4 Discourse Types

Expressive Discourses

Purpose: The primary purpose of expressive discourse is to convey personal thoughts,

feelings, emotions, or experiences. It often involves the speaker or writer reflecting on
something from a personal perspective, with a focus on self-expression rather than persuading,
informing, or entertaining others. It can serve various purposes such as:

1. Self-reflection: Expressive discourse allows individuals to explore and understand their

own emotions or experiences.
2. Emotional release: It provides an outlet for releasing feelings, such as through
journaling, poetry, or personal essays.
3. Artistic expression: Writers, poets, or artists use expressive discourse to create
something meaningful that represents their inner thoughts or emotions.
4. Connecting with others: Though it's deeply personal, expressive discourse can also
foster connections by sharing authentic experiences or emotions that others can relate to.

Audience: The audience for expressive discourse can vary widely, depending on the medium
and the context. However, the common thread is that expressive discourse is often aimed at:

1. The self: In many cases, expressive discourse is directed inward, meant for the writer or
speaker themselves as a means of processing thoughts and emotions.
2. A specific audience: For example, a poem, song, or essay might be written to
communicate personal feelings or ideas with a specific group, such as friends, family, or
a particular community.
3. The general public: Some expressive discourse, especially in literary forms like novels,
plays, or public speeches, is aimed at the broader public, intending to invoke shared
emotions or spark introspection in the audience.

Genres:

1. Poetry

• Description: Poetry is one of the most personal and artistic forms of expressive
discourse. It often conveys emotions, thoughts, and experiences through rhythm,
imagery, and symbolism.
• Example: A poem reflecting on the pain of loss, the beauty of nature, or the complexity
of love.

2. Journals and Diaries

• Description: Journaling is a deeply personal form of expressive discourse where an

individual records their daily thoughts, feelings, reflections, and experiences. It is often
used for self-reflection or as a therapeutic practice.
• Example: A diary entry about personal struggles or moments of joy.
3. Autobiographies and Memoirs

• Description: These genres allow individuals to reflect on and narrate their own life
experiences, often with a focus on significant moments or personal transformations.
Autobiographies tend to cover the life story in full, while memoirs focus on specific
events or periods.
• Example: A memoir about a transformative period in someone's life, such as overcoming
adversity or navigating a career change.

4. Letters

• Description: Letters can serve as a form of expressive discourse, particularly when they
are written to loved ones or friends. These letters can communicate a range of emotions,
including love, sadness, joy, or anger.
• Example: A heartfelt letter to a friend or family member expressing gratitude or sharing
personal thoughts.

5. Personal Essays

• Description: Personal essays are written reflections on specific events, ideas, or

experiences from the writer's life. They often reveal personal perspectives or insights and
may be introspective in nature.
• Example: An essay reflecting on the writer's relationship with a sibling or the impact of a
particular event in their life.

6. Creative Nonfiction

• Description: Creative nonfiction blends factual events with expressive, artistic language.
It aims to explore real-life events or experiences in a personal and subjective manner,
often using literary techniques to enhance the narrative.
• Example: A nonfiction piece that creatively explores a writer's trip abroad and the
emotions it evoked.

7. Songs and Lyrics

• Description: Music and song lyrics are powerful forms of expressive discourse. Artists
often use songs to express deep emotions, personal struggles, desires, or reflections on
life.
• Example: A song written about heartbreak, joy, or hope.

8. Drama and Monologues

• Description: In plays, soliloquies, or monologues, characters express their innermost

thoughts and emotions. These forms are often intended to provide insight into the
psychological or emotional state of a character.
 • Example: A soliloquy in a play where a character reflects on the meaning of life or
confronts personal dilemmas.

9. Blog Posts and Personal Websites

• Description: In the digital age, many people use personal blogs or websites to express
their thoughts and ideas. These platforms often feature deeply personal writing, such as
reflections on personal growth, creative projects, or emotional experiences.
• Example: A blog post about the writer's journey with mental health, self-improvement,
or a significant life change.

10. Visual Art and Expression (e.g., Painting, Photography, Sculpture)

• Description: Expressive discourse is not limited to written or spoken forms; it can also
manifest through visual art. Artists often use their works to express emotions,
perspectives, or personal experiences.
• Example: A painting or photograph that explores feelings of isolation, joy, or social
commentary.

