FORM ONE AND TWO

TOPIC 1: BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

What is Building Technology?

 Building Technology and Design involves the use of machinery in assembling

materials to design and construct a building.
 There is a lot of science and mathematics utilized. Science is used when choosing
materials for the different components of a building whilst mathematics is used to
calculate the sizes of components.

Importance of shelter

 A shelter is a structure that protects humans, animals and property from dangerous
situations such as bad weather, theft, deadly animals and dust.
 The reasons for the differences in shelter may include the following:
i. Need for accommodation
ii. Need for security
iii. Need for protection

Types of buildings found in Zimbabwe

Class/Category Description of building Example

Residential buildings Buildings where people House, flat, cottage
resides
Religious buildings Buildings where Church, Mosque, Temple
worshipping is done
Educational buildings Building for providing Classroom, lecture theatre
social service like education
Storage buildings Buildings for the storage of Warehouse, granary
goods
Historical buildings Buildings of historical Great Zimbabwe monuments
importance
Hazardous buildings Buildings where dangerous An Armoury
substances are stored
 Aesthetic value of existing Buildings

 Buildings should be attractive and add value to the surroundings. There are so many
ways of beautifying buildings, and some of these are:
i. Painting
ii. Using attractive materials
iii. Using attractive shapes when designing
iv. Designing buildings to match the size of their habitats.

Historical development of human habitats

 Shelter has evolved over a long period of time. Each period has reflected changes and
improvements in people’s shelter.
 The history of building is as old as mankind and hence the design and construction is
ever changing to suite the modern standards of living.
 Although various construction materials are available, bricks are widely used since
they:
i. are easy to work with
ii. produce strong and durable structures
iii. less costly as compared to stones and concrete
iv. can be used to produce decorative work
 The story of the Israelites in Egypt is a good reference to reveal that brickwork has
since been practiced even before Christ.

CAREERS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY

 A career is a job done by someone to earn a living.

Trades

 Trades are careers that require advanced training and skills. In the building industry,
people also apply their skills and knowledge to construct buildings while
professionals design and supervise them.

Tradespersons

 Are obtained mainly through apprenticeship in industry, technical colleges or trade

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EXAMPLES OF TRADESPERSONS AND THEIR JOBS

Tradespersons Trade Work done

Carpenter Carpentry fixes roof and doors
Joiner Joinery Joins wood boards
Brick layer Brick laying lays bricks or blocks
Sheet metal worker Sheet metal work Fixes metal sheets
Plumber Plumbing repairs and installs pipes on building
Electrician Electrical installation install electrical conduits and wiring
Plasterer Plastering applying plaster on the buildings
Painter Painting applying paints on buildings
Glazer Glazing fixes windowpanes on window frames

Mason Masonry Lays stone work

Professionals

 Are mostly university graduates or degreed persons

Examples of professionals

i. Architect
ii. Clerk of works
iii. Quantity surveyor
iv. Engineers

Their duties

Architect: Designs building and ensures that the contractor adhere to the design.

Clerk of works: He keeps all records of the site in case of stoppages or quarrels.

Quantity surveyor: Estimates or calculates the bills of quantity of materials and the total
cost of the project.

Electrical engineers: He/she deals with electrical components.

Mechanical engineers: Deals with the maintenance of lifts and excavators.

Structural engineers: is a professional who designs the size of building components so

that they are able to withstand forces.
Civil engineer: is a professional who designs and supervise the maintenance of public
infrastructure like roads, sewage disposal systems, bridges, and dams just to mention a
few.

TECHNICIANS

 Technicians spend most of their times in the laboratory assisting the professionals in
analyzing and testing designs.

INDIGENOUS AND MODERN CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Indigenous Construction Methods

 Construction methods refer to how the various components of a building are

assembled to produce a complete item.
 There are four structural approaches to building which are as follows:

The skeletal concept

 Is a situation in which buildings components are assembled in the form of skeletons

with light materials used to enclose the space between the skeletons. For example, the
pole and dagga traditional structures.

The solid concept

 In this concept the components are completely solid, for example stone and brick
buildings

The membrane concept

 Is when components are in the form of very thin material tensioned with guy ropes,
for example a tent and reed mat shed.

INDIGENOUS CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

 Pole and mud technology:

 It is a combination of skeletal and solid concepts. Isolated poles are erected from the
ground at strategic positions of the buildings to distribute all the loads to the ground.
 The gaps between the poles are filled up with clay to form a membrane.

The suspended technology:

 This technology involves suspending the building above ground level.

 The construction consist of stone boulders 0r bulky timber carrying a platform. The
platform carries the walls of the building structure.
 The technology is used to construct granaries and security houses in areas infested
with predators.
 It also used to build watch towers in the fields.

Stone technology

 Stone technology is the use of stones to construct buildings.

Indigenous material technology

 Some indigenous technology are promoted by innovation in the use of available

materials. Such technologies include the use of grass, dung and clay on finishes to
buildings.
i. Grass: is used to make boundary walls and as a roof covering material. There are
different types of finishes achieved using grass that is ordinary thatch and driven
thatch.

ii. Mud finishes: a thin paste of anthill clay is used to skim the surfaces of walls to seal
crevices to get a good finish that prevents parasites such as lice from breeding behind
the crevices. In some instances, mud has been used to build storage facilities such as
shelves.
iii. Dung finishes: has been used in indigenous technologies to repel away ants, parasites,
and poisonous snakes
 MODERN CONSTRUCTION METHODS

 Modern building technology is an advanced construction system but has its roots in
ancient construction methods.
 There are several construction methods used in building technology and design.
 The construction methods focus on how the building components are put together to
support and resist forces.
 The main construction concepts of building are as follows:

The skeletal/ framed concept

 Is assembling building components to carry loads and resist forces by using skeleton
frames as the load bearing members of the building.
 The skeleton frames are constructed first and then other materials such as bricks,
concrete, timber and glass are used to build the envelope to create living space.
 Skeletal technologies includes among others concrete columns and beams, steel
girders, and triangulated structures.

Solid concept

 Is constructing buildings using solid materials such as bricks, mass concrete and
stone.
 The solid material is stacked or bonded together to act as a single mass in the carrying
the load and resisting forces.

The membrane concept

 Consist of thin sheets of lighter materials being used to construct buildings or shelters.
They are mostly used for temporary shelters such as sheds, greenhouses, and car
ports.

Plate structural concept

 A plate of reinforced or toughened building materials can be laid on the ground as a

plate or suspended above the ground for example suspended floors of granaries, and
storey buildings.
 Over site concrete slabs, concrete bridges and upper floors of the building are good
example of plate technology.
 Timber technology

 Timber is commonly used in building technology for roofing, flooring, and for
making fittings inside the buildings.

BUILDING AS AN ENTERPRISE

 Enterprise is defined as to create opportunity to survive or create wealth.

Opportunities in the building industry

 Identifying opportunities in the building industry require one to understand the current
threats and technological developments in the building industry and convert these to
entrepreneurial opportunities.

