers is about 13 ppm. Much of this silica possibly comes from feldspar rather than
quartz. Solubility of silica increases with an increase in temperature and alkalinity of
the medium. With a decrease in temperature and alkalinity, much of the dissolved
silica precipitates in the intergranular space of sediments to provide bondage between
the grains.
The trend of decomposition of the ferromagnesian minerals can be illustrated by
the following example:
H2 0 + CO 2+ Ca(Mg.Fe) (Si0 3}z ~ 2SiO(OH)2 + soluble bicarbonates of Ca, Mg, Fe
diopside silicic' acid'
Similarly, chemical decomposition of biotite, hornblende and augite leads to the
formation of clay and chloritic minerals. Bicarbonate of iron Fe(HC0 3)2 is converted
to limonite Fe 20 3 .H 20 in the ground-water zone on coming into contact with
oxygenated water (see Fig. 2.2A). Ferrous iron released from minerals during weathering
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 Chapter III
FRETWORK AND WOOD-TURNING

Nearly every boy has had, at one time or another, a desire to

make scroll-brackets, fretwork-boxes, and filigree wood-work of
various sorts. The art is naturally affiliated with other decorative
processes in wood-working, such as wood-turning, carving, and
marquetry, or the art of inlaying woods. Both fretwork and wood-
turning are very old crafts, and were practised by the ancient
Egyptians, specimens of their work being still extant.
A great deal of amusement and pleasure may be had in the
possession of a scroll-saw, or “bracket machine,” as it was
commonly known among boys some years ago. And first, as to the
implements required.

The Tools

To those who can go to the dealer and pay for just what their fancy
dictates, there is no trouble to procure all the tools that may be
needed for the finest work; but others who cannot afford this luxury
may get along nicely with a very small outlay. In fact, in nearly every
instance known to the writer where the amateur has really rigged up
his own machine, he has become master of the art sooner. A
number of years ago the writer, then a school-boy, transformed an
old sewing-machine table into a scroll-saw and lathe, and to-day this
homely old stand and crudely put together machine does as good
work, with as little effort, as the finest and most expensive outfit. This
machine, all complete, with the drilling attachment, cost: old
machine, one dollar; dozen saws, assorted, twenty-five cents; new
material, rivets, etc., sixty-five cents; drills (still in use), fifteen cents;
total, two dollars and five cents.
This money was saved from building fires and taking up ashes,
and the first time the saw was run—one cold, stormy day in late
November—there was cut up material which, when put together and
sold (playmates and school-fellows being the customers), amounted
to over three dollars in cash, besides a few pocket-knives, bits of
rare wood, and the like that were taken in exchange.
Making a fine scroll-saw from a sewing-machine is of itself an easy
matter. The balance-wheels should be retained, in order that all back
lash can be easily overcome. The two arms holding the saw are to
be geared from some wheel in the rear or connected with a belt. If
the wrist-pin (the crank, or pitman wrist) gives too long a motion, it
can be easily taken up by either drilling another hole nearer the
centre or using a bent crank-pin. In any event the cut should not be
over one inch.
Another method of shortening the stroke (and a very good one if
the means of making the other changes are not at hand) is by
changing the bearing of the arm. The nearer the saw the shorter the
stroke. The clamp-screws holding the saws should be adjustable, so
that either a long or a short saw-blade may be used. Those who
break their blades (and there are none who do not) will find great
economy in using adjustable clamps, as the short pieces can be
used for sawing thin stuff, veneers, and the like. The best kind of
clamp is provided with a slit to receive the blade and a set-screw for
tightening.
The tools necessary for hand-sawing are very simple and
inexpensive, consisting of a wooden saw-frame, one dollar; dozen
saw-blades, twenty cents; one clamp-screw, twenty-five cents; drill
and stock, fifty cents; total, one dollar and ninety-five cents.
In selecting saw-blades be careful to buy only those with sharp
and regular-cut teeth. Saws are graded by number for hand-sawing.
Numbers 0 and 1 are the best sizes, unless for very delicate work,
when finer ones should be used. The larger blades have coarse
teeth, which are liable to catch in the work and tear it. Since, at the
best, the motion of the hand-saw is jerky, not nearly so nice work can
be done as with the treadle-saw, which has an even, steady gait.
For all open-work it is necessary to have something to punch
holes, so that a start may be made on the inside. Many use an
ordinary brad-awl, but this is liable to split the wood. Besides, it is not
possible to punch a hole so smooth and nice as it can be drilled or
bored; hence, a drill is included in the list, and it will be found a very
handy tool for either hand or treadle saws. The most serviceable
article of this kind is the small German drill-stock, that can be bought
with six drill-points, assorted sizes, for fifty cents, or the small hand-
drills, with side wheel and handle, and provided with a small chuck to
clutch the drill.
From what I have said, it should not be inferred that any objections
are made to any of the beautiful little machines now to be bought at
moderate cost. By all means, when the expense can be afforded,
these should be used. The good ones will do the most delicate work,
can be run with great ease, and will cut from eight to twenty pieces
at a time, according to the thickness of the wood, leaving the edges
of the work perfectly smooth. In using treadle-machines, insert the
saw-blades with the teeth pointing downward and towards the front
of the machine, and guide the wood easily with the fingers, with the
wrists resting firmly on the table, being careful not to feed too fast or
crowd against the saw sideways. Otherwise the blades will be
heated and broken, and they will wear away the little wooden button
set at the centre of the plate to prevent the saw from touching the
metal work-table.

