Course:- ME305 (MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - II)

Course outline

Instructional objectives:

1. Course contains
2. Weightage distributions
3. Marking scheme
4. Lab policy and lab contain
1. Starting with Definitions
• Manufacturing Process: A manufacturing process is a series of steps or operations used to transform raw materials
into finished products through physical, chemical, or mechanical means. Examples are conventional and non-
conventional processes.
• Manufacturing System: A manufacturing system consists of interconnected components such as machines, tools,
personnel, and material handling equipment designed to perform manufacturing operations. It focuses on the
organization and execution of processes.
• Production System: A broader term that includes manufacturing systems along with other elements like planning,
control, and management of resources to produce goods. It focuses on the overall transformation of raw materials into
finished products.
2. Highlighting the Difference between Manufacturing Processes and Manufacturing systems
While manufacturing processes (e.g., turning, welding, grinding) a single operation is performed, systems deal with
how these processes are integrated and managed to produce a product efficiently.
For example:
• A lathe operation (a process) focuses on how to turn a metal piece into a desired shape.
• In a manufacturing system, the lathe is part of a network that includes automated feeding systems, robots for
loading/unloading, quality control systems, and scheduling software to ensure seamless operation.
3. Real-Life Examples
Example 1: Smartphone Manufacturing
• Manufacturing Process: Soldering electronic components onto a PCB.
• Manufacturing System: A production line with automated machines for soldering, conveyors for transferring PCBs,
inspection systems for quality checks, and software to monitor and control production in real time.
• Production System: Includes procurement of raw materials (e.g., chips and casings), inventory management,
assembly, packaging, and distribution logistics.
Example 2: Car Manufacturing
• Manufacturing Process: Spot welding of car body panels.
• Manufacturing System: Robotic arms performing spot welding, conveyors transporting the car body between
workstations, and sensors ensuring accuracy.
• Production System: Incorporates design, supply chain management, assembly line scheduling, and customer
delivery.
 Lecture 2: Introduction to Manufacturing process and Manufacturing system

Instructional objectives:

1. Input-output models (IOM) for Manufacturing Processes and Manufacturing systems and
production system
Pottery work, despite involving the creation of objects, is not typically considered a manufacturing process or system
for several reasons:
1. Craftsmanship: Pottery involves manual skills and craftsmanship, with each piece often being unique and
handmade.
2. Low volume: Pottery production is typically low-volume, with artisans creating individual pieces or small batches.
3. Non-repetitive: Pottery work often involves non-repetitive tasks, with each piece requiring unique handling and
shaping.
4. No assembly line: Pottery production doesn't involve an assembly line or standardized processes, which are
characteristic of manufacturing.
To explain manufacturing process, manufacturing system, and production system, we can use input-output models
(IOM) to illustrate their distinctions and interrelations.

1. Manufacturing Process
A manufacturing process involves the physical or chemical transformation of raw materials into finished goods. It
consists of Processing Operations

Processing Operations:- Material Removal Processes: Removing excess material to create desired shape (e.g.,
machining, grinding).- Material Forming Processes: Shaping materials without removing excess material (e.g., casting,
forging).- Material Property Changing Processes: Altering physical properties of materials (e.g., heat treatment,
surface coating)

Input-Output Model:
•Inputs: Raw materials, energy, tools, and machines.
•Transformation: Physical, chemical, or mechanical operations (e.g., machining, welding, or casting).
•Outputs: Finished or semi-finished products.
Example:
•Input: Steel sheet.
•Transformation: Cutting and welding.
•Output: Car door.
2. Manufacturing System
A manufacturing system is an organized arrangement of processes, tools, machines, and workers within a facility to produce
goods efficiently. It focuses on the coordination of multiple processes. It also consists of Assembly Operations and Inspection and
Testing i.e (Evaluating products for defects, irregularities, performance, functionality, or reliability)
Assembly Operations-
Manual Assembly: Human operators perform assembly tasks.-
Automated Assembly: Machines perform assembly tasks (e.g., robotic assembly, automated screwdriving).-
Assembly Line Production: Products assembled in a sequence of operations, with each operation performed at a separate
workstation.
Input-Output Model:
•Inputs: Processes, machines, workers, materials, and control systems and workstation
•Transformation: Sequential or parallel operation of multiple processes.
•Outputs: Finished products or assemblies, often in large quantities.
Example:
•Input: Cutting, welding, and painting processes.
•Transformation: Sequential arrangement to assemble and finish a car door.
•Output: Painted car door ready for use.
3. Production System
A production system is a broader concept that encompasses the manufacturing system along with other subsystems such
as inventory, supply chain, logistics, and quality control. It focuses on the overall workflow, from raw material procurement
to product delivery.
Input-Output Model:
•Inputs: Resources (raw materials, labor, machinery), information (orders, schedules), and support systems (logistics,
inventory management).
•Transformation: Coordination of manufacturing systems, inventory handling, supply chain, and quality assurance.
•Outputs: Final products delivered to customers or distributors.
Example:
•Input: Raw materials (steel), customer order data, and supply chain resources.
•Transformation: Integrated operation of cutting, welding, painting, inventory handling, packaging and supply
•Output: Assembled car doors delivered to a car manufacturer.
Key Differences Through IOM