Threats to careers in the building industry

 Many careers in the building industry may be affected by new materials and new
construction methods. However, the threats always come with new opportunities.

Current entrepreneurial opportunities in the building industry

 Entrepreneurial opportunities can be identified by researching what is happening in

the industry.
 There are so many challenges in the building industry among them are a shortage of
bricks, materials, services, expertise in construction and access to construction
resources.
 The challenges present entrepreneurial opportunities such as:
i. Moulding of bricks
ii. Supplying of materials, for example pit sand, river sand, stones and many more.
iii. Construction.
iv. Operating hardware shops.
v. Offering training in building technology.
vi. Offering drawing design services and many more.
EMPLOYMENT CREATION IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Production &
manufacturing

Material
supplies Construction industry Real estate
management

Engineering
Research &
innovation

 Business opportunities in the construction industry.

Brick moulding

Cement manufacturing Production &

manufacturing
Building contracting

Stone quarrying
Sand mining

 Business opportunities under production and manufacturing.

 Land

development

Estate
Real Estate Property
management
development

Hygene
eservices

 Business opportunity in real estate management.

 Engineering
 Engineering is the application of science, mathematics and technology to solve real
would problems.
 Engineering is a good area for business opportunities in the construction industry.
 Engineering services open up job opportunities for engineers and technicians in
various disciplines.
 Research and innovations
 Involve analyzing problem and applying science and technology to develop new
materials and new methods.
 There are so many areas in which one can venture under research and innovation. The
prospective areas of venture are:
 Material research.
 Technological research.
 Manufacturing research.
  Design and product development.

 Material supplies
 Is a business enterprise that involves identifying potential demand for materials within
a development area.
 There are so many job opportunities in the material supply chain and these includes
 Purchase and supply.
 Buyers.
 Sales and marketing.
 Transport and logistics.
 Accounting.

TOPIC 2: HEALTHY AND SAFETY

 These are various risks that are encountered in the building construction industries.
 To improve the health and safety of workman the contractor has to provide safety gear
and allow safe conditions to prevail in the working environment.
 Accident are caused; they do not just happen
.
DEFINITION OF ACCIDENT

 Accident is an unplanned and undesired event which may result in death, injury or
damage to property and equipment and cause work interruptions.

CLASSIFICATION OF UNSAFE ACTS

1. Working without being granted is unsafe act that can result in accident.
2. Throwing sharp tools to each other
3. Keeping sharp object in pockets
4. Teasing each other at the site
5. Failure to obey prescribed safety instructions
6. Working on running machines
7. Using faulty equipment
8. Horse play
CLASSIFICATION OF UNSAFE CONDITIONS

1. Inadequate guarding of the working site

2. Poor lighting
3. Using makeshift scaffolding
4. Sub-standard work environment
5. Using ungraded materials

CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS

 lack of control by owners of the building company

 lack of knowledge or skill
 poor working conditions
 unsafe acts.
 wrong use of tools
 working without wearing protective clothing.

METHODS OF ACCIDENTS PREVENTION AT CONSTRUCTION SITE

 Sensitisation on Accident regulations.

 Personal protective equipment PPE and personal protective clothing PPC is worn by
workers to protect themselves from injuries or accidents.
 Use of workshop safety signs as a way of communicating safety in the building
industry.
 Disaster management.
 Provision of Fire Fighting equipment.

Types of fire extinguishers:

 Red coloured -water extinguisher used on fire from wood, paper, and cloth.
 Black coloured - carbon dioxide fire exstinguisher used on all fire categories.
 Cream coloured -foam fire exstinguisher used on flammable liquids and flammable
gases.
 Blue coloured -dry powder fire exstinguisher used on all fire types.
 WHAT IS EXPECTED AT THE BUILDING SITE

Layout of materials and tools

 Tool and materials should be properly laid out so as to guard against injuries and
accidents.

Proper layout of materials and tools at the site

Brick

Wall

Workspace 1000mm

Spot board

Mortar
board

Brick stacks Brick stacks

CARE OF MATERIALS

 Bricks must be stacked on edges for the following reasons

1. To guard against collapse that cause injuries to people

2. So as to save space at the site

 3. For easy picking when laying

4. To avoid them from breaking

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

Prescribed protective clothing for the head, eyes, feet, and the whole body should be
provided to every bricklayer.

1. Helmet …………… for the head,should be worn to guard against falling objects
2. Goggles or face shields………should be worn when drilling and grinding
3. Safety boots……………….should be worn to guard against pricking nails and other
sharp objects, they also guard against heavy falling objects.
4. Overalls ………………….should be worn to guard against dirty
5. Gloves ……………………are important to guard against hand damage, especially
when handling cement and lime product. Such products causes cracking of hands.
Gloves also guard against injuries of hands
6. Respirators ………………guards against inhaling harmful products that causes
breathing problems.

FIRST AID

 A building workshop should be provided with a first aid kit.

 The first aid kit contains the equipmentand suppliers that help injured people receive
medical treatment.
 The first aid kit should contain the following items:

 Plasters.
 Barrier creams.
 Disinfectants.
 Bandages.
 Wipers.
 Latex gloves.
 Eye patches.
 Safety pins.
 Scissors.

First Aid Procedures

 Every building site should have a trained first aider.

 A bigger site requires several first aiders.
 It is also important to have a first aid room on a larger building site. In the event that
someone is injured, proper first aid procedures should be followed.
 The procedures are as outlined below:
 Assess what has happened.
 Deal with further dangers or remove the injured to a safe place.
 Ensure the person injured is breathing properly.
 Give the immediate help necessary.
 Position the injured person in a recovery position.
 Call for an ambulance.
TOPIC 3: BUILDING TOOLS
Definition

 It is a device that is used to make work easier.

NB.Tools should be used on the right job and cleaned after a day’s work

CLASSFICATION OF TOOLS
 There are four main groups namely
1. Measuring tools
2. Mortar tools
3. Digging tools
4. Cutting tools

MEASURING TOOLS
 These are sometimes called alignment tools.
 Their main function is to measure the length, align and gauge materials for mixing.

Measuring tape
 It is used for taking measurements of distances and for length.

MAINTANANCE AND CARE FOR A TAPEMEASURE

 Keep the tape measure safe after use.

 Ensure that the tape is rolled back into the metal casing after taking measurements and
you should not leave it lying on the ground if you are not using it.
 Avoid crinkle and apply light oil on the tape to minimize rust.

Measuring Wheel

 Measuring wheel is used to measure the distances or lengths.

 It contains a wheel of known diameter, which record the number of complete
revolutions from which the distance can be measured.
 It makes the work easier.
Lines and Pins

 It is a combination of a builder’s line and special pins or nails used to line and level
bricks when building long walls.

 A broken line should be joined by splicing.

Corner blocks
 Corner blocks are sometimes used to hold the line in place of pins or nails.

The advantages of corner blocks over pins are that:

 They are easy to adjust from one course to the other.

