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3
 22EC401 CONTROL ENGINEERING

Department : ECE
Batch/Year : 2023-2027/II
Created by : Mr. A. Sivakumar AP/ECE
Ms. K. Jeevitha AP/ECE

4
Table of Contents
1. Course Objectives
2. Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code)
3. Syllabus (With Subject Code, Name, LTPC details)
4. Course outcomes
5. CO - PO/PSO Mapping
6. Lecture Plan
7. Activity based learning
8. Lecture Notes
9. Assignments
10. Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)
11. Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)
12. Supportive online Certification courses
13. Real time Application in day to day life and Industry
14. Contents beyond the Syllabus
15. Assessment Schedule
16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
17. Mini Project suggestions

5
 1. Course Objectives

To understand the transfer function models of mechanical

and electrical systems.

To develop adequate knowledge in the time response of

systems and steady stat error analysis.

To analyse the open loop and closed loop frequency response

of linear systems.

To introduce stability analysis and design of compensators of

linear systems.

To introduce state variable representation of physical

systems.

6
 2.Pre Requisites
(Course Names with Code)

22MA201 Transforms and Numerical Methods

22EC201 Electron Devices and Circuit Theory

7
 3. SYLLABUS

22EC401 CONTROL ENGINEERING LTPC 3024

UNIT I MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Basic elements in control systems: Open and closed loop systems –
Mathematical model and Electrical analogy of mechanical systems –
Transfer function – Block diagram reduction techniques – Signal flow
graphs - Applications of Control system.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Determine the transfer function of the given closed loop system
using MATLAB
2. Implement unity and non-unity feedback system using MATLAB.

UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Time response: Time domain specifications – Types of test input – I and
II order system response – Error coefficients – Generalized error series –
Steady state error – Effects of P, PI, PID modes of feedback control
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
3. Estimate the unit step response of the given transfer function and
determine its time domain parameters using MATLAB.
4. Determine the steady state error of the given transfer function using
MATLAB.
5. Simulate P, PD, PI, PID controller and verify by using hardware
UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS
Frequency response analysis – Bode plot – Polar plot. Determination of
closed loop response from open loop response –M and N circles.
Correlation between frequency domain and time domain specifications.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
6. Perform stability analysis of a given transfer function using gain and
phase margins estimated by the Bode plot using MATLAB.
7. Estimate the relative stability of a given transfer function using gain
and phase margins estimated by the Polar plot using MATLAB.

8
UNIT IV STABILITY AND COMPENSATOR DESIGN
Characteristics equation – Routh Hurwitz criterion- Root locus
construction – Effect of Lag, lead and lag-lead compensation on
frequency response - Design of Lag, lead and lag lead compensator
using bode plots.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
8. Sketch the root locus of the given transfer function and locate the
closed loop poles for different values of open loop gain (K) using
MATLAB.

UNIT V STATE VARIABLE AND STATE SPACE

MODELLING
Concept of state variables – State models for linear and time invariant
Systems – Solution of state and output equation in controllable canonical
form – Concepts of controllability and observability.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
9. Construct the State space model for the classical transfer function
using MATLAB.
10. Perform analytical study of water flow measurement using flow
meter

9
 4. Course outcomes

Upon completion of the course, the student should be able to:

CO1: Develop mathematical model of linear mechanical

and electrical systems

CO2: Model the time response analysis of first and second

order systems

CO3: Analyze the frequency response of open and closed

loop systems

CO4: Design the compensators for Linear Systems

CO5: Analyze stability methods for Linear Systems

CO6: Examine the state variables, controllability and

observability of linear and time invariant systems

10
CO
5.CO- PO/PSO Mapping

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES(PO) PSO*

PO11
PO10

PO12

PSO1

PSO2

PSO3
PO6
PO1

PO2

PO3

PO4

PO5

PO7

PO9
P08
CO6 CO5 CO4 CO3 CO2 CO1

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

*Program Specific Outcome

11
 6.Lecture Plan
UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Taxonomy
pertaining
Proposed

Delivery
Mode of
Periods

Actual
No. of

Date

level
S.No

date

CO
Topic

Frequency
Black
1 response 1 CO3 K2
Board
analysis
Black
2 Bode plot 1 CO3 K5
Board

Black
3 Problem 1 CO3 K5
Board

Black
4 Polar Plot 1 CO3 K5
Board

Black
5 Problem 1 CO3 K5
Board

Determination
of closed loop
Black
6 response from 1 CO3 K3
Board
open loop
response
Black
7 M and N Circles 1 CO3 K3
Board

Correlation
between
frequency Black
8 1 CO3 K3
domain and Board
time domain
specifications
Black
9 Problem 1 CO3 K5
Board

12
 7. Activity based learning
Activity 1

Fibonacci Series
This example we try to find the steady state frequency response ratio of two
consecutive numbers 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1, 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 (for n>1) in Fibonacci series. To illustrate it, first
let us look at the series.