11. Personal Reflections in Public Speeches or Presentations

• Description: Occasionally, individuals may deliver speeches or presentations that blend

personal experiences or reflections with broader themes. These can be moments of
emotional sharing, where the speaker connects their own experience to the audience's.
• Example: A keynote speaker reflecting on their personal journey of overcoming
obstacles and offering encouragement to others.

12. Confessional Writing

• Description: Confessional writing allows individuals to share personal secrets,

experiences, or emotions that may be difficult to express. This genre can serve as a way
of seeking relief or connecting with others on a personal level.
• Example: A confessional essay or blog post revealing feelings of guilt, regret, or
personal struggle.

13. Stream-of-Consciousness Writing

• Description: This genre reflects an unfiltered and continuous flow of thoughts and
feelings, often written in an erratic or disjointed manner. It seeks to capture the raw,
unedited mental processes of the writer.
• Example: A piece of writing where the author reflects on their inner world without the
constraints of formal structure, often mimicking the natural flow of thoughts.
 Literary Discourses

Purpose:

1. Artistic Expression: Literary discourse often aims to express complex ideas, emotions,
and experiences in creative, imaginative ways. It invites readers to experience the world
from the author's perspective.
2. Exploration of Human Condition: It explores universal themes like love, death,
identity, morality, and society, often encouraging reflection on personal and social issues.
Writers use literary techniques (metaphor, symbolism, narrative structure, etc.) to make
these themes more impactful.
3. Aesthetic Enjoyment: One of the central purposes is to provide aesthetic pleasure,
whether through beautiful language, imaginative storytelling, or thought-provoking ideas.
Literary works often aim to engage the reader's senses, emotions, and intellect.
4. Cultural Reflection or Critique: Literary discourse often reflects or critiques the
culture, society, or historical context in which it is written. Writers might use their work
to comment on social norms, political conditions, or philosophical ideologies,
encouraging readers to question or understand their world in new ways.
5. Entertainment: Beyond depth and complexity, literary discourse can also simply aim to
entertain, whether through gripping plots, humorous characters, or evocative settings.

Audience: The audience for literary discourse is generally:

1. General Public: Literary works are often written for a broad audience. Writers may aim
to communicate to any interested reader who enjoys the genre or style they write in (e.g.,
novels, poetry, plays).
2. Intellectual or Academic Audience: Many literary works are created with an intellectual
audience in mind, often engaging with complex ideas or requiring a deep understanding
of cultural, historical, or philosophical contexts. This is especially true for literary works
that are analyzed in educational settings.
3. Targeted Groups: Some literary works are intended for specific subgroups of people—
young adults, specific social or cultural communities, or individuals who share particular
interests. For example, dystopian novels might be aimed at readers concerned with
political themes, while romance novels target readers looking for escapism.
4. The Self: Just like expressive discourse, literary discourse can sometimes be directed
inward, as many authors write to explore their own emotions, thoughts, or experiences. In
this case, the audience might primarily be the writer themselves, though the work could
later resonate with others.
5. Critical or Expert Readers: In cases of literary criticism or highly experimental works,
the audience might include critics, scholars, or experts who analyze literature more
deeply and engage in discourse about the work’s themes, style, structure, and context.
Genres:

1. Fiction

• Description: Fiction is the genre that involves imaginative storytelling, often centered
around characters, events, and settings created by the author. It can encompass a wide
variety of sub-genres and styles.
• Sub-genres:
o Novels: Long works of fiction that explore complex characters, themes, and plots.
Examples include "Pride and Prejudice" by Jane Austen or "1984" by George
Orwell.
o Short Stories: Brief fictional works, typically focusing on a single theme or
event. Example: "The Lottery" by Shirley Jackson.
o Novellas: Shorter than novels but longer than short stories, novellas focus on a
central theme or conflict. Example: "The Metamorphosis" by Franz Kafka.