Aspect Manufacturing Process Manufacturing System Production System

Entire workflow, including
Scope Single operation Group of interrelated processes
logistics and supply chain
Focus Material transformation Process coordination Resource and information flow
Resources, processes, and
Inputs Raw materials and tools Processes and systems
logistics
Finished goods in batch or mass Delivered products or services
Outputs Semi-finished/finished goods
scale ready to collect feedback
Now can you define Manufacturing in general?
Manufacturing is the transformation of raw materials into finished products through a series of processing and assembly
operations.
Alternative Definition of Manufacturing: Manufacturing is the creation of value-added products through the integration of
materials, labor, power and technology.
Historical Development of Manufacturing
1. Craft Production (Pre-Industrial Revolution): Skilled craftsmen produced goods in small quantities, often using traditional techniques.
2. Mass Production (Industrial Revolution): New machines and manufacturing technologies enabled the production of goods in large
quantities, leading to increased efficiency and lower costs.
3. Interchangeable Parts ( Late 18th Century): The development of interchangeable parts revolutionized manufacturing by enabling the
production of identical parts that could be easily assembled.
4. Assembly Line Production (Early 20th Century): The introduction of the assembly line further increased efficiency and reduced production
costs.
5. Computer-Integrated Manufacturing ( Late 20th Century): The integration of computers and automation technologies transformed
manufacturing, enabling greater flexibility, precision, and productivity.
 Lecture 3: Automation in Manufacturing

Instructional objectives:

1. Introduction to automation
2. Industrial systems
3. Hardware components in automation
Discussion Components:

1. Types of automation, advantage disadvantage

2. Level of automation
3. Hardware components: Sensors, transducers, actuators
4. Type of control systems
5. Open-loop and closed-loop systems
6. Process control systems
 Lecture 5: Silicon layer possessing and IC manufacturing

Instructional objectives:

1. Importance of silicon in controller devices

2. Basics of IC manufacturing and the processes involved
IC packaging

Fig. Packaging of an integrated circuit chip: (a) cutaway view showing the chip attached to a lead frame and
encapsulated in a plastic enclosure, and (b) the package as it would appear to a user. This type of package is
called a dual in-line package (DIP).
IC and mountings
Microsensors and applications
About silicon and answer to why it us so important in micromanufacturing

o It is an excellent semiconductor used widely in the IC and solar panel

o Can be used as substrate and the circuit both in SLP process
o 2nd most abundant mineral on earth and 7th most abundant substance in the entire universe
o Micro devises are prepared from highly pure single crystal Si wafer using the various process of SLP
o Generally n or p types of semiconductors are required which are formed by Czochralski method which involves the
following steps for making the wafers-
▪ Forming a cylindrical-shaped ingot of pure monocrystal silicon
▪ Slicing to form n or p type crystal wafer (10 micron to 1 mm)
o Its unusual properties of being semiconductor may also be available with other metalloids such as Boron, Germanium,
Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium etc, but the mechanical properties, such as high brittleness and low malleability and
required electrical properties, and availability and easy mining make is outstanding.
Microfabrication processes

1. Silicon layer processing (SLP)

2. LIGA processes and

3. Other micro manufacturing processes.

Importance of Silicon in IC: It is important to understand that the whole process of electronic chip is to let the electricity
pass or stop. Using metals in chip will allow to pass the current through the several circuit at a time which is undesirable. Si
will allow to pass the electricity through identified circuit.

SLP is a field to study about the technologies which can produce the required Shap, size and dimensions of the silicon wafer
for ICs and other micro applications. In order to meet the requirement of various high to low aspect ratios of 3D silicon single
crystal wafer, the process like lithography and wet etching are involved. Similar to this, there can be a list of process to define
SLP.
Silicon layer processing (SLP)