Figure a - Visual Solution-Response

Initial condition: the two first numbers of the series are 𝑎𝑎0 = 0 and 𝑎𝑎1 = 1.For
𝑛𝑛 > 1, the 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡ℎ element is obtained using: 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛− The next terms
of the Fibonacci series with the given initial condition are:
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89, …
The ratio between two consecutive numbers above, for 𝑛𝑛 > 2, is: 1, 2, 1.5000,
1.6667, 1.6000, 1.6250, 1.6154, 1.6190, 1.6176, 1.6182, …It can be shown that
the ratio, when 𝑛𝑛 approaches infinity. This is the steady state frequency value
of the ratio between two consecutive numbers. we use the bees reproduction
example from Levitin. Given a pair of newborn bees . “All bee pairs are not
fertile during their first month of life but give birth to one new male/female pair at
the end of the second month and every month thereafter. How many pairs of
rabbits will be therein a year?”Let us visually observe the bee population
growth (Figure a ).

13
 7.2 Activity based learning – Find the
Appropriate Answer

1.A point at which phase plot crosses 180° called ?

2. The frequency at which gain is -3db is called?

3. The Frequency at which magnitude of G(jw) becomes

unity is called?

4. A point at which magnitude plot crosses 0db called?

5. Closed loop transfer function takes place in(plot)?

6. Phase plot is -90° belongs to which factor?

7. Maximum resonant corresponds to peak overshoot in

response is?

8. Which indicates ability of the system to distinguish

signal from noise?

9. Give the condition for Sinusoidal Steady state ?

10.The Frequency at which resonant peak occurs is called ?

11. Phase plot is 0° belongs to which factor?

12. The Frequency at which slope change occurs is called ?

13.The transfer function having all poles and zeros to the

left half of S plane is called ?

14.To modify the structure of the system and thereby alter

the overall behavior of the system called?

15.Which compensator increases transient response time ?

15
14
 7.2 Activity based learning – Find the
Appropriate Answer

A. Cut off rate B. s= jw C. Lag

Compensator

D. Compensator E. Minimum Phase F. Corner

Frequency

G. Gain Crossover H. Gain Margin I. Integral Factor

Frequency

J. Bode plot K. Resonant L. Constant Factor

Frequency

M. Large N. Phase Margin O. Cut off

frequency

P. Resonant Peak Q. Lead R. Derivative

Compensator Factor

S. Polar Plot T. Lead-Lag U. Bandwidth

Compensator

V. Small W. First Order X. W= js

Factor

16
15
Unit III Answers

Questions Answers

N. Phase Margin
1

O. Cut off frequency

2
U. Bandwidth
G. Gain Crossover
3 Frequency

H. Gain Margin
4

J. Bode plot
5 S. Polar Plot

I. Integral Factor
6

M. Large
7

A. Cut off rate

8

9 B. s=jw

K. Resonant
10 Frequency

L. Constant Factor
11

F. Corner Frequency
12

E. Minimum Phase
13

D. Compensator
14

C. Lag Compensator
15

17
16
 8. LECTURE NOTES
UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Phase angle

Magnitude

18
3.1 Closed loop frequency Response

19
Fig 3.1 Magnitude and Phase plot

20
21
3.2 Performance Specification in frequency domain

W(s) N(s)
+
E(s) + +
R(s) D(s) G(s) Y(s)
-
Plant

Fig 3.2 Frequency Domain

In the design of linear control systems using frequency domain methods, it is necessary to
define a set of specification so that quality of transient response can be described using
frequency response characteristics.

𝒊 . 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑴𝒓 : −

This is the maximum value of M and is denoted as 𝑀𝑟 . The magnitude of

resonance peak 𝑀𝑟 provide us information about the relative stability of the system. Large
resonant peak corresponds to large overshoot in the transient response.

1
𝑀𝑟 =
2𝜀 1 − 𝜀 2

𝒊𝒊 . 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝝎𝒓 : −

It is the frequency at which resonant peak occurs, i.e. maximum 𝑀𝑟 value of

occurs. High value of 𝜔𝑟 indicates that the time response of output is faster as peak time
is inversely proportional to 𝜔𝑟 .

𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 2𝜀 2

22
Fig 3.3 Frequency Domain Specifications

23
Fig 3.4 Frequency Domain

24
3.3 Frequency response of Standard second-order
system

25
 (squaring and rearranging)

𝑎=1
𝑏 = 4𝜀 2 𝜔𝑛 2
𝑐 = −𝜔𝑛 4

26
Fig 3.5 phase margin vs damping ratio

Fig 3.6 Gain cross over frequency

27
28
Fig 3.7 Resonant peak

29
Fig 3.8 Resonance speed vs Bandwidth

30
Fig 3.9 Frequency Response Specifications

31
Problems on frequency domain and second order systems

∵𝐻 𝑠 =1

32
33
 +
R(s) 𝑘/𝑠(𝑠 + 𝑎) C(s)
-

34
 ∵ 𝝎𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅Τ𝒔𝒆𝒄.
𝜺𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟔

35
3.4 Bode Plot

Frequency response analysis of control systems can be carried either

analytically or graphically. The various graphical techniques available for frequency
response analysis are,

i. Bode plot (or) Logarithmic plot

Drawn for open loop system
ii. Polar plot (or) Nyquist plot

iii. Nichols plot

Drawn to determine frequency response of
iv. M and N circles unity feedback closed loop system

v. Nichols chart

Bode plot:

It is named after Hendrick W. Bode. Bode plot is one of the powerful

graphical methods of analyzing and designing control system. It consists of two
graphs,

1) Plot logarithm of magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function Vs frequency in

logarithmic scale.