 They promote smart joints as the joints are not pierced by driving pins into them.
 They are safe to use since there is no risk of injury resulting from being pierced by the
sharp points of the pins.

Steel Square

 It is used to measure corners to 90^ and can be used to take small measurements.
MAINTANANCE
 The steel square is wiped with a damp cloth after use.
 It can be oiled regularly to prevent rusting

Gauge Rod

 It is used to have courses of the same height.

 This is a piece of wood marked or gauged to brick or block courses along it.
 Some spirit levels with calibrations can be used as an alternative to a gauge rod.
 Each graduation or division marks the brick height plus mortar.

MAINTANANCE
 A gauge rod is cared for by wiping off any mortar droppings.
 The course marking should be kept visible by deepening them with a tenon saw.

Gauge Box

 This is a wooden box or metal box used to measure volumes of materials to be

mixed when making mortar or concrete.

MAINTANANCE
 If it is a metal box it needs to be oiled,
 When it is a wooden box it needs to be wiped with a damp cloth.

Spirit Level

 It is used to level, plumb, and align walls erected.

 To plumb is to make the wall vertical or upright.
 CARE FOR A SPIRIT LEVEL
 Don’t wash it with water because the spirit level will become cloudy and you will
not be able to read it as you level and plumb.
 Wipe it with a clean semi-dry piece of cloth soon after use.
 Do not leave the spirit level in the sun for a long time because the bulb can expand
and will give inaccurate readings.

MAINTANANCE
 Maintenance of the spirit level is done by checking and adjusting the accuracy of
the spirit bulbs. Some spirit level have fixed bulbs which cannot be adjusted.

Straightedge

 This is a straight piece of metal or wood with both edges straight and parallel.
 It is used for transferring level with a spirit level.
 Cutting off surplus mortar when flooring or plastering
 Aligning bricks or blocks on the face of the wall
 The other use of the straight edge is transferring levels on site.

MAINTANANCE

 Wash or wipe off mortar and allow the tool to dry to prevent twisting and
bending if it is made of wood.
  Metal straightedge needs to be oiled to prevent rust.
 Always store the tool in a horizontal position to keep it straight.

Builder’s square

 This is large wooden builder’s square is used for squaring when setting out a
rectangular or buildings.

MAINTANANCE

 Keep it dry and any dirty is wiped off with a piece of cloth.

Tingle plate
;/.

 This tool holds the line in a level position in the middle of the wall to prevent a sag of
the line.

Builder’s bucket

 A cylindrical container with a handle to allow it to be lifted up.

 It is for carrying water, gauging, and carrying mortar.
 MAINTANENCE

 Should be cleaned using water and hung upside down to dry.

Plumb Bob
 Plumb bob is used to check the verticality of structures. It contains a solid metal bob
connected to the end of a thread.
 It is also used inn surveying to level the instrument position.

Plumb Rule
 Plumb rule is used to check the vertical line of wall whether it is perfect vertical or
not.
 It contains a straight wood board with uniform edges.
 On its center a groove is provided in which plumb bob is situated.
 When the rule is placed vertically with the wall the plumb bob should be in the groove
line otherwise the wall will not be vertical.

MOTAR TOOLS
 The Bricklayer’s trowel

handle

Tongue

Rivet/stopper

Blade ferrule

Toe

Neck/shank

225 - 275

This tool is used for

 Picking and spread mortar.

 Trimming bricks and sometimes rough cutting of soft bricks.
 Mixing small amounts of mortar spot board.
 Cutting surplus mortar.
 Knocking bricks into position.

Maintenance
  Wash the trowel and dry it.
 If the tool is not to be used for a long time, rub some oil on the blade to prevent it
from rusting
NB. Do not knock bricks into position with the stopper for this might wear the stopper.

Pointing trowel
 This trowel is much smaller than the brick trowel
 It is used for filling joints when pointing.
 It is also used for applying mortar in confined places and for neatly cutting away
mortar from joints being pointed
 Maintenance is same as of the bricklayers trowel

Builder’s bucket

 A builder’s bucket is used for carrying materials like sand, water, mortar and concrete
 It can also be used for gauging when mixing mortar or concrete.
Maintenance.

 Wash it clean in water and dry it.

 Always oil it if not in use for a long time.
Hawk board
 A hawk is used to hold and carry small amounts of mortar during plastering and when
filling joints during pointing or jointing.
Maintenance.

 Wash it clean and remove any dry mortar for this will keep it light and allow the
mortar to flow smooth.
 Metal hawk can be oiled

Wooden float

 It is made from hard wood.

 It is used to produce an even smooth wooden float finish to plaster or a floor surface
Maintenance.
 It is simply washed in water and dried after use.

Wheel barrow

 There are two types of wheelbarrows namely, the flat pan and the deep pan
wheelbarrow.
 The flat pan is used to carry materials while the deep bowl wheelbarrow is used for
transporting mortar and concrete. Sometimes wheelbarrow is used to gauge materials
for concrete and mortar.

Maintenance.

 Remove dry sticking mortar.

 It should be washed and dried.
 It should be lubricated to reduce friction.
 The rest of the wheelbarrow can be rubbed with oil to prevent rusting.

Corner tools
 These tools are used to finish both the plastered internal and external corners of walls
making them smooth and straight.
Maintenance.

 After use wash the tools with water and dry them.
 Oiling the corner tools is important.

Steel float / plastering trowel

 The steel float is used to apply mortar when plastering.

 The plastered surface or the finished floors can be smoothened to give a steel-float
finish. This is sometimes called skimming.
Maintenance.
 Wash with water and dry it
 Oiling is also important

Jointing tools (jointers)

 These tools are used to finish up squared or rounded bed and pep mortar joints.
Maintenance.

 Wash with water and dry with a piece of a cloth.

Scratchers
 Plastering of a surface is carried out layer wise. Minimum 2 coats are necessary for
plastering. To provide the good bond between the coats, bottom layer is scratched
with a tool called scratchers
 DIGGING TOOLS

Mattock

 This tool is for digging up soft ground.

 The axe and end is used for cutting tree roots encountered during digging operations.
Maintenance.

 The tool is cleaned by washing with water and dry it.

Pick
 The chisel shaped end is used to dig out soft ground, while the pointed end is used to
dig out hard ground.

Maintenance

 The digging ends should be kept sharp by grinding. The pick should be cleaned of any
soil and kept inside the storeroom.

Shovel

 It is used for removing soil when digging

Spade
 Is used for clearing grass, mixing concrete, and trimming the sides of trenches.

CUTTING TOOLS

Club hammer.

Is used to drive some cutting tools like the boaster or chisel during cutting operations.

Boaster
It is used in conjunction with a club hammer for cutting bricks to form bats or closer.

Maintenance

 Should be wiped of all dirt and hung in the storeroom after a day’s work.
 Due to continued blows received from the hammer during cutting operations, the head
of the bolster may develop a mushroom head. The shape of the bolster head and its
cutting edge can be maintained by occasional grinding.