Lithography: Printing process used to transfer copies of a mask pattern onto the surface of silicon or other solid material (e.g., silicon
dioxide). The usual technique in microfabrication is photolithography.
Thermal oxidation: Layer addition or oxidation of silicon surface to form silicon dioxide layer.
Chemical vapor deposition: Layer addition of a thin film on the substrate by chemical reactions or decomposition of gases.
Physical vapor deposition: Layer addition from Family of deposition processes in which a material is converted to vapor phase and
condensed onto a substrate surface as a thin film. PVD processes include vacuum evaporation and sputtering.
Thermal diffusion (doping): Layer alteration, physical process in which atoms migrate from regions of high concentration into regions of low
concentration.
Ion implantation (doping): Layer alteration, embedding atoms of one or more elements in a substrate using a high-energy beam of ionized
particles.
Wet etching: Layer removal, application of a chemical etchant in aqueous solution to etch away a target material, usually
in conjunction with a mask pattern.
Dry etching: Layer removal, dry plasma etching using an ionized gas to etch a target material.
Production of silicon-based integrated circuits consists of the following stages:
(1) Silicon processing: In which sand is reduced to very pure silicon and then shaped into wafers;
(2) IC fabrication: It consisting of multiple processing steps that add, alter, and remove thin layers in selected
regions to form the electronic devices; lithography is used to define the regions to be processed on the
surface of the wafer; and
(3) IC packaging: In which the wafer is tested, cut into individual dies (IC chips), and the dies are encapsulated in
an appropriate package.

Note: Layer addition mainly by CVD and layer removal

by dry and wet etching are explained on the board

Fig. Sequence of processing steps in the production of integrated circuits: (1) pure silicon is formed from the molten state into an ingot
and then sliced into wafers; (2) fabrication of integrated circuits on the wafer surface; and (3) wafer is cut into chips and packaged.
IC grade Silicon processing

Fig. The Czochralski process for growing single-crystal ingots of silicon: (a) initial setup prior to start of crystal
pulling, and (b) during crystal pulling to form the boule
 (c)

Fig. Grinding operations used in shaping the silicon ingot: (a) a form of cylindrical grinding provides diameter
and roundness control, (b) a flat ground onthe cylinder, and (c) Wafer slicing using a diamond abrasive cutoff
saw.
Lithography- process sequence summary

Fig. Optical lithography process applied to a silicon wafer: (1) prepare surface; (2) apply
photoresist; (3) soft-bake; (4) align mask and expose; (5) develop resist; (6) hard-bake;
(7) etch; (8) strip resist.
Surface and bulk micromanufacturing (including explanation on board)

Surface micromachining: to form cantilevers: (1) on the silicon substrate is formed a silicon dioxide layer, whose thickness will determine
the gap size for the cantilevered member; (2) portions of the SiO2 layer are etched using lithography; (3) a polysilicon layer is applied; (4)
portions of the polysilicon layer are etched using lithography; and (5) the SiO2 layer beneath the cantilevers is selectively etched.

Bulk micromanufacturing: Formation of a thin membrane in a silicon substrate: (1) silicon substrate is doped with boron; (2) a thick
layer of silicon is applied on top of the doped layer by epitaxial deposition; (3) both sides are thermally oxidized to form a SiO2 resist
on the surfaces; (4) the resist is patterned by lithography; and (5) etching is used to
remove the silicon except in the boron-doped layer.
 Lecture 6: Silicon layer possessing and IC manufacturing

Instructional objectives:

1. Recap of surface and bulk micro manufacturing

2. Lithography in details
3. LIGA and clean room
Surface and bulk micromanufacturing
Sr No Bulk Micromachining Surface Micromachining

1 Mechanical elements are fabricated by etching away the unwanted part -do- (mainly used for IC fabrication
in silicon wafer
2 This creates structures inside a substrate with high aspect ratio Aspect ration sometimes less than 1

3 Larger structures are made with bulk micromachining It is difficult to build larger structures

4 Not constraints by thickness of silicon wafer, so high aspect ratio Limited to low aspect ratio in geometry as surface dimensions are
geometries can be fabricated using surface micromachining much greater than depth as height is limited by thickness of silicon
wafer
5 The process is less expensive but material loss is more The process is expensive but less material loss

6 Mechanical properties are superior Mechanical properties are good

7 Dimensional control is good Dimensional control is better

8 CMOS integration is fair CMOS integration is good

9 It causes a well known phenomenon in the micro electronics industry It does not causes undercut problem
called undercut
10 Size is small (up to 1 mm) Size is smaller (100 micros or lesser)

11 Typically uses wet etching techniques It uses dry etching techniques

12 Suitable for simple geometry such as thermal sensor,micro machined Suitable for complex geometry such as micro valves and actuators
neuron wells
A 200-mm diameter silicon wafer has a processable area whose diameter is 190 mm. The IC chips to
be fabricated on the wafer surface are square with 18 mm on a side. How many IC chips can be
placed onto the wafer?
Lithography- process flow
Lithography- process sequence

Three major steps- In most applications, surface conditioning precedes the photoresist.
1. Coat
2. Expose v Surface conditioning prepares the substrate/wafer to accept the photoresist by

3. Develop providing a clean surface.

v It coats the wafer with a chemical that boosts adhesion of the photoresist to the
wafer’s surface. (Usually Hexamethyldisilane i.e HMDS)
Lithography- process sequence