2) Plot phase angles in degree Vs logarithmic frequency.

The main advantage of using logarithmic plot is that multiplication of magnitudes

and be converted into addition.

G (db)

Log w
Fig 3.10 Magnitude & phase
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
Table: Factor –Maganitude and phase plots

S. No. Factor Magnitude and Phase Plots

1 Constant K

2 Integral factor

46
S. No. Factor Figure

3 Derivative factor

First order factor

4
in Denominator

47
S. No. Factor Figure

First order factor

5
in Numerator

Quadratic factor in
6
Numerator

48
S. No. Factor Figure

Quadratic factor in
7
Denominator

49
50
 Corner Change in slope
Slope
𝑑𝐵
S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 ( )
( ) 𝑑𝑒𝑐
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐

1 𝑗𝜔 2
- +40

1
2 𝜔𝐶1 =5 -20 40 - 20= 20
1 + 𝑗0.2𝜔
1
3 𝜔𝐶2 =50 -20 20 - 20= 0
1 + 𝑗0.02𝜔

Real value in numerator part of G(s)

51
 Magnitude Values Points in graph

𝜔𝐿 = -12 at 0.5 rad/sec a

𝜔𝐶1 = 28 at 5 rad/sec b

𝜔𝐶2 = 48 at 50 rad/sec c

𝜔𝐻 = 48 at 100 rad/sec d

52
 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝝎 𝝓 = ∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎)
𝝎 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟐𝝎 Points
𝒔𝒆𝒄
S. No. 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝒐 in
𝒅𝒆𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒈
𝝎∗ 𝒅𝒆𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒈 Graph
𝝅

1 0.5 5.7 0.6 174 e

2 1 11.3 1.1 168 f

3 5 45 5.7 130 g

4 10 63.4 11.3 106 h

5 50 84.3 45 50 i

6 100 87.1 63.4 30 j

Plot the phase points in semi-log sheet and join the points by smooth curve.

Step 5:

Calculation of 𝑘:

Given that gain cross over frequency is 5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐. At 𝜔 = 5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐, gain is 28

dB. Hence to every point of magnitude plot a dB gain of -28 dB should be added.
The addition of -28 dB shifts plot downwards.
∴ 20 log 𝑘 = −28 𝑑𝐵

−28
log 𝑘 =
20
𝑘 = 0.0398

Corresponding magnitude plot is plotted in semi-log graph.

Note:

The frequency 𝜔 = 5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 in a corner frequency. Hence in exact plot, the dB gain
at 𝜔 = 5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 will be 3 dB less than actual plot.
∴ 20 log 𝑘 = −25 𝑑𝐵
𝑘 = 0.0562

Bode plot is sketched in semi-log graph paper.

53
54
 Change in slope
Corner Slope 𝑑𝐵
S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 ( )
( ) 𝑑𝑒𝑐
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐

1 0.75ൗ - -20
𝑗𝜔

2 1 + 𝑗0.2𝜔 𝜔𝐶1 =5 20 -20 + 20= 0

1
3 𝜔𝐶2 =𝜔𝑛 =10 -40 0 - 40= -40
1 − 0.01𝜔 2 + 𝑗0.16𝜔

55
 Magnitude Points in
S. No.
values (dB) graph.

1 0.5 3.5 a

2 5 -16.5 b

3 10 -16.5 c

4 20 -28.5 d

56
 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝝎
𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝝓 = ∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎)
𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏
𝟎. 𝟐𝝎 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝝎𝟐 Points
𝝎
S. No. 𝒔𝒆𝒄 in
𝒅𝒆𝒈
𝒅𝒆𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒈 Graph

1 0.5 5.7 4.6 -88 e

2 1 11.3 9.2 -88 f

3 5 45 46.8 -92 g

4 10 63.4 90 -116 h

5 20 75.9 -46.8+180= 133.2 -148 i

6 50 84.3 -18.4+180= 161.6 -168 J

7 100 87.1 -92+180= 170.8 -174 k

57
58
 Change in slope
Corner Slope 𝑑𝐵
S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 ( )
( ) 𝑑𝑒𝑐
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐

0.0625
1 - -20
𝑗𝜔
1
2 𝜔𝐶1 =2 -20 -20 - 20= -40
1 + 𝑗0.5𝜔
1
3 𝜔𝐶2 =8 -20 -40 - 20= -60
1 + 𝑗0.125𝜔