Cold chisel

 A chisel is similar to a boaster except that it has a much thinner shaft and cutting
blade.
 It is used for making holes into walls.
Brick hammer

 It is used for accurate cutting and shaping of bricks bats and closers.

Brick axe

 Is used for shaping the edges of rough cut bricks

Comb hammer

 Is used for chipping off protruding bricks when plastering.

Circular Saw
  Circular saw used to cut the wood boards, frames etc. It is used when accurate cutting
is required

Hand Saw

Hand saw is used to cut the wood materials like doors, windows, slab panels etc.

Jack Plane
Jack plane is used in the wood work to smoothen the surface of doors and windows etc.
 TOPIC 4: BUILDING MATERIALS

Building materials used in modern technology includes:

 Bricks
 Cement
 Mortar
 Concrete
 River sand
 Pit sand
 Timber/wood
 Steel

Bricks

 A brick is a rectangular walling unity measured 230 by 115 by 75.

 Bricks are needed for the construction of walls for buildings.
 There are different types of bricks. Some bricks are named according to the material
used to make them. For example, bricks made of clay are called clay bricks while
those made of cement and sand are called cement bricks.
 The names given to bricks may also be determined by their use. When bricks are used
for general building work they are called common bricks, while those used to give
attractive appearance on walls are called facings/face bricks.

Brick parts
 Types of bricks

 Cement bricks
 Face bricks
 Common bricks
 Engineering bricks
 Farm bricks

Qualities of a good brick

 Should be durable.
 Should strong.
 Should be of standard size.
 Should produce a metallic sound.
 Should be well burnt.
 Should have sharp edges.
 Should resist sulphate attack
 Should be free from organic matter
 Should absorb little water
 Should have flat surfaces
 Should be well moulded

Storage of bricks

 Bricks should not be dumped at a building site randomly. They should be stacked on
level ground and convenient to the construction to be undertaken so as not to disturb
other movements on site and be closer where they are to be used.
 They should be stacked on edge in regular patterns as they are offloaded to minimize
breakages and facilitates easy counting of the bricks.
 Testing for quality of bricks

Water absorption test

 This test is carried out by weighing bricks in dry state and then put in water for 24
hours. After 24 hours, they are taken out of water, wiped with a cloth, and then re-
weighed.
 The difference between weights is the water absorption by the brick.
 The bricks should absorb no more than 20% of their volume or mass.

Crushing strength

 It is done to know the compressive strength and is done using a crushing strength
machine.

Shape and size

 Randomly collected samples of bricks are measured to know the variation of sizes as
per standards.

Structure test

 A brick is cut, and the section is closely observed. The structure of the cut face should
be homogenous, compact, and free from holes, cracks, fissures, air bubbles, lumps
and stones.

Fall test

 A brick should not break when dropped from a height of about a meter on flat hard
ground.

Hardness test

 A scratch is made on the surface of a brick with a fingernail or something hard. If it

shows no effect on the surface, then it is a good brick.

Efflorescence test

 This test is performed to find the presence of alkalis in bricks. A brick is soaked in
water for 24 hours to carry out the test and then allowed to dry.
 If the whitish layer shows up, there is a presence of alkalis in the brick. If 10% of the
brick surface is affected, the alkalis is in the acceptable range, but if it is more than
50%, the bricks are severely affected.

Cement

 Cement is made from a mixture of clay and limestone or clay and chalk. The two
materials are ground into a powder and mixed with water to form wet paste called
slurry. Slurry is burnt in a kiln and form lumps called clinkers which are then ground
in a grinding mill to form a grey powder called cement.
 Cement is used as a matrix in concrete and mortar.

Types of cement

In Zimbabwe, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is commonly used.

 Ordinary Portland Cement

 Rapid hardening Cement
 Sulphate resistant Cement
 Heat resistant cement.
 High alumina cement.
 Quick setting cement.

Storage of cement

 Cement requires a lot of care and protection for it to stay usable. It should be safely
stored in a shed to protect it mostly from dampness.
 Cement bags should be stored on a raised platform of timber (timber pallets).
 Bags of cement should not be stacked against the walls of a shed as they will be
affected by moisture from the walls.
 The cement stacks shall not be more than 12 bags high and should be stacked close
together. This is to prevent the lumping of cement due to much pressure on bags
under and reduce air circulation when bags are closely stacked.

Testing cement for quality

Lump test

 Physically examine if the cement does not have lumps inside the shows that it has
started to harden.
 Rubbing test

 Take a pinch of cement from the bag and rub it between fingers and thumb, it should
feel like a smooth powder such as flour, and not any gritty particles.

Setting test

 Setting is the process that changes fluid concrete or mortar to a solid but in a week
state.
 Hardening is the process by which the weak set concrete attains its strength.
 The test is carried out by making a stiff paste of cement and water and forming a cake
about 75mm in diameter and 12-15mm thick. The cake should start to set I about 30-
60 minutes, and in 18-24 hours, it should have hardened sufficiently.

CONCRETE

 Def: It is a mixture of the binder (cement), fine aggregate (river sand) and coarse
aggregates (quarry stones) mixed with water in specified ratio.
 Materials: Cement, river sand, quarry stones and water.
 A mixture of cement and aggregates is known as a concrete mix
 The proportioning of cement, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates for concrete
making is called batching or gauging.
 Batching can be done by volume or weight.
 Mixing of concrete is done by hand or in a concrete mixer.
 When concrete is placed, it must be compacted so that it becomes as dense as possible
to get rid of voids. This can be done manually or mechanically using a poker vibrator.

Concrete mixing ratios

 Mass concrete: 1:3:5/6 for ordinary foundation and floor slabs.

 Reinforced concrete: 1:2:4 for slabs, piers, and roofing.
 Dense concrete: 1:2:2 for tanks and pits.
 Newly laid concrete should be allowed to gain strength by curing. This is done by
keeping it wet enough for up to 21 days depending on the type of cement.

Testing of concrete

 Concrete can be tested forboth strength by a process called the cube test and
workability by slump test.

Aggregates

 These are inert granular materials which are mixed with a binding material such as
cement to make concrete or mortar.
 The main purpose of adding them to a cement is to add volume to the mix and thereby
reduce costs.
 It also increases the strength of the mix, be it concrete or mortar.

Classification of aggregates

 Aggregates are grouped into, coarse and fine aggregates. In some situations,
aggregates may also be grouped as light weight and heavy weight.

Coarse aggregates

 Are used for concrete making. Example of coarse aggregates include crushed quarry
stones, blast furnace slag, and natural gravel.

Fine aggregates

 Are used for bricklaying and plastering mortar.

 Fine aggregates includes pit sand, river sand, saw dust and burnt coal ash.

Light weight aggregates

 Are used in situations where there is need to reduce the weight of the building
structure or where heat and sound insulation is important.
 A good example of light weight aggregates is saw dust. Can be used to manufacture
ceiling boards and floor boards.