2. Poetry

• Description: Poetry is a form of literary discourse that expresses emotions, ideas, or

stories through structured verse, rhythm, meter, and often rhyme. It can be both personal
and universal, frequently using metaphor, symbolism, and imagery.
• Sub-genres:
o Lyric Poetry: Poems that express personal emotions or thoughts. Example: "Ode
to a Nightingale" by John Keats.
o Narrative Poetry: Poems that tell a story, often with characters and a plot.
Example: "The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe.
o Epic Poetry: Long poems that recount the deeds of heroic figures, often set in
grand historical or mythological contexts. Example: The Iliad by Homer.

3. Drama

• Description: Drama involves stories told through dialogue and performance, often
intended for stage, film, or television. It is written in script format and centers on the
interaction between characters.
• Sub-genres:
o Tragedy: A serious drama that often ends in disaster, typically involving a hero
with a fatal flaw. Example: Hamlet by William Shakespeare.
o Comedy: A light-hearted or humorous drama that often involves
misunderstandings or mistaken identities. Example: A Midsummer Night's Dream
by William Shakespeare.
o Tragicomedy: A blend of tragedy and comedy, offering both serious and
humorous elements. Example: The Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare.
o Farce: A type of comedy that uses exaggerated situations, physical comedy, and
improbable events. Example: The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde.
o
4. Non-fiction

• Description: Non-fiction refers to writing that is based on factual events, real people, or
actual places. While it is grounded in truth, non-fiction can still employ literary
techniques for storytelling, reflection, and analysis.
• Sub-genres:
o Essays: Short non-fiction works in which the author presents ideas, arguments, or
reflections on a particular subject. Example: "A Modest Proposal" by Jonathan
Swift.
o Biographies and Autobiographies: Life stories written by someone else
(biography) or by the subject themselves (autobiography). Example: The Diary of
a Young Girl by Anne Frank.
o Memoirs: A subset of autobiography, memoirs focus on specific aspects of the
author's life or significant experiences. Example: Educated by Tara Westover.
o Journalism: Non-fiction writing that reports on news, events, or social issues,
often blending factual reporting with narrative techniques. Example: The
Journalist and the Murderer by Janet Malcolm.

5. Fantasy

• Description: Fantasy literature involves the use of magical, supernatural, or mythical

elements that go beyond the realm of possibility in the real world. Often set in
imaginative worlds, fantasy engages with themes of good vs. evil, heroism, and
adventure.
• Examples: The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's
Stone by J.K. Rowling.

6. Science Fiction

• Description: Science fiction explores speculative concepts based on scientific principles,

often set in the future or on other planets. It raises questions about technology, society,
and humanity’s place in the universe.
• Examples: Dune by Frank Herbert, Brave New World by Aldous Huxley.

7. Historical Fiction

• Description: Historical fiction uses real historical events, settings, or figures as the
backdrop for fictional stories. It often aims to recreate the past and illuminate the human
experiences of particular eras.
• Examples: All the Light We Cannot See by Anthony Doerr, The Book Thief by Markus
Zusak.
8. Magical Realism

• Description: Magical realism blends fantastical elements with realistic settings, treating
the extraordinary as ordinary. The fantastical often serves as a metaphor or means of
exploring complex human experiences.
• Examples: One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez, The House of the
Spirits by Isabel Allende.

9. Gothic Fiction

• Description: Gothic fiction is characterized by its dark, mysterious, and often eerie
atmosphere, usually involving themes of horror, the supernatural, or decay. It often
focuses on the psychological and emotional tension of characters.
• Examples: Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, Dracula by Bram Stoker.

10. Allegory

• Description: Allegory uses symbolic figures, actions, or events to represent abstract

ideas or moral qualities. The characters and events in an allegory often convey a deeper,
moral, or philosophical message.
• Examples: Animal Farm by George Orwell, The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan.

11. Parody

• Description: Parody is a humorous or satirical imitation of a serious work or genre. It

often exaggerates or distorts the original material to create humor or critique the work
being parodied.
• Examples: Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes (parodying chivalric romance), The
Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams (parodying science fiction).

12. Satire

• Description: Satire uses humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize or mock individuals,

institutions, or societal norms. It often has a moral or political agenda, aiming to bring
about change or awareness.
• Examples: Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift, Candide by Voltaire.