59
 Magnitude Points in
S. No. 𝝎 𝝎 value
values (dB) graph.

1 𝜔𝐿 0.5 -18 a

2 𝜔𝐶1 2 -30 b

3 𝜔𝐶2 8 -54 c

4 𝜔𝐻 50 -102 d

60
 𝝓
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟓𝝎
𝒓𝒂𝒅 −𝟎. 𝟐𝝎 ∗ = ∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎) Points
S. 𝝎 𝝅 tan−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝝎
𝒔𝒆𝒄 in
No. 𝒅𝒆𝒈 deg
𝒅𝒆𝒈 Graph
𝒅𝒆𝒈

1 0.01 -0.1145 0.2864 0.0716 -90 e

2 0.1 -1.145 2.862 0.716 -94 f

3 0.5 -5.7 14 3.6 -114 g

4 1 -11.4 26 7.12 -134 h

5 2 -22.9 45 14 -172 i

6 3 -34.37 56.30 20.56 -202 J

7 4 -45.84 63.43 26.57 -226 k

61
62
 Change in slope
Corner Slope 𝑑𝐵
S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 ( )
( ) 𝑑𝑒𝑐
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐

10
1 - -20
𝑗𝜔
1
2 𝜔𝐶1 =2.5 -20 -20 - 20= -40
1 + 𝑗0.4𝜔
1
3 𝜔𝐶2 =10 -20 -40 - 20= -60
1 + 𝑗0.1𝜔

63
 Magnitude Points in
S. No. 𝜔 𝜔 value
values (dB) graph.

1 𝜔𝐿 0.1 40 a

2 𝜔𝐶1 2.5 12 b

3 𝜔𝐶2 10 -12 c

4 𝜔𝐻 50 -54 d

64
 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟒𝝎 𝝓 = ∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎)
𝒓𝒂𝒅 Points
S. 𝝎 tan−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝝎
𝒔𝒆𝒄 in
No. 𝒅𝒆𝒈 deg 𝒅𝒆𝒈
Graph

1 0.1 2.29 0.57 -92 e

2 1 21.80 5.71 -118 f

3 2.5 45.0 14.2 -150 g

4 4 57.99 21.8 -170 h

5 10 75.96 45.0 -210 i

6 20 82.87 63.43 -236 J

65
66
 Change in slope
Corner Slope 𝑑𝐵
S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 ( )
( ) 𝑑𝑒𝑐
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐

20
1 - -20
𝑗𝜔
1
2 𝜔𝐶1 =0.25 -20 -20 - 20= -40
1 + 𝑗4𝜔
1
3 𝜔𝐶2 =0.33 -20 -40 - 20= -60
1 + 𝑗3𝜔

67
 Magnitude Points in
S. No. 𝜔 𝜔 value
values (dB) graph.

1 𝜔𝐿 0.15 42.5 a

2 𝜔𝐶1 0.25 38 b

3 𝜔𝐶2 0.33 33 c

4 𝜔𝐻 1 4 d

68
 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟑𝝎 𝝓 = ∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎)
𝒓𝒂𝒅 Points
S. 𝝎 tan−𝟏 𝟒𝝎
𝒔𝒆𝒄 in
No. 𝒅𝒆𝒈 deg 𝒅𝒆𝒈
Graph

1 0.15 24.22 30.96 -146 e

2 0.2 30.96 38.66 -160 f

3 0.25 36.86 45.0 -172 g

4 0.33 44.7 52.8 -188 h

5 0.6 60.14 67.38 -218 i

6 1 71.56 75.96 -238 J

69
70
 Change in slope
Corner Slope 𝑑𝐵
S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 ( )
( ) 𝑑𝑒𝑐
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐

1 5 - 0 -

1
2 𝜔𝐶1 =0.25 -20 0 -20 = -20
1 + 𝑗4𝜔

3 1 + 𝑗2𝜔 𝜔𝐶2 =0.5 +20 -20 + 20= 0

1
4 𝜔𝐶3 =0.4 -20 0 - 20= -20
1 + 𝑗0.25𝜔

71
 Magnitude Points in
S. No. 𝝎 𝝎 value
values (dB) graph.

1 𝜔𝐿 0.1 +14 a

2 𝜔𝐶1 0.25 +14 b

3 𝜔𝐶2 0.5 +8 c

4 𝜔𝐶3 4 +8 D

5 𝜔𝐻 10 0 e

72
 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟐𝝎
𝒓𝒂𝒅 tan−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝝎 Points
S. 𝝎 tan−𝟏 𝟒𝝎 𝝓
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒅𝒆𝒈 in
No. 𝒅𝒆𝒈 deg
Graph

1 0.1 11.3 21.8 1.43 -12 f

2 0.25 26.56 45.0 3.5 -22 g

3 0.5 45.0 63.43 7.1 -26 h

4 2 75.96 82.87 26.56 -33 i

5 4 82.87 86.42 45.0 -49 j

6 10 87.13 88.56 68.19 -70 k

7 50 89.42 89.71 85.42 -86 l

73
74
3.5 Polar Plot

Fig 3.11 Polar plot

75
 Img. part of 𝐺 𝑗𝜔

Real part of 𝐺 𝑗𝜔

Start
of
Type 3
Start Start
of of
Type 2 Type 0

Start
of
Type 1
Fig 3.12 Start of Polar plot

76
 Fig 3.13 Type 0

Fig 3.14 Type 1

Fig 3.15 Type 0

77
Fig 3.16 Type 0

Fig 3.17 Type 1

78
Fig 3.18 Type 2

Fig 3.19 Type 2

79
Fig 3.20 Type 1

Fig 3.21 Type 1

Fig 3.22 Type 1

Fig 3.23 Type 1

80
Steps for Polar Plot

Rules for Drawing Polar Plots :

Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.
1.Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.

