The various models that are used for building distributed computing systems can be classified

into 5 categories:

1.Minicomputer Model

The minicomputer model is a simple extension of the centralized time-sharing system.

A distributed computing system based on this model consists of a few minicomputers

interconnected by a communication network were each minicomputer usually has
multiple users simultaneously logged on to it.

Several interactive terminals are connected to each minicomputer.Each user logged on

to one specific minicomputer has remote access to other minicomputers.

The network allows a user to access remote resources that are available on some
machine other than the one on to which the user is currently logged.The minicomputer
model may be used when resource sharing with remote users is desired.

The early ARPA net is an example of a distributed computing system based on the
minicomputer model.

2.Workstation Model
 A distributed computing system based on the workstation model consists of several
workstations interconnected by a communication network.

An organization may have several workstations located throughout an infrastructure

were each workstation is equipped with its own disk & serves as a single-user computer.

In such an environment,at any one time a significant proportion of the workstations are
idle which results in the waste of large amounts of CPU time.

Therefore,the idea of the workstation model is to interconnect all these workstations by

a high-speed LAN so that idle workstations may be used to process jobs of users who are
logged onto other workstations & do not have sufficient processing power at their own
workstations to get their jobs processed efficiently.

Example:Sprite system & Xerox PARC.

3.Workstation–Server Model
 The workstation model is a network of personal workstations having its own disk & a
local file system.

A workstation with its own local disk is usually called a diskful workstation & a
workstation without a local disk is called a diskless workstation.Diskless workstations
have become more popular in network environments than diskful workstations,making
the workstation-server model more popular than the workstation model for building
distributed computing systems.

A distributed computing system based on the workstation-server model consists of a few

minicomputers & several workstations interconnected by a communication network.

In this model,a user logs onto a workstation called his or her home workstation.Normal
computation activities required by the user's processes are performed at the user's home
workstation,but requests for services provided by special servers are sent to a server
providing that type of service that performs the user's requested activity & returns the
result of request processing to the user's workstation.

Therefore,in this model,the user's processes need not migrated to the server machines
for getting the work done by those machines.

Example:The V-System.

4.Processor–Pool Model:

The processor-pool model is based on the observation that most of the time a user does
not need any computing power but once in a while the user may need a very large
amount of computing power for a short time.

Therefore,unlike the workstation-server model in which a processor is allocated to each

user,in processor-pool model the processors are pooled together to be shared by the
users as needed.
 The pool of processors consists of a large number of microcomputers & minicomputers
attached to the network.

Each processor in the pool has its own memory to load & run a system program or an
application program of the distributed computing system.

In this model no home machine is present & the user does not log onto any machine.

This model has better utilization of processing power & greater flexibility.

Example:Amoeba & the Cambridge Distributed Computing System.

5.Hybrid Model:

The workstation-server model has a large number of computer users only performing
simple interactive tasks &-executing small programs.

In a working environment that has groups of users who often perform jobs needing
massive computation,the processor-pool model is more attractive & suitable.

To combine Advantages of workstation-server & processor-pool models,a hybrid model

can be used to build a distributed system.

The processors in the pool can be allocated dynamically for computations that are too
large or require several computers for execution.

The hybrid model gives guaranteed response to interactive jobs allowing them to be
more processed in local workstations of the users

Types of Distributed Computing System Models

1. Physical Model
A physical model represents the underlying hardware elements of a
distributed system. It encompasses the hardware composition of a
distributed system in terms of computers and other devices and their
interconnections. It is primarily used to design, manage, implement,
and determine the performance of a distributed system.
A physical model majorly consists of the following components:
1. Nodes
Nodes are the end devices that can process data, execute tasks, and
communicate with the other nodes. These end devices are generally
the computers at the user end or can be servers, workstations, etc.
Nodes provision the distributed system with an interface in the
presentation layer that enables the user to interact with other back-
end devices, or nodes, that can be used for storage and database
services, processing, web browsing, etc.
 Each node has an Operating System, execution environment, and

different middleware requirements that facilitate communication

and other vital tasks.,
2. Links
Links are the communication channels between different nodes and
intermediate devices. These may be wired or wireless. Wired links or
physical media are implemented using copper wires, fiber optic
cables, etc. The choice of the medium depends on the environmental
conditions and the requirements. Generally, physical links are required
for high-performance and real-time computing. Different connection
types that can be implemented are as follows:
Point-to-point links: Establish a connection and allow data

transfer between only two nodes.

Broadcast links: It enables a single node to transmit data to

multiple nodes simultaneously.