Persuasive Discourses

Purpose: The primary purpose of persuasive discourse is to convince, influence, or persuade

the audience regarding a specific idea, opinion, or action. The key objectives include:

1. Convincing the Audience: Persuasive discourse aims to change or reinforce the

audience's beliefs, attitudes, or opinions about an issue, topic, or idea.
 2. Encouraging Action: In addition to altering beliefs, persuasive discourse often motivates
the audience to take specific actions, such as voting, purchasing, joining a cause, or
changing their behavior.
3. Creating Agreement: It seeks to establish common ground or agreement with the
audience by presenting logical, emotional, or ethical arguments that resonate with their
values and interests.
4. Advocating for a Cause: Often persuasive discourse is used to support social, political,
or environmental causes by making compelling arguments that inspire change in the
audience’s thinking or actions.

Audience: The audience for persuasive discourse typically consists of individuals or groups who
can be influenced or persuaded to think or act differently. Characteristics of the audience
include:

1. General Public: Persuasive discourse can be directed at a broad, general audience, such
as in advertisements, political speeches, or social media campaigns. In this case, the
discourse often seeks to reach a wide demographic and persuade people of varying
backgrounds.
2. Specific Demographics or Groups: Sometimes persuasive discourse targets specific
audiences with shared characteristics, such as certain age groups, professional groups,
political affiliations, or interest groups. For example, a campaign advocating for
environmental policies may be aimed at eco-conscious individuals.
3. Opposing or Neutral Audiences: Persuasive discourse may also aim at audiences who
are skeptical or neutral on an issue, with the goal of changing their stance or convincing
them to see a different perspective.
4. Supporters: In some cases, persuasive discourse is aimed at reinforcing or mobilizing
individuals who already agree with the message, inspiring them to take action or remain
committed to a cause.

Genres: Persuasive discourse appears in various genres, each with its unique methods and
settings for persuading an audience. Common genres include:

1. Advertisements: Ads are a direct form of persuasive discourse, designed to persuade

consumers to buy products or services, adopt behaviors, or change their perceptions about
a brand or issue.
2. Political Speeches: Political figures use persuasive discourse to influence public opinion,
garner support for policies, or rally people behind a cause or candidate. These speeches
often appeal to logic (logos), emotions (pathos), and the credibility of the speaker (ethos).
3. Op-Eds and Editorials: Written persuasive discourse found in newspapers or
magazines, where writers argue for or against an issue, using logic, emotional appeals,
and credible evidence to sway public opinion.
4. Persuasive Essays: Common in academic and professional settings, persuasive essays
aim to convince readers of a particular viewpoint through evidence, reasoning, and
rhetorical techniques.
 5. Public Service Announcements (PSAs): These are often created to raise awareness
about issues like health, safety, or social concerns, encouraging the public to adopt
certain behaviors or support causes.
6. Debates and Arguments: Persuasive discourse also occurs in formal settings like
debates, where participants argue opposing views, aiming to persuade the audience or
judges through logic, evidence, and rhetorical strategies.
7. Legal Arguments: Lawyers use persuasive discourse in the courtroom to convince a
judge or jury of their client’s innocence or guilt, typically relying on facts, precedent, and
legal reasoning.
8. Campaigns and Advocacy: In these genres, persuasive discourse seeks to raise
awareness, generate support, or convince the public or policymakers to take action on
social, political, or environmental issues.
9. Social Media Posts: In the modern age, persuasive discourse is frequently found in social
media campaigns, where individuals or organizations seek to influence opinions on topics
ranging from politics to lifestyle choices.
10. Letters of Recommendation: These are written to persuade the reader (usually an
admissions officer, employer, or committee) to favorably view the person being
recommended.