2.Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω )H(jω).

3.Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω )H(jω) by substituting ω=0.
So, the polar plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.

4.Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=∞. So,
the polar plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.

5.Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the imaginary
term of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.

6.Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real term
of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.

7.For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase
of G(jω)H(jω) by considering the other value(s) of ω.

81
82
 𝜔 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0

𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 2.2 1.8 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.3

∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) -144 -150 -156 -162 -171 -180 -198

𝜔 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0

𝐺𝑅 (𝑗𝜔) -1.78 -1.56 -1.37 -1.14 -0.89 -0.7 -0.29

𝐺𝐼 (𝑗𝜔) -1.29 -0.9 -0.61 -0.37 -0.14 0 0.09

83
84
85
𝝎 (rad/sec) 𝑮(𝒋𝝎) ∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎)

0.2 3.88 -134.37

0.25 2.81 -142.12

0.3 2.11 -148.72

0.45 1.05 -163

0.48 0.93 -165.98

0.5 0.86 -167.47

0.75 0.39 -182.12

1 0.216 -192.53

1.25 0.133 -200.69

1.5 0.087 -207.41

1.75 0.061 -213.06

2 0.044 -217.87

∞ 0 -270

86
87
88
89
90
When

𝝎 M 𝝓

0 ∞ −270𝑜

∞ 0 −270𝑜

5 0.01 −219.59𝑜

1000 6.9 ∗ 10−7 −216.26𝑜

Values are exceeding.

𝝎 (rad/sec) 𝑮(𝒋𝝎) ∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎)

0.9 1.39 -258.82 ~ -259

0.95 1.187 -258.21

1 1.02 -257.6

1.2 0.595 -255.2

1.4 0.378 -252.83

1.7 0.215 -249.37

91
92
3.6 Nyquist Plot

93
94
Fig 3.24 Nyquist contour

−90𝑜 − −270𝑜 = +180𝑜

Anticlockwise rotation

Fig 3.25 Nyquist mapping

95
 90𝑜 − −90𝑜 = +180𝑜
Anticlockwise rotation

Fig 3.26 Nyquist mapping

Fig 3.27 Nyquist mapping

96
Fig 3.28 Nyquist section mapping

97
98
Encircled:

A point or region is a complex function plane is said to be encircled by a

closed path if it is found inside the path.

Fig 3.29 Encircled diagram

Enclosed:

A point or region is said to be enclosed by closed path if it is encircled in

the counter clockwise or point or region lies to left of the path when the path is
transverse in prescribed direction.

Fig 3.30 Enclosed diagram

99
 3.7 Determination of closed loop response from open loop response
Frequency response concepts and techniques play an important role in control
system design and analysis.
Closed-Loop Behavior
In general, a feedback control system should satisfy the following design objectives:
1.Closed-loop stability
2.Good disturbance rejection (without excessive control action)
3.Fast set-point tracking (without excessive control action)
4.A satisfactory degree of robustness to process variations and model uncertainty
5.Low sensitivity to measurement noise
The block diagram of a general feedback control system is shown in Fig. 1.
It contains three external input signals: set point Ysp, disturbance
D, and additive measurement

Figure 1 Block diagram with a disturbance D and measurement noise N.

Bode Stability Criterion

The Bode stability criterion has two important advantages in comparison with the Routh
stability criterion of Chapter 11:

1.It provides exact results for processes with time delays, while the Routh stability
criterion provides only approximate results due to the polynomial approximation that
must be substituted

2.The Bode stability criterion provides a measure of the relative stability rather than
merely a yes or no answer to the question, “Is the closed-loop system stable?”
Before considering the basis for the Bode stability criterion:
A feedback control system is stable if and only if all roots of the characteristic
equation lie to the left of the imaginary axis in the complex plane.
Before stating the Bode stability criterion, we need to introduce two important
definitions:
1.A critical frequency ωc is defined to be a value of ω for which φOL (ω) = -180∘.
This frequency is also referred to as a phase crossover frequency
2. A gain crossover frequency ωg is defined to be a value of ω for which AROL
(ω) = 1 .
For many control problems, there is only a single ωc and a single ωg. But multiple
values can occur, as shown in Fig.for ωc .
Gain Margin

The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater the stability of the system. The gain margin
refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased without making the
system unstable. It is usually expressed as a magnitude in dB.
We can usually read the gain margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in the diagram
above). This is done by calculating the vertical distance between the magnitude curve (on
the Bode magnitude plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where the Bode phase plot =
180°. This point is known as the phase crossover frequency.
It is important to realize that the Gain and the Gain Margin are not the same things. In fact,
the Gain Margin is the negative of the gain (in decibels, dB). This will make sense when we
look at the Gain margin formula.