Heavy weight aggregates

 Are used for heavy duty work such as blast furnace, dams, and bridges.
 An example of heavy duty aggregates is a blast furnace slag.
 Storage of aggregates

 Aggregates are stored in bunkers away from mixing with vegetable matter and foreign
matters.

Mortar

 Mortar is used to bind building units together.

 It is made up of a binder and an aggregate.

Types of mortar

1. Mud mortar

Is nondurable and it is made of anthill clay mixed with water. It is mainly used in
rural areas and for temporary construction in farm areas.

2. Cement mortar
 Is made of cement and pit sand. Cement mortar is generally strong and used for all
building situations.

3. Lime mortar
 Is made of lime and pit sand.

4. Compo mortar
 Sometimes, both cement and lime are used in the same mortar mix as binders. Mortar
with a combination of binders is called compo mortar.

Mortar mixing ratios

 1:6 -ordinary bricklaying and plastering mortar.

 1:2 -for grouting.
 1:4 -for jointing.
 1:1:6 -compo mortar.

Requirements of mortar

Workability: (its fluid state, its mobility)

 This is the ability of mortar to be worked on.

 Plasticity retention

 The amount of time that the mortar is able to return its fluid state.

Mortar should have adequate strength.

Mortar should be durable.

Mortar should have good bond with building units

Timber

 Is mostly used in construction of roofs trusses and walls for temporary shelters at
building site. It is also used for doors, floors, and many other uses in construction.

Steel
 Metal strengthens the buildings and therefore it is widely used. It is used to make
metal door frames, window frames, steel roofs, iron sheets, and iron monger
reinforcements.

TOPIC 5: BONDING

What is bonding?

 Is the arrangement of bricks in such a manner so as to resist forces and avoid vertical
joints.

Bonding principles and rules

 Bonding principles apply to the bonding of brickwork in general and bonding rules
are specific to a particular bond.

Bonding Principles

 The smallest cut brick to be inserted in the middle of a wall is a half bat
 A queen closer is the minimum size of a cut brick that appears on the face of a wall
but next to a quoin header.
 The perpends of a wall must run through the entire thickness of a wall except in a
water bond.
  The perp joints should appear vertically above each other in alternate courses.
 Always avoid straight joints by overlapping perp joints.
 Locate any broken bonds in the middle of the wall or under openings.

Arris: Sharp edge of a brick.

Bed: The lower surface of a brick when placed in position.

Header: The end surface of a brick. Measuring 115x75mm.

Stretcher: The longer surface of a brick measuring 230x75mm.

Face: A surface of a brick e.g. header, stretcher etc.

Frog or Kick :( indent) Shallow sinking on a brick. It serves to afford good key for mortar
Used also for walls requiring thin beds for mortar. Bricks having a frog on one side should
have the frog facing the upper most part.

Course: A complete layer of bricks.

Bed Joints: Mortar joints parallel to the beds of the bricks and therefore horizontal in general
walling.

Cross or Vertical Joints: These are found at the ends of bricks in general walling.

Collar Joints: Internal vertical longitudinal mortal joints in walls exceeding 115mm in
thickness.(middle long joint)

Quoin: A corner or the external angle of a wall.A quoin formed when walls meet at an
internal angle greater than 90 degrees is called an obtuse squint quoin and if the angle is less
than 90 degrees is called acute squint quoin.

Stopped/Closed end:Square termination to a wall.Perpends:Imarginary vertical lines which

include vertical joints.These should be plumb.

Lap:The horizontal distance which one brick projects beyond a vertical joint in the course
immediately above or below.
Racking back: A stepped arrangement formed during theconstruction of a wall when one
portion is bullt to greater height than that adjoining.

Tooting: A process where each alternate course is recessed.

Indends:Sinkings formed in each alternate course of a wall into which a new wall is toothed
and adequately connected. Usually indents are formed after every three or four courses high.

Bat: A portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made across the width of the brick.(An
sizeable cut brick)e.g. three quarter bat,half bat etc.

Closer: A portion of an ordinary brick with thecut made longitudinary and usually having
one uncut stretcher face

Types of Bonds.

There are numerous patterns formed by laying bricks. Each pattern is different from another
and these patterns are referred to as bonds.

1 Stretcher Bond
 The common brick work face seen on a stretcher bond is the stretcher face. This
means that stretcher bond consist of bricks laid as stretchers on every course.

Rules of bonding stretcher Bond

 Half lap is maintained by introducing a half brick at the beginning of each alternate
course in half brick thick walls. In one brick thick walls, a full brick laid across the
wall and showing the header face is used.
 Three quarter bats are introduced at junction to maintain half laps.

Advantages of stretcher Bond

 It is easy to build.
 It uses less bricks per square metre.
 It is cheap.

Disadvantages
 It is weak in strength.
 It is unstable when building.

2 English bond
 The bond consist of alternate courses of stretchers and headers.
 It has a queen closer placed next to a quoin header to maintain quarter laps.
 An English bond is used where strength is important.

Rules of bonding English bond.

 When direction changes, the bond also changes. This means each time a course
changes direction, you change the bond pattern.
 Quarter lap is maintained by introducing a closer next to a quoin header.
 Headers and stretchers courses alternate with each other.
 The minimum wall thickness for an English bond is one brick.

Advantages of English bond

 It is strong because the wall joint is intercepted by the header course.

 The alternating of courses breaks visual monotony.

Disadvantages of English bond

 It is expensive to construct.
 It uses more bricks per square metre when compared to stretcher bond.

3 English Garden Wall bond

 The bond consists of a course of a header course followed by an odd number courses
of stretcher 3,5,7 and 9.
 English garden wall bond is a combination of English bond and stretcher bond.
 It combines the principles of quarter bonding and half bonding without distorting the
bond pattern.

4 Header bond
 The features of header bond are that, only the header face is seen on the elevation.
 The perp joints run diagonally throughout the entire height of the wall.
 It is the strongest of all the bond types.
 It is used to build footings, circular work and over sailing courses.

Rules of bonding header bond

 Quarter lap is obtained by introducing a three quarter in the alternate header course.
 The bricks are laid header wise.
 The header should lie centrally above the perp joint.

Bond solving

TOPIC 6: SITE WORKS

PRELIMINARY SITE WORKS

 The construction of a building starts with preparatory activities known as preliminary
site works.
 Preliminary site works for a building includes, site selection, site survey, site
clearance, and site layout.

Site selection
 Site selection is done to make sure the building is constructed at a place suitable for
its purpose.

Factors influencing site selection

 There are a number of factors to be considered when choosing a site for a building.

Climate

 Climatic conditions like rainfall intensity, temperature, and wind pressure influence
the choice of building materials.
 Topography
 Topography refers to the terrain or sloppiness of the ground.
 It is important to know the height of a place in relation to the sea level or the
surrounding area to avoid building on places likely to be affected by floods.

Accessibility (easiness of reaching the site)

 Accessibility influences transportation of materials and communication with other
places of importance.
 Road networks and telecommunication services are important when choosing a site.