Surface conditioning steps

1. Wafer is placed on a vacuum

1. Wafer is baked to remove the water molecules on the wafer surface chuck
2. A vacuum holds the wafer on the
2. HMDS is applied (prime) to create a hydrophobic surface chuck
3. Wafer is cooled to room temperature. 3. Resist is applied
4. Chuck accelerates for desired
resist thickness
5. Chuck continues to spin to make a
dry film
Lithography- process sequence

Coating of photoresist
1. Photoresist is a mixture of organic compounds in a
solvent solution.
2. Two types of resist:
3. Positive resist – Exposed regions become more
soluble and hence a positive mask is left after develop.
4. Negative resist – unexposed materials become soluble
and hence a negative mask is left after develop.
5. After the photoresist is applied to the desired
thickness, a softbake is used to remove the residual
solvents of the photoresist.
6. After the softbake, the wafer is cooled to room
temperature.
positive and negative resist
Lithography- process sequence

Development

1. Portions of the photoresist are dissolved by a chemical developer

(acetone or H2O2).
2. With positive resist, the exposed resist is dissolved while the
unexposed resist remains on the wafer.
3. With negative resist, the unexposed resist is dissolved while the
exposed resist remains.
Lithography- process sequence

Hardbake

1. Hardens the photoresist for the next process.

2. The temperature of the hardbake is higher than that of the
softbake after coat.
3. After the hardbake, the wafer is cooled to room temperature.

Etching and strip resist

1. Etching is used to remove the SiO2 or any metallic (in LIGA) layer at the selected region where the resist has
been removed.
2. Striping is a kind of Etching process through which the strip coating that remains on the surface is removed.
There is used wet (chemical as per the substrate layer-type to be removed) or dry etching (plasma with oxygen
as a reactive gas)
Lithography- Exposure techniques
 More explanation on degree of Anisotropy is
Wet and dry etching (degree of Anisotropy)
given in the class

Fig. Two problems in etching: (a) under-etching and (b) over-etching.

Fig. (a) A fully anisotropic etch, with A=

infinity; and (b) a partially anisotropic etch.
 Lecture 7: LIGA and Clean room

Instructional objectives:

1. LIGA, and Lithography as an important step in LIGA

2. Clean room specification and classification
LIGA processes

Lithographie (lithography)
Galvanoformung
(electroforming) and
Abformtechnik or Abformung
(molding)

1. LIGA is an important process in microsystem

technology to fabricate micro and nano
Fig. LIGA processing steps: (1) thick layer of resist applied and X-ray
components of metals and non-metals. exposure through mask, (2) exposed portions of resist removed, (3)
2. It was developed in Germany in the electrodeposition to fill openings in resist, (4) resist stripped to provide (a) a
early1980s. mold or (b) a metal part.
3. It mainly uses the X-ray lithography, although
other lithographic exposure methods are also
used to start the LIGA processing sequence.
LIGA processes
 Clean room
A physical space within which the number of airborne particles per unit volume, or simply the particle
concentration, are controlled and classified. It controls the introduction, generation and retention of particles.

Why a Clean Room Environment is Important?

1. ICs have very small microscopic features that continue to shrink with each generation. As these features become
smaller, the sensitivity to contamination increases. Even a tiny particle can cause defects in the integrated circuit,
leading to lower yields, higher failure rates, and increased manufacturing costs.
2. As it maintain stringent cleanliness standards, it ensures the production of high-quality products. By minimizing
contamination from particles, microbes, and chemical vapours, cleanrooms prevent product defects and maintain
the highest standards of quality and reliability.
3. A cleanrooms play a critical role in safeguarding the health of personnel and patients, especially in the healthcare,
pharmaceutical, and biotechnology sectors. For example risk of contamination during drug manufacturing is
minimized.
4. Furthermore, cleanrooms significantly contribute to optimising manufacturing processes by minimising downtime
caused by contamination-related issues like equipment malfunction or product rework.
Characteristics of a Clean Room

A clean room provides protection from contaminants such as dust, bacteria, and other microscopic particles. The
atmosphere within the clean room is carefully controlled to ensure minimal particle presence. The key features of a clean
room include:

1.Air Purification: The air is filtered to remove particles, typically through high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters,
which capture very small contaminants.
2.Temperature and Humidity Control: The air in the clean room is conditioned to maintain a consistent temperature of
21°C (70°F) and 45% relative humidity. This ensures stable conditions for both the equipment and the ICs during
processing.

Classification of Clean Rooms

Clean rooms are categorized based on the number of particles of size 0.5 micrometers (µm) or larger that are allowed in
a specified volume of air. Two commonly used classification systems are ISO and US. Both systems measure the
concentration of particles and assign a clean room class based on the allowable particle count.
•ISO Classification: The ISO system uses a volume of 1 cubic meter of air. For instance, an ISO Class 5 clean room must
maintain a particle count of less than 3520 particles per cubic meter (particles ≥ 0.5 µm).
•US Classification: The US system uses a smaller volume of 1 cubic foot of air. For example, a US Class 100 clean room,
which corresponds to an ISO Class 5 room, must maintain a particle count of less than 100 particles per cubic foot.