The Practice of the Art

Most boys know how to run a scroll-saw, or think they do, yet a
few practical hints should not come amiss.
To begin with, the machine should be well oiled, all nuts, screws,
and bolts turned up tight, and the belts adjusted at sufficient tension
to run at a high rate of speed without slipping. Many machines, even
in large mills, are groaning and filing out their journals and bearings
simply because the belts are too tight. One of the first principles to
be mastered in applied mechanics is that of power transmission, and
right here the young workman has the best of opportunities to solve,
in a measure, a great mechanical problem—namely, a belt tight
enough to drive the machine and do the work, and loose enough to
run easy and cause no unnecessary friction or wear on the journals
and boxings.
For your first practice take some cigar-box wood (of which a good
stock should be kept), and trace upon the dark sides a series of
angles and curved lines. Never, under any circumstances, begin
sawing without a tracing, or a pattern of some kind, to saw to, for
now is the time to cultivate habits of accuracy. With no design or
objective-point, nothing but a bit of useless board will result; besides,
you will form a habit of working without a guide, a habit that has
made more poor artisans than the love of idleness and bad
company. Lay the wood on the rest, or plate, and see that it lies
solidly. If it shakes, the wood is uneven and should be straightened,
for no one can saw a warped board and make accurate work;
besides, it is impossible to work in such wood without breaking the
saws. The wood being level, hold it down with the left hand, fasten
securely a No. 1 blade in the frame, and begin sawing, being careful
to keep the motion very high and feeding slowly, sawing out the
tracing lines, or keeping close to one side of them. If an ordinary
hand-frame is used, work it firmly in one direction, keeping the blade
perpendicular, and turning the wood so that the saw may follow the
pattern.
After you have thoroughly learned the motion of the machine, the
cutting of the saw, feeding, etc., try sawing a straight line, being
careful not to push or crowd the blade sideways, as this will not only
make the lines crooked, but will heat and ruin the blades, if it does
not break them. When you have become an adept in following a
straight line, and cutting the lines of a curve accurately, mark out
several Vs and squares. To saw a V begin at the upper end and saw
down to the point; now back the saw out, and saw from the other end
down to the same point. If the line is carefully followed, this will
insure a sharp, clean-cut angle. To cut out a square hole, saw down
to the angle, then work the blade up and down in one place rapidly
until it becomes loose; then turn the wood at right angles and saw
carefully along the line to the other corner, when the operation may
be repeated. Just as soon as you can saw straight and curved lines
true to tracings, it is safe to begin good work with little if any fear of
spoiling lumber or breaking an undue number of saws.