Presence of services
 Services are essential provisions that assist in maintaining the wellbeing of people.
 They includes daily needs like water, schools, shops, health centres among other
services.

Purpose of the building

 Buildings serves different purposes.
 This purposes determines a building’s location.

Underground soil conditions

 The characteristics of soil may affect the stability of a building in the future.
 Some places have poor soils that cannot support buildings.
 Others have underground water throughout the year which is unsuitable for
construction.

The future of the building

 It is important to consider the availability of space for expansion or a change of
activities. For example, a school, college or university should surrounded with open
space to allow for future expansion.

Site survey
 Every site should be surveyed before construction of the building.
 The site survey gives information on the boundaries of the site, topography, nature of
the soil, and existing features like trees and other nearby buildings.
 The survey also enables the civil engineers to plan for storm water drains and
sewage disposal system.
 It also gives the structural engineer information on the type of soil that are suitable for
designing the foundation of the building.

Site clearance

 Top soil contains a lot of organic matter, plant and insect life which may interfere
with the stability of a building.
 Organic matter and physical obstacles like stone boulders and trees should be
removed from the space where the building is to be constructed.
 Top soil is removed to a depth of 150mm and this process is called reduced level dig.
 Stones boulders are blasted and pushed away to pave way for the building.
 Trees are cut and stumps dug out or burnt with fire.
 Ant nests are removed and treated with termite poison.
 Once site is free from all these obstacles, the construction can begin.
Methods of clearing a building site

By hand/manually

 Clearance of the building can be done manually using hand tools like axes, picks,
mattocks and whatever convenient tool is available.

Advantages of manual clearance

 It is cheap.
 Can be done at one’s own pace.

Disadvantages of manual clearance.

 It is tiresome.
 It requires a lot of labour.
 It requires a variety of tools.
 It takes a long time to finish the job.
 By mechanical means
 Building sites can also be cleared by machines such as bulldozers, end loaders and
graders.

Advantages of mechanical means of site clearance

 There is less human labour require to clear the site.
 It is faster and efficient.
 It is more thorough.

Disadvantages of mechanical means of site clearance.

 It is expensive.
 It needs skilled personnel to carry out the operations.

Site lay out

 A construction site should be arranged in an orderly manner.
 This is possible by allocating space to the various activities done when constructing a
building.

Environmental Conservation issues Preservation Orders.

 The construction of buildings has both positive and negative effects on the
environment.
 To control the negative effects, local government through their town councils enforce
building bye-laws to protect certain buildings and areas from construction activities.
 There are some buildings which have historical and cultural importance which have
historical and cultural importance in Zimbabwe. Such buildings are protected by
conservation laws. They are declared as special buildings and are under the custody of
the National Museum and Monuments.
 The unnecessary cutting down of trees at building sites is discouraged by the
Environmental Management Agency (EMA).
 Conservation laws encourage building designs that fit into the natural environment.
The concept is known as Green Buildings.
 Green buildings promotes the use of natural ventilation and uses less artificial light in
order to prevent pollution the environment.
  City council bye-laws also prohibit the construction of buildings in the wetlands.
 Wetlands are important in cleaning the water before it gets to the dams and lakes.

TOPIC 7: Design and drawing

 Drawing is the graphic representation of an object or concept using the universal
language which consists of graphic symbols.
 The accuracy and standard of drawing depends on the quality of instruments used.
 Therefore, one needs to have the drawing tools in order to acquire the skills of
drawing.

Drawing tools

i. Drawing board.
ii. T-square.
iii. Set squares
iv. Protractor.
v. Compass.
vi. Dividers.
vii. Pencils.
viii. Erasers.
 Drawing board

 Generally, it is a rectangular board made from wood or plastic.

 The drawing board is made in different sizes to suit the size of the drawing sheet or
paper to be used.
 The drawing board is used to hold the drawing sheets/paper.

T-square

 It is used to draw to horizontal, vertical lines and inclined lines in conjunction with
setsquare.

Set square

 Generally, set squares are of 2 types: one is a 45- set square, and the other 30 and 60
set squares.
 Both are required for drawing inclined lines, angles and vertical lines in conjunction
with the T-square.

Protractor
 Are used to measure angles between 0 to 180 that is semicircle protractor. Circular
protractor measure up to 360.

Compass

 It is used for drawing circles.

Dividers

 It is used for checking and transferring measurements and dividing lines or curves
into equal parts.

Drawing pencil.

 Pencils are used for constructing lines, lettering and dimensioning.

 Pencils are graded into three groups that is hard grade, medium and soft grade.
 The ‘H’ denotes the hardness of the lead and the amount of hardness is shown by
value put in front of ‘H’ such as 2H, 3H and so on.
 ‘HB’ denotes medium grade and soft pencils are marked as 3B, 3B, 4B and so on.
Softness increases as the number increases.
 Geometrical construction of angles and shapes.

Geometric Drawing

Plane geometric

 Involves the projection of lines or plane figures into fixed horizontal and vertical
planes.
 The plane figures may be at angle to the horizontal or vertical planes or both.

Solid geometric

 Refers to all geometric shapes having length, breath and thickness called solids and
are named according to their shapes.

Orthographic projection (Drawing)

 It is method of drawing where many drawings represent one object.
 The object is represented by separate views, which are plan, elevation and sections.
 These views are drawn as they are seen from different direction/positions and then
arranged in a systematic manner.

First Angle Projection

Back elevation

Side C elevation Front elevation Side B

elevation

B Plan C

Third Angle Projection

BC Plan

Side B elevation Front elevation Side C

elevation

Back elevation
 Plan

 Is a view presented when looking vertically down on an object.

 The plan shows the true shape, dimensions and correct position of an object.

Projectors – are perpendiculars.

 They are drawn from four corners of an object to points on a horizontal flat surface
(called plane) and if lines connect those points the resulting figure is called a
projection and is the plan of an object.

Elevation
 View obtained when looking in a horizontal direction towards the object.
 It also shows the true shape, dimensions and correct position of an object.
 Elevation are named depending on the direction of the viewer.

Section
 The view presented when an object is assumed to have been cut through by a plane
and the portion between the observer and the cutting plane removed.
 It is usually used to show the details of how the object is constructed.
 If the cutting is vertical, a vertical section results and if horizontal, then a horizontal
section is produced.

Pictorial drawings
i. Isometric projection.
ii. Oblique projection.
iii. Axonometric projection.
iv. Perspective projection.
v. Planometric projection.

Computer Aided Design (CAD) and drawing

 The use of a computer helps in the design, modification, analysis, and production of
good drawings. The technology is used in the designing of all types of buildings, from
small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures.
 Drawing using AutoCAD needs basic computer skill such as operating, navigating,
and general booting of a computer.
 AutoCAD enables designers to lay out and develop work on screen, print it out, and
save it for future editing and thereby save time on their drawings.

TOPIC 8: SUB STRUCTURE

Foundations

 A foundation is an expanded base of a wall.