Scientific/Referential Discourses

Purpose: The main purpose of scientific referential discourse is to inform, explain, and
document scientific knowledge in a way that can be objectively understood and verified. Key
objectives include:

1. Knowledge Sharing: The primary purpose is to communicate new findings, theories, or

discoveries to the scientific community and beyond. This ensures the dissemination of
information that can be built upon or critiqued by others.
2. Objective Documentation: Scientific discourse focuses on presenting information in an
objective, precise, and standardized manner. It documents research processes, methods,
results, and conclusions clearly, so others can replicate studies or build upon the findings.
3. Clarification and Explanation: Scientists use referential discourse to explain
phenomena, concepts, and ideas in a way that makes sense within a particular field of
study. This includes breaking down complex ideas and presenting them in a structured,
logical manner.
4. Fostering Further Inquiry: By presenting data and conclusions, scientific discourse
invites further questions, hypotheses, and research. It often highlights gaps in current
knowledge and suggests areas for future investigation.
5. Establishing Credibility: Scientific referential discourse relies heavily on evidence and
logical reasoning. It uses verified data and supports arguments with facts, experiments,
and citations to establish credibility and ensure the validity of the claims made.

Audience: The audience for scientific referential discourse is primarily those interested in
understanding or engaging with the specific scientific field in question. Key audiences include:
 1. Scientists and Researchers: This is the primary audience for scientific referential
discourse. Researchers, scholars, and academics in specific scientific disciplines are the
main readers and contributors to scientific discussions.
2. Academic and Educational Institutions: Universities, research institutions, and
educational settings where the study of scientific knowledge is pursued. Professors,
students, and academic researchers engage with scientific discourse for learning,
teaching, and further research.
3. Policy Makers and Government Agencies: In some cases, scientific discourse is
directed at informing decision-makers in policy and government, especially on issues like
climate change, public health, and technology that require scientific backing.
4. Industry Professionals and Practitioners: Scientists and engineers in industries such as
healthcare, technology, and manufacturing use scientific discourse to stay up-to-date with
the latest research, innovations, and methodologies relevant to their field.
5. General Public (in certain contexts): Although scientific discourse is often technical,
certain forms (like popular science articles) aim to communicate scientific findings to the
broader public, making complex ideas accessible for non-experts.

Genres: Scientific referential discourse takes various forms, each suited to different aspects of
communication within the scientific community. Common genres include:

1. Research Articles/Papers: These are the primary form of scientific discourse. They are
published in peer-reviewed journals and present original research, methodologies, data,
and conclusions. They follow a standardized structure (Abstract, Introduction, Methods,
Results, Discussion, Conclusion) to ensure clarity and reproducibility.
2. Conference Papers: These are often presented at academic or professional conferences
to share new research findings, theories, or ideas with a specific scientific audience. They
may later be published in journals.
3. Books and Textbooks: Scholarly books and textbooks provide comprehensive
explanations of scientific principles, theories, and research. Textbooks are designed to
educate and explain concepts in a structured, accessible way, while books might focus on
more specialized areas of scientific research.
4. Technical Reports: Often commissioned by organizations, governments, or research
institutions, these reports document research, experiments, and results in a detailed,
formal manner. They may not be peer-reviewed in the same way as journal articles but
are still crucial in fields like engineering, medicine, and technology.
5. Dissertations and Theses: Graduate students, doctoral candidates, and postgraduates
write dissertations or theses to present their original research findings. These are
comprehensive documents that contribute to the body of knowledge in a given field.
6. Reviews and Meta-Analyses: These articles summarize and synthesize existing research
on a particular topic or question. Review articles are valuable for understanding the
current state of research and identifying patterns, trends, or gaps in the literature.
7. Scientific Reports: These include detailed descriptions of experiments, methods, and
results, typically aimed at a more specialized or academic audience. They may also be
used to document research funded by governmental or private entities.
8. Lab Notes and Experimental Journals: These are informal records kept by scientists to
document ongoing experiments, results, and observations. They are a vital part of the
scientific process but are often not intended for a wider audience.
9. Posters and Presentations: These are visual forms of scientific discourse used in
academic conferences or meetings. Posters are concise summaries of research projects,
while presentations might involve slideshows that visually communicate data and
findings to an audience.
10. Grant Proposals: Scientists submit grant proposals to secure funding for research
projects. These documents outline the scientific question, methodology, and expected
outcomes, aiming to persuade funding bodies (e.g., government agencies, research
institutions) to support the research.
11. Publications in Popular Science: Although not always highly technical, these works aim
to communicate scientific ideas, discoveries, and research to a broader audience, often
through magazines, newspapers, blogs, or TV documentaries. Examples include National
Geographic or Scientific American.