The Preparation of the Work

One of the simplest objects for a beginner to try his skill upon is a
wall-bracket such as shown in Fig. 1. A piece of cedar—the bottom
and lid of a cigar-box will answer the purpose excellently—from
seven to eight inches in length by six and a half in width is a
convenient size. The shelf is a semicircular piece either plain or
scalloped in front, and its support must be of light, open, but strong
design to match one-half of the lower design to the wall-plate.
Hinges are sometimes placed to all parts in order to make it easy to
pack the bracket. But such additions can only be made by the expert
craftsman.
The first thing to be done is to trace the design on a thin piece of
paper after it has been drawn roughly on a smooth sheet of brown
paper. When the tracing is complete, lay it face downward, and cover
it with powdered red chalk. The tracing is then imposed on the wood,
with the red side downward. With a blunt bodkin or lead-pencil we
now draw firmly along the lines, thus reproducing the tracing on the
surface of the wood. Having accomplished this, we remove the
paper, and with pen and ink make a complete drawing of the outlined
design on the wood.
In designing fretwork great care must be taken to get the two sides
of the pattern alike and in correct drawing. This can best be done by
drawing the design on tracing-paper, and doubling it over when, with
a little extra pressure of the pencil, a good design can be obtained
on both sides of the paper.
When this has been accomplished pierce the wood at various
points with a drill. The holes thus made are to allow the saw to enter.
The wood may now be put in the clamp. Then with a moderately
strong saw the young beginner can make his first attempt. The frame
must be held perfectly straight and the arm worked steadily up and
down.
 Turning the saw is always a difficult point with amateurs, but in
reality there is but little in the operation that cannot be mastered with
a few moments’ practice. The secret of turning neatly and without
damaging either saw or wood is to work very steadily up and down,
but not forward, when the turning-point has been reached. Then by a
sharp and active movement of the wrist and wood the saw should be
turned, but not jerked, and the new line commenced. Sometimes,
however, the delicacy of the pattern makes this impossible. The saw
should then be pulled backward and forward gently until a sufficiently
large hole has been made.
It is impossible, within the limits of this chapter, to give designs for
any considerable number of the articles that can be made in
fretwork; but with the descriptions just given, and the few
accompanying patterns, a boy who has any idea of drawing and
designing can put parts of an ornament together and so work out
new and attractive variations.

A Match-safe

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

The design for a match-safe is shown in Fig. 2, the wall-plate

measuring two inches and a half in width and seven inches high.
One side of the pattern should first be drawn in free-hand, then
traced and transferred to the thin wood and the lines gone over with
a sharp-pointed, hard pencil, so that it will be an easy matter to see
them when sawing.
The front plate of the match-safe is shown at B and one end at C.
The front is two and a half inches long and one inch wide, and the
ends are made in proportion, or about seven-eighths of an inch wide.
These parts are put together with slim steel nails and glue, having
first drilled the holes where the nails are to be driven to prevent them
from splitting the wood.
Most of the modern scroll-sawing machines have movable beds,
so that bevel cuts can be made. This is done by tilting the bed or
table slightly, as shown in Fig. 3. As a result the work will have a
narrower face than the back, as shown at the right side of the
bracket in Fig. 1. However, in making the front, or bracket part, there
should not be any bevel-cutting, since it would look one-sided. Keep
the bed flat in that case, and make the regular cuts for straight work.

A Wall-bracket

The simple bracket shown in Fig. 1 is an easy one to draw, and it

may be cut from holly, birch, oak, or any good wood about one-
eighth of an inch in thickness. The bracket or front-piece is half the
back-plate, omitting the top ornament. The shelf (A) may be
rounded, scalloped, or cut serpentine, as indicated by the dotted
lines, and the three parts are put together with fine nails, or screws,
and glue.