Purpose of foundation
 To distribute load of a structure.
 To provide a level base from which all construction will commences.
 To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate to avoid unequal settlement.
 To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

Classification of foundations

Natural foundations
 i. Rock.
ii. Clay soil.
iii. Gravel.

Artificial foundations
 Artificial foundations are man-made.
 Types of artificial foundations

Classification of artificial foundations

 Foundations are classified according to load transmission in relation to the depth at
which they are placed.
 Shallow foundations are those that are less than 1500mm below ground while those
more than 1500mm deep are called deep foundations.

Shallow foundations
 Shallow foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to
support both the dead and imposed loads, but they are generally unsuitable in weak or
highly compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill, peat and alluvial deposits.

1. Strip foundation
 This type of foundation runs continuously along the direction of the wall and helps to
transmit the load of the wall into the ground.
 Strip foundations are suitable where loads to be transmitted are small and are
economical in dense sands and gravels.
 Strip footing is three times thicker than the wall and may be constructed out of stones,
brick, or plain or reinforced concrete.
 If the base of strip foundation is wider than three times the width of the wall the
foundation will be referred to as wide strip foundation. Because of the wider width
of the foundation, there is need to reinforce the concrete to prevent the footing from
breaking.
 The wider strip foundation are built on some weaker soils to allow the foundation to
appear floating on a wider surface are.
2. Pad foundations.
 Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load due to a structural
column.
 They may be circular, square or rectangular.
 They usually consist of a slab of uniform thickness, but they may be stepped or
hunched if they are required to spread the load from a heavy column.
 Pad foundations are usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used.

Raft foundations
 Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area.
 A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire
loaded area.
 Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlement as the
concrete slab resists differential movements as the concrete slab resists differential
movements between loading positions.
 They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can
spread the loads over a large area.

Deep foundations
 Deep foundations are taken to a depth below the finished ground surface for their base
bearing capacity not to be affected by surface conditions.
 This is usually at depths of more than 3m below finished ground level.
 Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to deeper, more competent strata
at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

Types of deep foundations

1. Pile foundation
 Piles are relatively long, slender supports that transmit foundation load through soil
strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soils or rock strata having a high bearing
capacity.
 The piles are anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist them in resisting
lateral and overturning forces in the soil.
 Piles foundations are used when:
 The load is to be transferred to strong or less compressible stratum, preferably rock.
 The horizontal and the inclined forces need to be carried from the bridge abutments
and the retaining walls.
Piers
 These are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed in-situ
in a deep excavation, for structures on weak soils and strong sub soils.

Caissons
 The term caissons refers to a box or a case.
 These are form of deep foundation hollow constructed above ground level, at the site,
then sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging material from within the
caisson into hard bearing strata or a layer of soil underground.
 Caissons are used for:
 Bridges.
 Abutments in rivers and lakes and other shore protection works.
 Resisting heavy vertical and horizontal loads.

Factors affecting the selection of a foundation

 The type of the soil.
 The size of the building structure.
 Topography.
 Loads to be carried by foundation.
 Presence of water in the soil.

Terminology that have to do with design.

Bearing capacity
 The maximum load that a particular type of soil can carry without giving in.
Bearing pressure
 Amount of pressure exerted by the load or structure on to the soil.

 Bearing capacity and pressure are very important in the design of foundation.
 Effects of bearing pressure on the sub soil
 Compaction: bearing pressure result in soil compaction and excessive bearing
pressure will result in differential settlement (unequal settlement)
 Settlement is the downward movement of the building.

By-laws on foundations
 Bye-laws are a statutory instrument or regulations set by the government to ensure or
maintain standards and control the quality of any undertaking work.

 According to MBBL the minimum depth of any given foundation should not be less
than 450.

Functional requirements of a foundation

 These are by-laws regarding foundations for them to be able to function well as
foundations.
 The requirements from building by-laws (building regulations) are:
 The foundation should be constructed to safely carry the entire combined load (dead
and imposed) and transmit to the ground without deflection, deformation of any part
of the building.
 They should be able to sustain limited uniform settlement of a building on the ground
caused by compression of soil under the whole building.

Trench excavation
 Trench excavation are done to accommodate strip foundations.
 The depth of trench varies according to the type of soil, type of foundation, and the
engineer’s recommendation considering the type of building to be constructed.
 Deep trench excavation are a potential hazard in the construction industry.
 As a result statutory and onsite safety measures needs to be taken into consideration to
ensure that operatives are protected against dangers of trench collapse, falling
materials or contact with buried underground services.
 Trenches must be either battered to a safe angle or be supported with timbering or
other appropriate system.

Trench support
 Timbering: a system of using timber members to support trenches and the strength of
the timbering depends on the condition of the soil.
Timbering on firm ground.
Timbering in loose wet soils.
Timbering in loose dry soils.
Steel trench sheeting.
Battering

TOPIC 9: SUPER STRUCTURE

Walls

 A wall is either internal or external structure of a building which is meant either to

enclose or divide space.
 There are many walls used in construction.
 The walls may be named according to the material that is used to construct them.
 Walls can also be named according to their position on the building.
 They can also be classified according to their load bearing function.
 Walls can also be named according to their shape.

Function of walls
 Walls encloses space.
 Walls divide space.
 Walls also provide privacy and security.
 Walls are used for supporting roofs, ceiling, and floors and to give form to buildings.
 Are used for decorations in buildings.

Walling materials
 Bricks
 Cement asbestos
 Stones
 Pole and dagga
 Building blocks
 Timber
 Concrete
 Glass
 Metal

Types of walls

Describing walls using materials of construction

 Composite walls.
 Veneer walls.
 Stone walls
 Glass walls
 Concrete walls
 Faced walls.


Describing walls according to their functionality

 Curtain walls
 Screen walls.
 Parapet walls.
 Buttress walls.
 Retaining walls
 Boundary walls.
 Partition walls.
 Separating walls
 Cavity walls.
 Free standing walls.

Describing walls according to their positions

 External walls
 Internal walls

Describing walls according to their load bearing properties

 Load-bearing walls
 None load-bearing walls

Method of strengthening and stabilizing the walls

 Use of brick force.

 Use of attached pies.
 Use of serpentine walls.
 Use of interlacing walls.
 Use of steel reinforcements.
 Use of wall ties.
 Walls can be strengthened by thickening the wall

Wall openings
 All openings have some identical parts.
 The functions of the different parts are outlined below.

 Head: is made of either concrete, steel, bricks or wood and is meant to relieve the
frame from the weight of the wall above it.
 Jambs: provide a means of securing the frame into the wall.
 Frame: is fitted to provide shape and good finish to the opening.
 Sill/cill: is made either of concrete, wood or bricks and is meant to prevent driving
rains from wetting the wall below the opening.
 Threshold: is provided at the base of a door opening.

