DNA and Cell Cycle

Chemical Structure of DNA

Protein Synthesis
• Transcription
• Translation
Cell Cycle
• Interphase (G1- after mitosis and before synthesis of DNA, S-
Synthesis phase and duplication of centrosome, G2- proteins
synthesized in preparation of Mitosis)
• Mitosis phase:
1. Karyokinesis (PMAT)
2. Cytokinesis
Prophase
1. Dissolution of nuclear membrane.
2. Condensation of chromosomal material.
3. Chromosomes attached at centromere.
4. Centrosome (Centrioles) started moving
to opposite poles.
Metaphase
• Complete disintegration of nuclear membrane.
• Condensation of chromosomes completed, clearly observed.
• Spindle fibres attach to kinetochore/centromeres.
• Chromosomes aligned on metaphase plate.
Anaphase
• Splitting of chromosomes in to two daughter chromatids and
• Migration towards opposite poles- now will be
known as daughter chromosomes.
Telophase
• Chromosomes reach at the opposite spindle poles.
• Chromosomes decondenses and lose their individuality.
• Nuclear envelop develops around the chromosome
clusters at each pole forming two daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divided in to two-forming two daughter cells.
Significance
• Growth and development
• Repair and regeneration
• Reproduction in lower organisms.
Meiosis
• Reduction Division
• Diploid (2n) → Haploid (n)
• Gametogenesis and sporogenesis
• Two Divisions
• Meiosis I
• Meiosis II
Stages in Meiosis
Meiotic I Prophase I, Stages of Prophase
Metaphase I, I- Leptotene,
Anaphase I, Zygotene,
Telophase I Pachytene,
Diplotene,
Diakinesis
Meiotic II Prophase II,
Metaphase II,
Anaphase II,
Telophase II
Prophase I
It is a prolonged phase and differs significantly from Mitosis, as
chromosomes behave as homologous pairs.
Stages of Prophase I
1. Leptotene
2. Zygotene
3. Pachytene
4. Diplotene
5. Dikinesis
Leptotene
• Greek word- “leptonema”- thin thread
• The chromosomes become visible, shorten and thick due to
condensation.
• The size of the nucleus increases and homologous
chromosomes start getting closer to each other.
Zygotene
• Zygotene-(Greek meaning conjunction or paired thread)
• During this phase pairing of homologous chromosomes
takes place called synapsis.
• The synaptonemal complex-bound paired homologous
chromosome is referred to as bivalents or tetrads.
• Sex chromosomes (X and Y) do not completely synapse
since they are homologous only to a small region of the
chromosomes.
• In the nucleus, the nucleolus shifts from a central to a
peripheral position.
Pachytene:
• Greek for 'thick’- thick threads
• Chromatin gets sufficiently condensed
• Four chromatids of each bivalent or tetrad becomes
distinct and clearly visible.
• Appearance of recombination nodules- the site at
which recombination takes place between non-sister
chromatids.
• Crossing over-exchange of genetic material b/w two
homologous chromosomes, mediated by
recombinase.
• Pachytene may last for days, weeks or even years,
whereas leptotene and zygotene can last only for
few hours.
Diplotene
• Greek meaning 'twofold’ or double bond.
• The paired chromosomes repel each
other and begin to separate.
• Separations however, is not complete
because homologous chromosomes
remain united by their point of
interchange(chiasmata).
• Each bivalent has at least one such point,
the chromatids otherwise are separated.
• Meiotic arrest occurs in many species at
this point.
Diakinesis
• Greek- Through Motion.
• This is marked by terminalisation of
chiasmata.
• During this phase the chromosomes
are fully condensed and the meiotic
spindle is assembled to prepare the
homologous chromosomes for
separation.
• By the end of diakinesis, the
nucleolus disappears and the nuclear
envelope also breaks down.
• Diakinesis represents transition to
metaphase.
Metaphase I
• The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
• The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the
kinetochore of homologous chromosomes.
Anaphase I
• The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids
remain associated at their centromeres
Telophase I
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows
and this is called as dyad of cells.
• Although in many cases the chromosomes do undergo some
dispersion, they do not reach the extremely extended state of the
interphase nucleus.
• The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and
is generally short lived.
• There is no replication of DNA during interkinesis. Interkinesis is
followed by prophase II, a much simpler prophase than prophase I.
Meiosis II
• Prophase II:
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II
Prophase II
• Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis, usually before the
chromosomes have fully elongated. In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II
resembles a normal mitosis. The nuclear membrane disappears by
the end of prophase II. The chromosomes again become compact.
Metaphase II
• At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator and the
microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the
kinetochores of sister chromatids.
Anaphase II
• It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each
chromosome (which was holding the sister chromatids together),
allowing them to move toward opposite poles of the cell by
shortening of microtubules attached to kinetochores.
Telophase II
• Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the two groups of
chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear envelope;
cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of cells i.e.,
four haploid daughter cells.
Significance
• Conservation of specific number of chromosomes.
• It also increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms
from one generation to the next.
• Variations are very important for the process of evolution.