A Fretwork-box

For a glove or necktie box an attractive design is shown in Fig. 4,

A being the top and B the front or back. The ends should be made a
proportionate size, and a part of the traced ornament can be
transferred to them, so as to match the other parts.
 A GLOVE-BOX AND A T BRACKET

Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

A good size to make this box will be ten inches long, five inches
wide, and three inches deep. This should be the size of the main rib
or rectangle in the top, and out from it the scallops project three-
quarters of an inch all around.
 Lay out one-quarter of the cover design on a piece of smooth
paper; then make a tracing of it. With a piece of transfer-paper this
quarter should be gone over with a blunt lead-pencil, so that the lines
will be transferred to the wood. Take care when making a transfer to
see that the quarter has been accurately placed on the wood so that
a perfect rectangle will be had.
Put this box together with glue and small, slim nails, and arrange a
bottom of thin wood to fit where the lower cross-rib of the sides is
shown. If the saw leaves ragged edges at the reverse side of the
wood, they may be cleaned off with fine sand-paper or a small file.

Some Other Designs

Another design for a bracket is illustrated in Fig. 5; and in Fig. 6 a

T is shown that may be used for a bracket or a wall-hanger, along
the top edge of which small hooks may be arranged to hold a shoe-
horn, button-hooks, scissors, and other small bedroom accessories.

Wood-turning

The common examples of wood-turning with which a boy is most

familiar are tops, balls, bats, dumb-bells, Indian clubs, broom-
handles, and spools. All of these objects are made in a lathe, and
this is the self-same machine that has been in use for centuries, with
but few modifications. Like the potter’s wheel, it is simplicity itself and
needs no improvement.
The object of a lathe is to cause a piece of wood or other material
to revolve from end to end, so that when a chisel or other sharp-
edged tool is held against the moving surface it will cut away that
part of the material at which the tool is directed.
The boy who lives near a wood-working establishment, or mill, can
gain more knowledge in watching a wood-turner at work for half an
hour than he can learn from reading a book on the subject for many
days. It is a simple craft, but a firm hand and a true cut are the
important factors in making a boy a master of the lathe.
 Once the knowledge is gained, however, it is an easy matter to
turn all sorts of objects.
A simple lathe may be made from a small table, a grindstone, a
trunk-strap, and several small parts that are easily gotten together.
Read how in his boyhood days the author constructed a small lathe.
Between the legs of a table two bars were nailed across for
supports to the shaft, which was made of oak and measured three
feet long and one inch square. This just fitted the hole in a
grindstone that was used for the balance-wheel. Six inches from the
ends of the shaft the corners were cut away to form bearings on the
cross-bars, which were hollowed out to receive it. A leather strap
was nailed over to keep it in position. The grindstone was next
placed on the shaft, near one end, between the bearings, and
wedged. Over it two brackets, four inches high, were screwed in
position on the table top, six inches apart, forming a support for a
shaft of a small wheel or pulley made of wood. In the end of an ash
shaft, one inch square and eight inches long, were three sharp
points made by driving in nails without heads, the projecting ends
being filed to points; these, forced against the block, held one end
firmly enough to turn. The places where the bearings came were cut
in the form of a cylinder three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and
corresponding places were hollowed in the supports (as shown at
Fig. 8) to receive it, a small piece of wood being screwed on over
each, after the shaft and wheel were put in position.
A belt was made of an old trunk-strap, passed round the
grindstone and through two holes in the table over the little wheel,
causing the latter to revolve very rapidly when the former was
turned. This was done by a treadle put in the following manner: Two
cranks were made (A in Fig. 7) by a blacksmith and attached to the
ends of the long shaft. They were three inches long and had a knob
on the end of the handle to prevent the connecting-rods from slipping
off. The latter were of hard-wood, with a half-inch hole bored through
near one end. They were then split six inches, allowing them to be
placed on the handles. A screw was then put in to secure them, the
lower ends being connected with a treadle made as in Fig. 7.
 Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9.