Gain Margin Formula

The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be expressed as:
GM=0- GdB
Where G is the gain. This is the magnitude (in dB) as read from the vertical axis of the
magnitude plot at the phase crossover frequency.
In our example shown in the graph above, the Gain (G) is 20. Hence using our formula for
gain margin, the gain margin is equal to 0 – 20 dB = -20 dB (unstable).
Phase Margin
 The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the stability of the system. The
phase margin refers to the amount of phase, which can be increased or decreased
without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed as a phase in degrees.
 We can usually read the phase margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in the
diagram above). This is done by calculating the vertical distance between the phase
curve (on the Bode phase plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where the Bode
magnitude plot = 0 dB. This point is known as the gain crossover frequency.
 It is important to realize that the phase lag and the Phase Margin are not the same
things. This will make sense when we look at the phase margin formula.
Phase Margin Formula
The formula for Phase Margin (PM) can be expressed as:
PM=ϕ-(-180)

 Where ϕ is the phase lag (a number less than 0). This is the phase as read from the
vertical axis of the phase plot at the gain crossover frequency.
 In our example shown in the graph above, the phase lag is -189°. Hence using our
formula for phase margin, the phase margin is equal to -189° – (-180°) = -9° (unstable).
 As another example, if an amplifier’s open-loop gain crosses 0 dB at a frequency where
the phase lag is -120°, then the phase lag -120°. Hence the phase margin of this
feedback system is -120° – (-180°) = 60° (stable).
M and N Circles

The magnitude of closed loop transfer function with unity feedback

can be shown to be in the form of circle for every value of M. These
circles are called M-circles.
The phase of the closed loop transfer function with unity feedback can
be shown to be in the form of circle for every value of α. These circles
are called N-circles.
The M and N circles are available as standard chart.
The chart consists of M and N circles superimposed on ordinary graph
sheet.
Using ordinary graph the locus of G(jw) (polar plot) is sketched
The locus of G(jω) will cut the M-circles and N-circles at various
points.
The intersection of G(jω) locus with M and N circles gives the
magnitude and phase of the closed loop system at frequencies
corresponding to the cutting point of G(jω).
The closed loop frequency response has two plots. They are M Vs ω
and α Vs ω.
M-Circles
Consider the closed loop transfer function of unity feedback system,

Substitute s = jω

Let, G(jω) = X + j Y
where, X = Real part of G(jω)
Y = Imaginary part of G(jω)
Let, M = Magnitude of M(jw)

On squaring the above equation we get,

When M=1, the above equation represents a straight line. When M=1,

When M≠1 the above equation represents a family of circles.

Divide the above equation by

N-Circles
Consider the closed loop transfer function of unity feedback system

Let, G(jw) = X + j Y
where, X = Real part of G(jw)
Y = Imaginary part of G(jw)
Let, N = tanα
Advantages
Good accuracy
Possible to test in lab
Can be used to obtain transfer function that is not possible with analytical
techniques
Easy to design open-loop transfer function from closed-loop performance in
frequency domain
It is very easy to visualize the effect of disturbance and parameter variations.
Disadvantages
Applied only to linear systems
Frequency response for existing system is possible to obtain if the time constant
is up to few minutes
Time consuming procedure
Old and back dated method
 LINKS TO VIDEOS

UNIT III
https://www.youtube.com/IsGSmp5DjA4
https://youtu.be/Wi6xt7IyjA0
https://youtu.be/QzTCRk4nkDg
https://youtu.be/pTTTOuUps7I
https://youtu.be/C1wNlB8c1Tc

E-book References

Control System Engineering - I J Nagrath & M Gopal

Feedback Control Systems - Katsuhiko Ogata
Control System Engineering - A Nagoor Kani

111
109
 9 Assignments
UNIT III
Slow Learners

S. Question K CO
No. level
1 Consider the closed loop system shown in figure. Determine the K3 CO3
critical value of K for stability by the use of Nyquist Stability
Criterion.the number of encirclements about the critical point
(1+j0) must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which
is nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer function in the
right half of the 's' plane

2 Consider a system whose closed loop transfer function is K4 CO3

C(s)/R(s) = 10(s+1) / (s+2) (s+5)
clearly, the closed loop poles are located at s=-2 and s=-5,and
the system is not oscillatory. Show that closed loop response of this
system will exhibit a resonant peak, although the damping ratio of
closed loop poles is greater than unity.

112
110
 9 Assignments
UNIT III
Medium Learners

S. Question K CO
No. level
1 Consider a system whose closed loop transfer function is K4 CO3
C(s)/R(s) = 15(s+1) / (s+2) (s+5)
clearly, the closed loop poles are located at s=-2 and s=-5,and
the system is not oscillatory. Show that closed loop response of this
system will exhibit a resonant peak, although the damping ratio of
closed loop poles is greater than unity.

2 Prove that the polar plot of the sinusoidal transfer function K3 CO3
G(jw) = jwT / 1 + jwT for 0<w<∞ is a semicircle. Find
the centre and radius of the circle. SAngles are represented by
positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, it can
represent angles with negative values in clockwise direction.