Multi-Access links: Multiple nodes share the same

communication channel to transfer data. Requires protocols to

avoid interference while transmission.
3. Middleware
These are the softwares installed and executed on the nodes. By
running middleware on each node, the distributed computing
system achieves a decentralised control and decision-making. It
handles various tasks like communication with other nodes, resource
management, fault tolerance, synchronisation of different nodes and
security to prevent malicious and unauthorised access.
4. Network Topology
This defines the arrangement of nodes and links in the distributed
computing system. The most common network topologies that are
implemented are bus, star, mesh, ring or hybrid. Choice of topology is
done by determining the exact use cases and the requirements.
5. Communication Protocols
Communication protocols are the set rules and procedures for
transmitting data from in the links. Examples of these protocols
include TCP, UDP, HTTPS, MQTT etc. These allow the nodes to
communicate and interpret the data.
2. Architectural Model
Architectural model in distributed computing system is the overall
design and structure of the system, and how its different components
are organised to interact with each other and provide the desired
functionalities. It is an overview of the system, on how will the
development, deployment and operations take place. Construction of
a good architectural model is required for efficient cost usage, and
highly improved scalability of the applications.
The key aspects of architectural model are:
1. Client-Server model
It is a centralised approach in which the clients initiate requests for
services and severs respond by providing those services. It mainly
works on the request-response model where the client sends a request
to the server and the server processes it, and responds to the client
accordingly.
It can be achieved by using TCP/IP, HTTP protocols on the transport
layer.
This is mainly used in web services, cloud computing, database
management systems etc.
2. Peer-to-peer model
It is a decentralised approach in which all the distributed computing
nodes, known as peers, are all the same in terms of computing
capabilities and can both request as well as provide services to other
peers. It is a highly scalable model because the peers can join and
leave the system dynamically, which makes it an ad-hoc form of
network.
The resources are distributed and the peers need to look out for
the required resources as and when required.
The communication is directly done amongst the peers without any
intermediaries according to some set rules and procedures defined
in the P2P networks.
The best example of this type of computing is BitTorrent.
3. Layered model
It involves organising the system into multiple layers, where each
layer will provision a specific service. Each layer communicated with
the adjacent layers using certain well-defined protocols without
affecting the integrity of the system. A hierarchical structure is
obtained where each layer abstracts the underlying complexity of
lower layers.

4. Micro-services model
In this system, a complex application or task, is decomposed into
multiple independent tasks and these services running on different
servers. Each service performs only a single function and is focussed
on a specific business-capability. This makes the overall system more
maintainable, scalable and easier to understand. Services can be
independently developed, deployed and scaled without affecting the
ongoing services.

3. Fundamental Model
The fundamental model in a distributed computing system is a broad
conceptual framework that helps in understanding the key aspects of
the distributed systems. These are concerned with more formal
description of properties that are generally common in all architectural
models. It represents the essential components that are required to
understand a distributed system’s behaviour. Three fundamental
models are as follows:
1. Interaction Model
Distributed computing systems are full of many processes interacting
with each other in highly complex ways. Interaction model provides a
framework to understand the mechanisms and patterns that are used
for communication and coordination among various processes.
Different components that are important in this model are –
Message Passing – It deals with passing messages that may

contain, data, instructions, a service request, or process

synchronisation between different computing nodes. It may be
synchronous or asynchronous depending on the types of tasks and
processes.
Publish/Subscribe Systems – Also known as pub/sub system. In

this the publishing process can publish a message over a topic and
the processes that are subscribed to that topic can take it up and
 execute the process for themselves. It is more important in an
event-driven architecture.
2. Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
It is a communication paradigm that has an ability to invoke a new
process or a method on a remote process as if it were a local
procedure call. The client process makes a procedure call
using RPC and then the message is passed to the required server
process using communication protocols. These message passing
protocols are abstracted and the result once obtained from the server
process, is sent back to the client process to continue execution.

1. Failure Model
This model addresses the faults and failures that occur in the
distributed computing system. It provides a framework to identify and
rectify the faults that occur or may occur in the system. Fault
tolerance mechanisms are implemented so as to handle failures by
replication and error detection and recovery methods. Different
failures that may occur are:
Crash failures – A process or node unexpectedly stops

functioning.
Omission failures – It involves a loss of message, resulting in

absence of required communication.

Timing failures – The process deviates from its expected time

quantum and may lead to delays or unsynchronised response

times.
 Byzantine failures – The process may send malicious or

unexpected messages that conflict with the set protocols.

2. Security Model
Distributed computing systems may suffer malicious attacks,
unauthorised access and data breaches. Security model provides a
framework for understanding the security requirements, threats,
vulnerabilities, and mechanisms to safeguard the system and its
resources. Various aspects that are vital in the security model are:

Authentication: It verifies the identity of the users accessing the

system. It ensures that only the authorised and trusted entities get
access. It involves –
Password-based authentication: Users provide a

unique password to prove their identity.

Public-key cryptography: Entities possess a private

key and a corresponding public key, allowing

verification of their authenticity.
Multi-factor authentication: Multiple factors, such as

passwords, biometrics, or security tokens, are used to

validate identity.
Encryption:
 It is the process of transforming data into a format that is
unreadable without a decryption key. It protects sensitive
information from unauthorized access or disclosure.
Data Integrity:

Data integrity mechanisms protect against unauthorised

modifications or tampering of data. They ensure that data
remains unchanged during storage, transmission, or
processing. Data integrity mechanisms include:
Hash functions – Generating a hash value or

checksum from data to verify its integrity.

Digital signatures – Using cryptographic

techniques to sign data and verify its authenticity

and integrity.