The second spindle at first was made immovable by inserting a

piece of quarter-inch wire in a wooden bracket, which was screwed
to the table; but finding it not always convenient to use blocks of the
same length, one was arranged to slide; it could be secured in any
position with thumb-screws. A long cut a quarter of an inch wide was
first sawed in the table in the line of the short shaft; then a bracket
three inches high was screwed to a short strip two inches wide, one
inch thick, and a foot long. A similar strip was placed beneath,
through which two thumb-screws passed. A piece of wire, filed to a
point and driven in the bracket, served for a centre. A movable block
of wood three and a half inches high was used for a tool rest, which
by means of two small bolts and thumb-screws was held fast to the
table top. Slots cut in the table top made it possible to move this rest
forward or backward, and the thumb-screws, or winged-nuts, as they
are properly called, were tightened at the under side of the table, as
shown at Fig. 9.
A great deal of pleasure may be had at little or no cost with a lathe
of this description. All sorts of small things may be turned, and when
a boy has mastered the craft it would be well to add an iron lathe to
his stock of tools, if the cost is at all within his means.
 Chapter IV
PICTURE MOUNTING AND FRAMING

The modern idea in framing pictures is to have the frame

harmonize with the subject, rather than to employ a stock moulding
with set pattern made by the mile, and cut up into frames of all sizes
and for all sorts of pictures. All the frames shown in the illustrations
accompanying this chapter were made at home, and from such
simple materials as thin boards, burlap, tea-chest matting, denim,
wire, sheet-lead, harness-rings, and brass-headed upholsterers’
tacks.

A Dutch Head Mounting

For the study of a Dutch head a unique frame, or mounting, is

shown in Fig. 1. This is a board of thin wood of a size in proportion to
the photograph, the latter being nailed to the board with large, oval-
headed tacks painted black.
The board is covered with green denim, the edges of which are
drawn over the back of the board and glued, or fastened with small
tacks. The photograph, a platinum print, is trimmed to an oval, and
then mounted on a white card. When the paste is dry the mount is
also cut ovalwise, following the line of the photograph, and leaving a
white margin half an inch in width. The picture is placed on the board
so that the side and top margins will be equal; it is then fastened in
place with upholsterers’ tacks driven three-quarters of an inch apart.
 Fig. 1. Fig. 3.

These nails, as well as the other metal-work, are to be coated with

a mixture of dry lamp-black and shellac before they are driven on the
board. The nails should be painted some time before they are to be
used, so that the black coating will be thoroughly dry. After the nails
are driven in place it may be necessary to go over them with a small
brush and some of the black paint, to touch up places where the
coating has chipped off.
The ornament below the picture and the hanger-straps are cut
from sheet-lead about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The
stems are of ordinary iron wire, such as may be purchased at a
hardware store for a few cents. Each piece of the design is separate,
and may be easily cut from soft lead with an old pair of shears, and
afterwards trimmed with a pocket-knife or a small file.
 Drawings of the metal parts to this frame are shown in Fig. 2. A is
the strap at the top, where the hanger is attached; B, the scrolls
forming the hanger; C, one of the buds at the top of the stem of wire;
D, the flower at the middle of the frame under the picture; E, one of
the long leaves; and F, a shorter curved one. These are all painted
black before they are applied to the board; then they are caught with
large and small nails, the large ones for effect, the small and invisible
ones to securely attach the metal ornaments to the wood.
Small staples made from pins with the heads cut off are used to
hold the wire stems in place, but at the outer ends the wire is caught
under the buds or flowers, where it is held in place with an
upholsterer’s tack.
The ornamental hangers are made from thin strips of stove-pipe
iron one-quarter of an inch wide, and may be shaped with a small
pair of pliers or bent with the fingers. (See Chapter V., Venetian and
Florentine Metal-work.) The long upper part of the strap-pieces are
bent over and caught at the back of the frame, and form a staple,
into which the lower loop of each hanger is made fast.
If the large, oval-headed nails which hold the picture to the board
cannot be had at your hardware store, imitation heads may be cut
from lead, blackened, and fastened on with two or three fine steel-
nails.