112
111
 9 Assignments
UNIT III
Toppers

S. Question K CO
No. level
1 Show that the lead network and lag network inserted in cascade in K3 CO3
an open loop act as proportional –plus- derivative control (in the
region of small w) and the proportional-plus- integral control(in the
region of large w), will cause no speed change at steady state?

2 Prove the following mapping theorem: Let F(s) be a ratio of k4 CO3

polynomials in s. Let P be the number of poles and Z be the
number of zeros of F(s) that lie inside a closed contour in the s
plane, with multiplicity accounted for. Let the closed contour be
such that it does not pass through any poles or zeros of F(s).The
closed contour in the s plane then maps into the F(s) plane as a
closed curve. The number N of clockwise encirclements of the
origin of the F(s) plane, as a representative points traces out the
entire contour in the s plane in the clockwise direction, is equal to Z
- P.

112
112
 10 PART A- QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-UNIT III
S. Question K CO
No. level
1 Define Cut off rate. K1 CO3

The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut-off is called cut-off
rate. The cut off rate indicates the ability to distinguish the signal
from noise.
2 What is Bandwidth? K1 CO3

The Bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which the system gain
is more than 3 dB. The bandwidth is a measure of the ability of a
feedback system to reproduce the input signal noise rejection
characteristics and rise time.
3 Define Resonant frequency (∆f) K1 CO3

The frequency at which resonant peak occurs is called resonant

frequency.
4 Define Resonant Peak (∆r) K1 CO3

The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer

function is called Resonant Peak.
5 List out the different frequency domain specifications. K1 CO3

The frequency domain specifications are

Resonant peak.
Resonant frequency.
Bandwidth
6 What is frequency response? K1 CO3

A frequency response is the steady state response of a system when

the input to the system is a sinusoidal signal.
7 Define Gain Margin. K1 CO3

The Gain Margin,kg is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of

the open loop transfer function at phase cross over frequency.

8 What are the main advantages of Bode plot? K1 CO3

The main advantages are:

Multiplication of magnitude can be into addition.
A simple method for sketching an approximate log curve is available.
It is based on asymptotic approximation. Such approximation is
sufficient if rough information on the frequency response
characteristic is needed.
9 Define Gain margin formula. K1 CO3
113
Gain margin kg = 1 / ∆G(j∆pc)∆. 113
S. Question K CO
No. level
10 What is Bode plot? K1 CO3

The Bode plot is the frequency response plot of the transfer function
of a system. A Bode plot consists of two graphs. One is the plot of
magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function versus log ∆. The other is a
plot of the phase angle of a sinusoidal function versus log ∆.
11 Define Gain cross over. K1 CO3

The Gain cross over frequency ∆gc is the frequency at which the
magnitude of the open loop transfer function is unity.
12 What is Phase margin? K1 CO3

The Phase margin is the amount of phase lag at the gain cross over
frequency required to bring system to the verge of instability.
13 Define Phase cross over. K1 CO3

The frequency at which, the phase of open loop transfer functions is

called phase cross over frequency ∆pc
14 Define Corner frequency. K1 CO3

The frequency at which the two asymptotic meet in a magnitude plot

is called Corner frequency
15 Define Phase lag and phase lead. K1 CO3

A negative phase angle is called phase lag. A positive phase angle is

called phase lead.
16 What is Nichols chart? K1 CO3

The chart consisting if M & N loci in the log magnitude versus phase
diagram is called Nichols chart.
17 What are two contours of Nichols chart? K1 CO3

Nichols chart of M and N contours, superimposed on ordinary graph.

The M contours are the magnitude of closed loop system in decibels
and the N contours are the phase angle locus of closed loop system.
18 How is the Resonant Peak (Mr), resonant frequency (Wr) , and band K1 CO3
width determined from Nichols chart?

The resonant peak is given by the value of ∆.contour which is

tangent to G(j∆) locus.
The resonant frequency is given by the frequency of G(j∆) at the
tangency point.
The bandwidth is given by frequency corresponding to the
intersection point of G(j∆) and –
3dB M-contour.
114
114
S. Question K CO
No. level
19 What are the advantages of Nichols chart? K1 CO3

The advantages are:

It is used to find the closed loop frequency response from open loop
frequency response.
Frequency domain specifications can be determined from Nichols
chart.
The gain of the system can be adjusted to satisfy the given
specification.
20 What are the two types of compensation? K1 CO3

Cascade or series compensation

Feedback compensation or parallel compensation.

21 What are the three types of compensators? K1 CO3

Lag compensator
Lead compensator
Lag-Lead compensator.
22 What are the uses of lead compensator? K1 CO3

Speeds up the transient response

Increases the margin of stability of a system
Increases the system error constant to a limited extent
23 What is a compensator? K1 CO3

A device inserted into the system for the purpose of satisfying the
specifications is called as a compensator.
24 When lag lead compensator is required? K1 CO3

The lag lead compensator is required when both the transient and
steady state response of a system has to be improved.
25 What is the use of lag compensator? K1 CO3

Improve the steady state behavior of a system, while nearly

preserving its transient response.