Conversion between ISO and US classifications:

•1 cubic meter = 35.2 cubic feet
•Therefore, 100 particles per cubic foot (US Class 100) is equivalent to 3520 particles per cubic meter (ISO Class 5).
 Specialty of the cleanroom in IC Fabrication
• It is essential particularly in lithography areas for IC fabrication.
• To care of airborne particles settling on semiconductor wafers and lithographic masks
• Number of dust particles per unit volume must be tightly controlled along with other parameters such as
temperature, humidity, pressure.
• A class X clean room is usually defined to be one that has a dust count of X particles (diameters of 0.5
μm or larger) per cubic foot.
• For modern lithographic processes, a class 10 or better clean room is required.
CONTAMINATION UPTO (%)
Source Examples Other , 5
Air, 10
People Human movement, attire and
accessories, breathing etc.
Process, 10
Equipment Consumables, stationary, packaging,
fiberglass, metals, chemicals etc.
Process Printing, electrolysis, chemical reactions Equipment, 10

wet and dry eatching etc. People, 70

Air Contaminated air
Source: Internet
 Lecture 8: Industrial Control Systems

Instructional objectives:

1. Process Industries Versus Discrete Manufacturing Industries

2. Continuous Versus Discrete Control
3. Computer Process Control
Automation Production Systems and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing

Introduction to Automation (explanation in the class)

Basic Elements of an Automated System (Power, program of instructions and control systems)
An automated system typically consists of three primary elements:
1. Power:
o Provides energy required for the operation of the system.
o Can be electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical.
o Example: Electric motors powering a conveyor belt.
2. Program of Instructions:
o The program of instructions dictates how an automated system performs its tasks. It is a set of commands or rules that define
the sequence of operations and conditions for system behavior.
Key Elements of a Program of Instructions:
o Command Logic: The operational rules that the system follows.
o Sequencing: The order of tasks to be performed.
o Decision Points: Conditional steps based on sensor input or feedback.
Types of Instructions:
1. Set Point Instructions: Define the desired values for system outputs.
▪ Example: In a furnace control system, the instruction to maintain a temperature of 600°C.
2. Process Parameters: Specify essential conditions like speed, temperature, or pressure during operations.
▪ Example: Controlling spindle speed and feed rate in CNC machining.
3. Conditional Instructions: Adjust system operations based on real-time inputs.
▪ Example: If a sensor detects an obstruction, the conveyor belt stops.
Methods for Encoding Instructions:
o Computer Software: Programs written in languages such as ladder logic for PLCs or G-code for CNC machines.
o Hardwired Systems: Fixed logic circuits using relays or switches.
Examples in Industrial Systems:
1. CNC Machining: Instructions encoded in G-code dictate the tool's path, speed, and cutting depth.
2. Automated Assembly Line: A series of steps programmed into a controller ensures parts are assembled in a specific sequence.
3. Robotic Welding System: Instructions determine the robot's movement, welding speed, and joint positions.
Importance of a Program of Instructions:
o Ensures consistency and precision in operations.
o Reduces human intervention and error.
o Enables flexibility in system reconfiguration for different tasks.
3. Control System:
o Ensures the system follows the program of instructions.
o Includes monitoring and adjusting system performance.
o Types of Control Systems:
▪ Open-Loop Control Systems: No feedback mechanism; relies solely on predefined instructions.
▪ Example: A simple toaster.
▪ Closed-Loop Control Systems (Feedback Control): Monitors output and adjusts inputs to maintain desired
performance.
▪ Example: A thermostat controlling room temperature.
Subsystems of an Automated System:
1. Material Handling System:
o Moves materials and parts within the system.
o Example: Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) transporting parts in a warehouse.
2. Processing System:
o Performs operations on materials or parts.
o Example: A robotic arm assembling components.
3. Information Processing System:
o Collects and processes data to control system operations.
o Example: Sensors providing real-time data to adjust machine operations.
Illustrative Diagram of Basic Elements in an Automated System:
• Power Source (e.g., Electrical Supply)
• Program of Instructions (e.g., Computer-Controlled Algorithms)
• Control System (e.g., PLCs or Feedback Controllers)
• Material Handling and Processing Systems
Examples for Better Understanding:
1. Automated Packaging Line:
o Power: Electric motors drive the conveyor belt.
o Program of Instructions: Predefined instructions control the filling and sealing processes.
o Control System: Sensors detect package presence and adjust the system speed.
2. Automated Assembly of Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs):
o Power: Pneumatic systems control the placement tools.
o Program of Instructions: Software defines the positioning of components.
o Control System: Cameras provide feedback for precise component placement.
Summary:
• Automated systems consist of power, program of instructions, and a control system.
• Control systems ensure the system operates as intended, with or without feedback.
• Material handling, processing, and information processing subsystems support automation efficiency.
Computer control example using EDM control.
Computer control example
Computer control example
Tutorial 1: Practice question on basics of automation and industrial control systems
Practice questions