A Dark Card Mounting

The mounting shown in Fig. 3 is constructed along the same lines

as that of Fig. 1, but the hangers are different, and the picture,
having a white edge, is mounted on a dark card. The nails are then
driven on the white band, in order to make them more conspicuous
than they would be if fastened on the outer margin.
A line may be drawn on a piece of smooth brown paper indicating
the size of the frame, and another one to denote the location of the
picture. The design should then be drawn on the paper with lead-
pencil, and the little flowers, buds, and leaves fitted to this plan. The
wire may also be bent to conform to the lines of the drawing, so that
it will be an easy matter to apply the accurately fitted parts to the
frame, where they are fastened with small, oval-headed tacks.
A strip of sheet-lead five inches long and one-half an inch wide is
cut V-shaped at the bottom, and the top is bent over a two-inch
harness-ring, then drawn down and fastened with a nail, to prevent it
from releasing the ring. These hangers are fixed at the top, midway
between the picture and the outer edge of the frame. Large-headed
wrought-iron bellows-nails are used on which to hang the picture;
they are driven into the wall, and, when necessary, the picture may
be removed from them by simply lifting the rings over the nail-heads.

A Triple Mounting

Fig. 4.

The long panel effect shown in Fig. 4 is a simple and pleasing

mounting for small photographs, or colored prints. A board is
covered with ordinary burlap, which is drawn over the surface and
tacked at the back; apparently it is held in place by the large, oval-
headed tacks driven all around the outer edge. A card-mount the
size of the photograph is cut away at the middle, leaving the outer
edge about half or five-eighths of an inch in width. This is laid over
the photograph, and through it the nails are driven which hold the
photograph and the frame to the board. The scroll-hangers at the top
and the nail-head decorations add to the artistic appearance of this
frame.

Plain Framing

For etchings, water-colors, or colored photographs and aquarelles,

where a wide mat is desirable, plain narrow frames should be used.
These may be made from moulding with the rabbet cut in by
machine, but the boy craftsman may use flat rails and make his own
rabbet.
First cut the joints with a mitre-box and saw; then with glue and
slim nails a good union is made, as shown at Fig. 5, the dotted lines
representing the long, slim nails. If a lap-point is preferred to a mitre,
both ends of the flat rails should be cut away, as shown at Fig. 6, the
union being made with glue and short screws driven in from the back
of the frame, taking care, however, not to puncture or deface the
face of the frame. Where a rabbet is to be made at the back of a
frame, the front inner edge should be bevelled, as shown at A in Fig.
7, so that there will not be too great a thickness of wood close to the
glass. A quarter of an inch out from the inner edge of the frame
fasten four square sticks with glue and small nails. These sticks
should be three-eighths of an inch square, and mitred at the corners,
as shown at B in Fig. 7. The glass can then lie on the back of the
frame within the space described by the small sticks, and over it the
picture and back-board are placed, the nails being driven in to hold
them in place.
 Fig. 2. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9.

A Sporting Mount

For a picture in which horses are prominent, such as a race, a

group of horses’ heads, or a driving scene, an appropriate frame is
suggested in Fig. 8.
The frame proper is made from narrow strips of wood, the face of
which is studded with oval-headed nails. This frame is then arranged
on a large board, and at the corners blocks, or separators, are
fastened, which will cause the frame to stand away from the large
board for half an inch or so, in order that the stirrup-strap and the
whip-handle may pass under it, as shown at A in Fig. 8.
The frame is hung by means of large harness-rings caught at the
top of the frame with leather straps. These are carried about the
back-board and buckled at the front. The stirrup is suspended from
the lower middle part of the frame on a strap, which is caught about
the back-board and runs under the small front frame.
Dark Flemish oak for the back-board, russet straps, and brass
buckles will make a pleasing combination; and if the picture is a
colored one, it will add greatly to the effect of the complete mounting.

A Round-robin Mounting

For one large head-picture and a number of small ones a novel

scheme for mounting is shown at Fig. 9.
This is a one-piece barrel-head covered with burlap or denim. The
photographs are cut circular and mounted on heavy white or cream-
colored card-mounts, then trimmed so that a margin half an inch
wide will be left all around. These are to be applied to the barrel-
head with oval-headed upholsterers’ nails, as suggested for Fig. 1.
The hangers are made from thin strips of iron, and should be as long
as half the diameter of the board.
 Part II
METAL-WORKING
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