115
115
 11 PART A- QUESTIONS UNIT III

S. Question K CO
No. Level
Develop the detailed notes on following: K2 CO3
1 (i) Frequency domain specification
(ii) Derive frequency domain specification parameters.

(i) Write short notes on series compensation. K2 CO3

2 (ii) Write down the procedure for designing lead compensator using
bode plot.

A closed-loop control system may include an unstable element within K4 CO3

3 the loop. When the Nyquist stability criterion is to be applied to such
system, the frequency-response curves for the unstable element must
be obtained. How can we obtain experimentally the frequency
response curves for such an unstable element? Suggest a possible
approach to the experimental determination of the frequency response
of an unstable linear element.
(i) Write short notes on feedback compensation. K2 CO3
4 (ii) Write down the procedure for designing lag compensator using
bode plot.

Write down the procedure for designing magnitude and phase using K2 CO3
5 Nyquist plot.

120
 12 Supportive Online Certification courses (NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

Swayam - Control Systems

 Udemy - Introduction to Control System for Engineers

 Udemy - Applied Control System for Engineers – Autonomous Vehicles

 NPTEL - Control System Engineering.

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117
 13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to industry

UNIT III
 Control systems can be found in almost everything that moves. All living things
have different types of control loops regulating body functions (temperature,
blood cell production, hormone production…) Additionally, all technology,
engineering, and science areas use con-trol systems to improve their
performance.
 Control systems are totally used in SCADA and industrial automation. Nowadays
control system is widely using in everywhere, like every domestic appliance,
different industries, military, Morden vehicles, robotics, etc.Industry
Applications
Control systems are mainly used for controlling the equipments of machines in
industry. In recent years control systems have proliferative applications in in
modern industry and technology. Control systems are found in abundance in all
sectors of industry such as:
 Control systems are used in many places.
 Robot arms used in industrial manufacturing require control of the position of the
end piece
 Conveyor belts usually move at a constant speed, and so you need a control
system to ensure that the desired speed is always met.
 Aircrafts generate forces in flight through controlling the position of flaps and
rudders.
 Reading and writing from hard drives involves controlling position. Essentially,
different sectors on the disk containing different information needs to be placed
below the device that extracts the information, at different times.
 Keeping satellites in place above the earth is an application of controls. Steering
control of automobiles
 Control System (CS) is used to control position, velocity, and acceleration is very
common in industrial and military applications. They have been given the special
name of servomechanisms. With all their many advantages, CS in advertently act
as an oscillator.

122
118
 1 4 Contents beyond Syllabus ( COE related value
added courses)

COE related value added courses:

1. Embedded COE
2. Robotic s COE

Content beyond syllabus:

UNIT III - Frequency response of Bode plot using MATLAB

Obtain Frequency response of a unity feedback system having transfer

function of G(s) = 1/𝑠+1 with w= 1 rad/sec using Bode plot in MATLAB.

MATLAB Code:
clear, clc
K = 1;
T = 1;
num = [K];
den = [T, 1];
H = tf(num, den);
figure(1)
bode(H),
grid on

% Define input signal

t = [1: 0.1 : 12];
w = 1;
U = 1;
u = U*sin(w*t);
figure(2)
plot(t, u)

% Output signal
hold on
Lsim (H, ':r', u, t);
grid on
hold off
legend('input signal', 'output signal')

123
119
OUTPUT

Fig : Magnitude and Phase plot

124
120
 15. Assessment Schedule

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam

125
121
 16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOK:
 Nagarath, I.J. and Gopal, M., “Control Systems Engineering”, New
Age InternationalPublishers, 2017.
 Benjamin C. Kuo, “Automatic Control Systems”, Wiley, 2014.
REFERENCES:
 Katsuhiko Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”, Pearson, 2015.
 Richard C.Dorf and Bishop, R.H., “Modern Control Systems”, Pearson
Education,14th edition, 2016.
 John J.D., Azzo Constantine, H. and Houpis Sttuart, N Sheldon, “Linear Control
System Analysis and Design with MATLAB”, CRC Taylor& Francis 2013.
 Rames C.Panda and T. Thyagarajan, “An Introduction to Process
ModellingIdentificationand Control of Engineers”, Narosa Publishing House,
2017.
 M.Gopal, “Control System: Principle and design”, McGraw Hill Education, 2018.
 NPTEL Video Lecture Notes on “Control Engineering “by Prof. S. D.
Agashe,IITBombay.

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122
 17. Mini Project suggestions

S.No Name of the project

1 Detection of Over Speed Automatically

2 Joystick-Controlled Industrial Automation System

3 AC Power Monitoring System

4 Agribot: An Agriculture Robot

5 Smart Control for Home Water Heater Saving

6 Development of a Voice Conversion System

7 Security Systems for Remote Farm

8 Intelligent Traffic Light and Density Control using IR

Sensors and Microcontroller
9 A Digital Automatic Sliding Door with a Room Light
Control System
10 RFID based Blind Navigation System for Indoor
Environments

123
 Thank you

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