1. What is automation?
2. Name the three basic elements of an automated system.
3. What is the difference between a process parameter and a process variable?
4. What is the difference between a closed-loop control system and an open-loop control system?
5. What are the levels of automation in a process and discrete manufacturing industries?
6. Why are feedback control systems preferred over open-loop systems in many industrial applications?
7. How does the choice of power source impact the performance of an automated system?
8. What are the key elements of the programme of instructions?
9. What are the types of instructions and methods for encoding them?
10. Discuss real-life examples where automated systems have improved efficiency and productivity.

Imp Notes: you will find many of these answers in the PPT. Some of the answers need the reference from the classroom
discussion. You must follow the instructions and explanation given on board through some diagrams in the class).
1. What is industrial control?
o Industrial control involves the use of control systems, such as computers or automated machinery, to manage industrial processes, ensuring efficient, safe, and consistent
operations.
2. What is the difference between a continuous variable and a discrete variable?
o Continuous variables can take any value within a range and change smoothly over time (e.g., temperature, pressure). Discrete variables change in distinct steps or states
(e.g., on/off, open/closed).
3. Name and briefly define each of the three types of discrete variables.
o Binary Variables: Represent two possible states, such as on/off.
o Digital Variables: Can take multiple distinct states, typically represented by a set number of bits.
o Pulse Variables: Represent events that occur intermittently, such as the counting of items passing a point.
4. What is the difference between a continuous control system and a discrete control system?
o Continuous control systems manage variables that change smoothly over time. Discrete control systems handle variables that change in distinct steps or states.
5. What is feedforward control?
o Feedforward control anticipates changes in process variables and makes adjustments before the changes can affect the process, based on predictive models.
6. What is adaptive control?
o Adaptive control adjusts the control parameters automatically in response to changes in the process or environment to maintain optimal performance.
7. What are the three functions of adaptive control?
o Identification: Determines the system's dynamic behavior.
o Decision Making: Chooses appropriate control actions based on the identified model.
o Modification: Updates control parameters to adapt to changes in the system or environment.
What are the two basic requirements that must be managed by a computer controller to achieve real-time control?
o Timeliness: Ensuring that the control actions are performed within the required time frame.
o Reliability: Maintaining consistent operation and handling failures or errors promptly.
What is polling in computer process control?
o Polling is the process of sequentially checking each device or system to gather data and determine its status.
What is an interlock?
o
An interlock is a safety mechanism that prevents certain actions from occurring unless specific conditions are met, ensuring safe operation.
What are the two types of interlocks in industrial control?
o Hard Interlocks: Physically prevent actions (e.g., a mechanical lock preventing a door from opening).
o Soft Interlocks: Implemented through software, preventing actions via control logic (e.g., a software condition preventing a machine from starting).
What is an interrupt system in computer process control?
o An interrupt system allows the control system to stop its current activities to address a high-priority event or condition.
What is computer process monitoring?
o Computer process monitoring involves continuously observing the process variables to detect deviations or abnormalities, ensuring the process remains within desired
parameters.
What is direct digital control (DDC), and why is it no longer used in industrial process control applications?
o Direct Digital Control (DDC) involves using a central computer to directly control all process variables. It is less common now due to limitations in scalability and the
preference for more distributed and resilient control architectures like DCS and PLCs.
What is a programmable logic controller (PLC)?
o A PLC is a ruggedized computer used in industrial automation to perform discrete control tasks, replacing relay-based systems.
Are programmable logic controllers more closely associated with the process industries or the discrete manufacturing industries?
o PLCs are more closely associated with discrete manufacturing industries.
What is a programmable automation controller (PAC)?
o A PAC is a more advanced form of a PLC, capable of handling more complex automation tasks, integrating functions like motion control, process control, and machine
vision.
What is a remote terminal unit?
o A remote terminal unit (RTU) is a microprocessor-controlled device that interfaces with sensors and actuators to gather data and execute control commands in remote
locations.
What does SCADA stand for, and what is it?
o SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It is a system used for high-level process supervision, allowing operators to monitor and control industrial
processes from a central location.
What is a distributed control system?
o A Distributed Control System (DCS) is a network of interconnected controllers distributed throughout a plant, providing both control and data acquisition functions close to
the process units.
What does open architecture mean in control systems design?
o Open architecture refers to a system design that allows for easy integration and interoperability with various hardware and software components, often adhering to
standardized protocols and interfaces.
 Lecture 9: Industrial Control Systems

Instructional objectives:

1. Continuous Versus Discrete Control cont…

2. Computer Process Control cont…
3. PID controllers
Process Industries Versus Discrete Manufacturing Industries
Levels of Automation in the Two Industries
Process Industries
• High Level of Automation: Typically involve continuous processes such as chemical manufacturing, oil refining, and food
processing.
• Automation Levels:
o Supervisory Control: Oversees the entire process, often using SCADA systems.
o Regulatory Control: Manages specific parameters such as temperature, pressure, and flow rates through feedback control loops.
o Basic Control: Direct control of process variables using sensors and actuators.
o Safety and Interlocks: Ensures safe operation and shuts down processes in case of emergencies.
Discrete Manufacturing Industries
• Varied Levels of Automation: Involve the production of discrete items such as automobiles, electronics, and machinery.
• Automation Levels:
o Enterprise Level: Incorporates ERP systems for overall business management.
o Plant Level: Uses MES to manage and monitor manufacturing operations.
o Cell or Line Level: Employs CNC machines, robots, and PLCs for specific tasks.
o Machine Level: Direct control of individual machines or equipment.
Variables and Parameters in the Two Industries
Process Industries
• Continuous Variables: Variables like temperature, pressure, flow rate, and concentration.
• Parameters:
o Set Points: Desired values for process variables.
o Limits: Maximum and minimum acceptable values.
o Rates: Speed of change of variables.
Discrete Manufacturing Industries
• Discrete Variables: Include binary states (on/off, presence/absence) and countable items.
• Parameters:
o Cycle Time: Time taken to complete one production cycle.
o Throughput: Number of units produced in a given time.
o Quality Metrics: Defect rates, tolerances, and dimensions.
Continuous Versus Discrete Control
Continuous Control Systems
• Definition: Control systems that manage variables in a continuous manner, aiming to maintain these variables within a set range.
• Examples:
o Temperature Control in a Furnace: Continuously monitors and adjusts the temperature to ensure it stays at a specific value
required for metal processing.
o Pressure Control in a Boiler: Maintains a consistent pressure to prevent system failures and optimize performance.
• Characteristics:
o Feedback Loops: Utilize sensors to detect changes in the process variable, controllers to process this information, and actuators to
adjust the process as needed.
o PID Control: A sophisticated method that combines Proportional, Integral, and Derivative control actions to minimize the error
between the desired set point and the actual process variable.
o Analog Signals: Involve continuous signals that vary over time, typically representing process variables such as temperature or
pressure.
Discrete Control Systems
• Definition: Control systems that handle processes in distinct steps or events, where variables change in a stepwise fashion rather
than continuously.
• Examples:
o Conveyor Belt Systems: Operate based on the presence or absence of items, starting or stopping accordingly.
o Robotic Assembly Lines: Perform a sequence of operations, each step initiated by the completion of the previous one.
• Characteristics:
o Sequential Logic: Uses a series of logical decisions to move from one step to the next, often employing timers, counters, and
relay logic.
o PLC and SCADA: Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems
are commonly used to implement discrete control.
o Digital Signals: Use binary input and output signals, representing states such as on/off or true/false.
Computer Process Control
Control Requirements
• Real-Time Processing: Essential for ensuring that process adjustments are made without delay to maintain desired operation
conditions.
o Example: In a chemical plant, real-time control is crucial for adjusting the mix of ingredients to prevent reaction deviations.
• Data Acquisition: Collects real-time data from sensors to monitor the status of the process.
o Example: Gathering temperature data from different parts of a reactor to ensure uniform heat distribution.
• Data Processing: Analyzes the acquired data to determine if the process is operating within the desired parameters.
o Example: Computing the rate of change of temperature to predict future trends and prevent overheating.
• Command Execution: Involves sending control signals to actuators to adjust process variables as needed.
o Example: Adjusting the opening of a valve to regulate the flow rate in a pipeline.
• Monitoring: Continuous observation of the process to detect any deviations from normal operating conditions.
o Example: Monitoring the pressure in a gas pipeline to quickly respond to leaks.
Capabilities of Computer Control
• Polling: The process of regularly checking each device or system to determine its status and collect data.
o Example: In a manufacturing plant, polling sensors at regular intervals to monitor temperature, pressure, and other critical
parameters.
• Interlocks: Safety mechanisms that prevent certain actions unless specific conditions are met, ensuring safe operation.
o Example: An interlock system in a chemical reactor that prevents the opening of a valve unless the pressure is within a safe
range.
• Interrupt System: Allows the control system to respond immediately to urgent events by interrupting the normal process flow.
o Example: An interrupt triggered by a sudden rise in temperature in a furnace, prompting the system to shut down to prevent
damage.
• Exception Handling: The process of managing unexpected conditions or errors to maintain system stability and prevent failures.
o Example: Handling a sensor failure by switching to a backup sensor to continue operations without interruption.
Forms of Computer Process Control
• Direct Digital Control (DDC): Involves the direct digital manipulation of process variables using a central computer.
o Example: Managing the climate control in a building by directly controlling air flow, temperature, and humidity.
• Supervisory Control: Provides a higher level of oversight, allowing human operators to intervene and make adjustments to the
process as needed.
o Example: A SCADA system overseeing an electric power grid, where operators can manually override automatic controls during
emergencies.
• Distributed Control Systems (DCS): Spread control tasks across multiple controllers located near the process units they manage,
enhancing reliability and reducing latency.
o Example: An oil refinery where different sections are controlled by dedicated controllers that communicate with each other to
maintain overall process stability.
• SCADA Systems: Focus on the supervisory level of process control, collecting data from various field devices and allowing central
monitoring and control.
o Example: Monitoring and controlling water distribution networks to ensure consistent supply and pressure.
•