Types of wall openings

 Door and archways
 window openings
 Perm-vents
 Air vents

Function of openings

Doors and archways

 Doors openings provide entrance and exit points into a building.
 Archways are usually transit points connecting space inside a building, for example
dining and lounge.
Window openings
 For light admission.
 Ventilation.
 Adds beauty to the building.
Perm-vents
 Perm-vents mean permanent ventilation.
 Perm-vents are usually put on laundry, toilets and bathrooms of public buildings.
They are also common on portions of buildings housing hot water geysers.
Air vents
 Air vents are perforated units that are placed on openings to allow air exchange in and
out of the building.

Bridging openings

Lintel

 A lintel is a structure which bridges a gap above an opening.

 Materials for making lintels
 Reinforced concrete
 Timber
 Stone
 Bricks
 steel

Concrete lintels

There are two types of concrete lintels which are:

 Precast (made on the ground before needed)

 Cast in situ (made during construction on the position where it is required)

Precast lintels
 The word pre means before. Pre-casting, therefore, refers to how the lintels are
moulded away from the opening before they are lifted into position.
 The lintel is cured and allowed to gain strength before it is placed in position.
 Precast can be on site or off-site. Off-site fabricated lintels can be mass-produced
using nominal sizes of known components such as doors and windows frames.
 These lintels have the advantage of not stopping work as they are made before they
are needed so that when bricklayer reaches the lintel level they just take the already
dry lintel and place them in required position.
However, have had dangers of failing on the brickwork damaging walls.

Cast in situ lintels

 These lintels are made on the positions where they are required.
 In situ method of casting lintels in which formwork is assembled on the opening on
which the system is required.
 The formwork is made of either wood or steel shatter boards braced using yokes and
struts to promote rigidity.
 The lintel is allowed to dry for not less than 7 days before work can continue this
however delays works.
 Strengthening of lintels

Lintels may be made stronger by:

 Reinforcing them
 Using a stronger mix
Reinforcing concrete: is introduction of metal rods into concrete to achieve strength.
The metal rods are placed at the bottom of a lintel because lintel is stronger in
compression and weaker in tension.

Compression force: acts above the lintel while tension forces acts below the lintel.
Tension forces pushes the lintel through the load put above it.

Tension: has a pulling apart effect and usually breaks the lintel apart.

Reinforcement rods
 They are placed near the bottom because concrete lintel is strong on the upper part
and weaker at the bottom.
 They are hooked at the end so that they do not slip out of the lintel.
 They are put inside the concrete to protect them from rusting.

Bridging openings using arches

 Arches are an alternative to lintels when bridging openings.
 Arches are constructed by building a dead-man between the jambs of the opening on
which the curve of the opening is to be moulded and cut to shape.
 In other situations, where a high degree of accuracy is required, an arch template
called a centrepiece is assembled.
 The curve is formed by laying bricks or vousours on the ribs of the centerpiece.

Fixing doors and window frames on walls

Ventilation
 Aeration/ air exchange within a building structure.

Purpose of ventilation
 To remove hot air or cold air from buildings.
 To remove bad smells.
 To remove static electricity.
 To remove dust.
 To remove moisture.

Methods of ventilation
 Free ventilation: by air vents, perm-vents, window opening and door openings.
 Forced ventilation: by electric fans and air conditioners.
Wall finishes

Indigenous wall finishes

 Earth plaster
 Dung
 Stone
 Bamboo

Modern wall finishes

Plaster finishes

 Plain plaster
 Tyrolean finish
 Rough cast
 Pebble dash

Cladding finishes

 Brick cladding
 Timber cladding
 Tile cladding
 Stone cladding
 Aluminium cladding
 Wall papering
 Decorative boards

Importance of wall finishes

 Give a final texture to a building

 Decorate a building
 Improve aesthetic value of the building
 Make a building appealing to the eyes
 Cover up poor workmanship done during construction
 To break the momotony of ugly materials used to build the envelope of the building.

ROOFS

 It is an external envelop which covers the top part of a building structure.

Function of a roof

 To drain off rain water.

 To control noise.
 Temperature moderation.
 Provide shade from the sun.
 Shape and beatify.
 To prevent inhabitants from adverse bad weather.
 To provide privacy and security.

Types of roofs
  Gabbled roof
 Flat roof
 Hipped roof
 Dome roof
 Conical roof
 Mono pitch roof
 Learn to roof
 Butterfly roof
 Mansard roof
 Saw tooth roof
 North light roof

Roof covering materials

 Cement asbestos sheets

 Galvanized iron sheets
 Thatch
 Tiles
 Concrete

1. Metal
 Aluminium
 Aluminium is the third most adundant metal on Earth, which makes it a popular
roofing metarial.

Advantages

i. Highly resistance to corrosion.

ii. Lightweight, durable and recyclable.
iii. Alumunium is also malleable, hence it can be formed into various styles.

Disadvantages

i. Fairly soft material, so it can dent pretty easily.

ii. Tends to be expensive than different types of metal roofing.
iii. As it ages, it may lose its natural colour and become washed out and spotty.
  Steel
 It is one of the cheapest metal roofing materials.
 It has three primary types:

Galvanized – made from steel coated with zinc.

Galvalume – is coated with aluminium

Stone-coated steel – consists of metal roofing panels, these are made from steel coated
with aluminium/zinc and have a top layer of ceramic-coated stone granules.

Advantages

i. Most affordable compared to the other metals.

ii. It is strong.
iii. It comes in a wide variety of colours and thickness.
iv. It is recyclable and easily accessible.

Disadvantages

i. It can be vulnerable to corrosion.

ii. Requires covering with special metal roofing paint.
iii. It has poor heat and sound moderation properties.
iv. High risk of injury when working with steel.
v. It may have a shorter lifespan than the other types without the proper installation and
maintenance.
 Zinc

Advantages

 It has long lifespan.

 It is eco-friendly. It is a natural metal extracted from the ground, so its toxicity
levels are low.
 Good thermal moderation properties because of its ability to reflect light.

Disadvantages

 It is one of the most expensive type to install.

  It may face underside corrosion if it is improperly coated on the underside of the
panel.
 Copper

Advantages

 It is durable.
 It is lightweight compared to other types of metals.
 It is easy to install.
 Copper adds beauty as a focal point to a structure.

Disadvantages

 Most expensive metal.

 It can also expand and contract with fluctuating temperatures.
 When copper interacts with oxygen, it forms a greenish coating (called patina)
that many people find unappealing.

2 Asbestos

Advantages

 Not flammable.
 Resist to insect damage.
 Does not rust.
 It is an insulator, it does not conduct electricity.
 It chemically inert.
 It resists corrosion.
 It is durable.
 Good thermal insulator.
 It readily obtained and is cost-efficient.

Disadvantages

 It is seriously hazardous to health.

 Risk of degradation from frost, moisture, UV rays, and acid rain.
 Fragile.

3 Grass
Advantages

 Offer excellent insulating properties to keep the interiors of our homes cool in
summer and warm in winter.
 It is cheap and readily available.
 It will be virtually maintenance free if properly laid.

Disadvantages

 Very vulnerable to being stripped by birds and rodents, especially weavers that
can destroy a roof within a year.