PLC Systems: Specialized computers designed for industrial control applications, typically used in discrete manufacturing processes.
o Example: Controlling the sequence of operations in an automated car assembly line, such as welding, painting, and assembling
parts.
 Lecture 10: PID controllers

Instructional objectives:

1. Fundamentals
2. Block diagram, and
3. Transfer function
Class Notes: PID Controller Fundamentals
Introduction to PID Controllers
PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controllers are widely used in control systems to regulate processes and achieve
desired outputs. These controllers adjust the input to a system based on the error between the desired and actual output,
ensuring stability and precision.

(Class explanation to be followed)

Key Components:
1. Proportional (P): Produces an output that is proportional to the error.
o Formula: 𝑃 = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸(𝑡)
o Effect: Reduces rise time but may leave steady-state error.
o Characteristics:
▪ Directly proportional to the magnitude of the error.
▪ Larger 𝐾𝑝 values lead to faster response but may cause overshoot.
2. Integral (I): Accounts for accumulated past errors to eliminate steady-state error.
o Formula: 𝐼 = 𝐾𝑖 ‫)𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝐸 ׬‬
o Effect: Eliminates steady-state error but may introduce overshoot.
o Characteristics:
▪ Compensates for biases and offsets in the system.
▪ Large 𝐾𝑖 values may result in oscillatory behavior.
3. Derivative (D): Predicts future errors based on the rate of change.
𝑑𝐸(𝑡)
o Formula: 𝐷 = 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡

o Effect: Reduces overshoot and improves stability.

o Characteristics:
▪ Reacts to rapid changes in error.
▪ Sensitive to noise in the measured process variable.
Combined PID Equation:
(using block diagram as explained in the class)
𝑑𝐸(𝑡)
𝑀 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑖 න 𝐸 𝑡 𝑑𝑡) +𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡

Apply Laplace transform

𝐸(𝑆)
𝑀 𝑆 = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑆 + 𝐾𝑖 + 𝐾𝑑 𝐸 𝑆 𝑆
𝑆
𝐾𝑖
𝑀 𝑆 = 𝐸(𝑆) 𝐾𝑝 + + 𝐾𝑑 𝑆
𝑆
𝑀(𝑆) 𝐾𝑖
𝑇. 𝐹 = = 𝐾𝑝 + + 𝐾𝑑 𝑆
𝐸(𝑆) 𝑆
Where: T.F is the transfer dunction

Components Explained in a Block diagram of a PID controller:

1. Set Point (SP): The desired target value of the process variable.
2. Process Variable (PV): The actual value of the parameter being controlled.
3. Error (E): Difference between SP and PV.
4. PID Controller: Processes the error to compute the control input.
5. Process: The system being controlled (e.g., machining process).
6. Feedback Loop: Provides real-time PV to the controller.
Transfer Functions of PID Components
In the Laplace domain, the PID controller's components can be represented as:
1. Proportional Term:
2. Integral Term:
3. Derivative Term:
Overall PID Controller Transfer Function:
(Explained previously)
Closed-Loop Transfer Function:
(Explained previously)
Characteristics of PID Components in Frequency Domain:
1. Proportional Control:
o Increases the gain across all frequencies.
o Directly impacts the magnitude of the system response.
2. Integral Control:
o Enhances low-frequency gain, reducing steady-state error.
o Can cause instability if too aggressive.
3. Derivative Control:
o Amplifies high-frequency components.
o Improves system damping and stability.
Example: Feedback Control Loop in Machining Process
Consider a machining process where spindle speed must be maintained at a precise value.
Block Diagram:
Process Components:
1. Set Point (Desired Spindle Speed): Specified by the operator.
2. Process Variable (Measured Spindle Speed): Monitored using sensors.
3. Error: Difference between desired and actual spindle speed.
4. PID Controller: Adjusts motor driver input to minimize error.
5. Motor Driver: Modulates power to the spindle motor.
6. Spindle System: Converts motor input to spindle speed.