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Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications

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DOI: 10.1016/j.rineng.2022.10046

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 Results in Engineering 15 (2022) 100467

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Results in Engineering
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/results-in-engineering

Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications

Ali Aghababai Beni a, Hadi Jabbari b
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran
b
Department of Chemistry, Payame Noor University, P.O. Box 19395-4697, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Science and technology play an important role in the development of new methods, tools and techniques to solve
Nanomaterial specific quantitative and qualitative environmental problems. In the field of air, water and wastewater, nano­
Environmental technology has high efficiency for removing pollutants and detecting them. Nano-adsorbents, nano-filtration,
Nano-adsorbent
nano-photocatalysts, magnetic nanoparticles and nanosensors are some of the methods developed using nano­
Wastewater
Air pollution
technology to treat water and wastewater, air and pollutant detection. Considering the capabilities of nano­
technology in eliminating and controlling environmental pollutants and purifying and preventing their spread, it
can be considered as green technology and an effective tool to achieve sustainable development.

1. Introduction These cells use microorganisms and enzymes that replace the metal of
ordinary cells. The special and desirable characteristics of these cells are
The direct and indirect effects of nanotechnology on the environ­ that they use wastes such as carbon dioxide and human wastewater. On
ment and air pollution can be studied from different aspects [1]. The the other hand, some believe that the use of nanotechnology itself could
prospects for using this new technology are very broad. Today, nano­ lead to new environmental problems such as new toxic substances and
technology is mentioned in the world as a key and influential technology related biological hazards [9]. Before making any legislation in the field
in science, technology and industry [2]. Nanotechnology utilizes a va­ of nanomaterials, a lot of information must be obtained about the effects
riety of knowledge and technologies such as physics, chemistry, biology of nanoprocess processes and products on human health as well as the
and engineering. The production of nanomaterials, nanotubes, nano­ environment. But even with the current scientific uncertainty, there is
composites, nanofilters and nanoparticles are examples of the use of enough evidence to take precautionary measures in the workplace by
nanotechnology to build systems and significant applications in envi­ nanotechnology. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of
ronmental issues [3]. Several chemical companies are developing nanotechnology on the environment, especially to study pollutants and
polymer materials reinforced with nanoparticles [4]. These new mate­ their treatment methods using nanotechnology.
rials can replace metal parts in the automotive industry. Extensive use of
nanocomposites can reduce the consumption of 1.5 billion litres of 2. Environmental nanosensors
gasoline in the life of one year of vehicles and reduce carbon
dioxide-related pollution by more than 5 billion kg per year [5]. The Increased process control, ecosystem monitoring, and environmental
production of nanocomposites using nanotechnology has led to the decision-making occur when pollutant detection technology is more
production of highly durable and lightweight raw materials that are able available and cheaper [10]. Fast and accurate sensors that are able to
to replace heavy metal parts and significantly reduce the weight of detect pollutants at the molecular level increase the human ability to
equipment and auto parts and consequently significantly reduce energy support sustainable human health and the environment [11]. A sensor is
consumption and ultimately reduce air pollution [6]. Also, preventing essentially a type of energy converter that can detect certain properties
the emission of 2 million tons of carbon compounds and saving billions or phenomena of physical, chemical, mechanical, etc. in its surroundings
of dollars in energy are pleasant consequences of using semiconductor and display it as an output signal (usually as an electrical or optical
manufacturing technology using Nanotechnology is in the field of signal). Accordingly, various sensors have been developed in various
lighting, which in turn will reduce air pollution [7]. fields and have found many applications. One of the most popular sen­
Biofuel cells that use nanotechnology in their production have the sors today is nanosensors. Nanosensors are basically chemical, physical
ability to convert biochemical energy directly into electrical energy [8]. or biological sensors in nanoscale that can measure changes in the

E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Aghababai Beni).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100467
Received 9 April 2022; Received in revised form 22 May 2022; Accepted 23 May 2022
Available online 27 May 2022
2590-1230/© 2022 The Author. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Aghababai Beni and H. Jabbari Results in Engineering 15 (2022) 100467

nanoscale with very high sensitivity and accuracy, qualitatively or Nanomaterials based on quantum dots are one of the most accurate
quantitatively. High sensitivity, high detection power and the ability to and advanced sensors for detecting heavy metals. Quantum dot nano­
measure several species simultaneously are the most important char­ materials can be introduced as a sensor due to their special physico­
acteristics that have led to very wide confidence in the data obtained chemical properties, high specific surface and high reactivity [26]. By
from sensors and nanosensors. using quantum dots nanomaterials and connecting to optical or chemical
sensor converters, powerful detection devices can be assembled that can
2.1. Air pollution detect multiple metals in complex situations [27]. For example,
zero-dimensional graphene dots are used because of their interesting
The entry of any particle, biological molecule, or harmful compound properties, including excellent optical properties, adjustable surface
of solid, liquid, or gas into the atmosphere that poses a risk to the system, groups for absorption, good stability, as well as easy fabrication and
harms or diseases living organisms and affects the ecosystem of an area preparation process, by doping in optical detector species for heavy
is known as air pollution. This type of pollution can originate from metal ion nanosensors [28]. Some biomass is also used in the technology
human or natural resources and is divided into two primary and sec­ of using quantum dot nanomaterials. These nanobiosensors are used as
ondary categories. Primary pollutants are usually produced by a natural attractive fluorescent nanosensors due to their high environmental
process such as a volcanic eruption or an abnormal process such as the compatibility and biocompatibility. For example, carbon quantum dots
combustion of fossil fuels and include substances such as carbon mon­ extracted from green algae waste are used to detect Fe (III) in effluents
oxide, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and so [29].
on. Secondary pollutants, on the other hand, do not enter the atmo­ Nanocomposites with a core-shell structure of gold-silica have a
sphere directly and are formed by the reaction of primary pollutants more advanced surface plasmon resonance bond than gold nano­
with each other, such as peroxyacetyl nitrate, which is produced by the particles; Therefore, it is more sensitive to detect very small amounts of
reaction of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds [12]. heavy metals in drinking water. Nanocomposites with a gold-silica core-
One of the most important and basic needs in relation to environ­ shell structure accumulate when heavy metal ions collide to detect the
mental pollution control is continuous monitoring of air pollution [13]. presence of these contaminants. Also, with the presence of these ions,
With the use of nanosensors, effective progress has been made in con­ changes occur in the location of the plasmon adsorption bond due to the
trolling air pollution [10]. With the invention of the first samples of chemical adsorption of these ions on the surface of the nanocomposite
smart dust, the production of such sensors came closer to the stage of containing gold [30]. Similar results were obtained for cadmium ions
scientific application [14]. The main purpose of making smart dust is to when zinc and lead ions were present in water. In other words, with the
produce a set of advanced sensors in the form of very light nano­ presence of these ions, a partial transition in the bands towards longer
computers [15]. These nanosensors easily stay suspended in the air for wavelengths will occur. Suspensions containing gold nanoparticles show
hours [16]. These tiny particles are made of silicon and can send the a strong red color due to the adsorption of surface plasmon. The pres­
collected information to a central base via their own wireless. The data ence of zinc and lead ions does not change its red color. Color change
transfer rate of the prototypes is about one kilobyte per second [17]. occurs only when electrons are transferred from adsorbed ions to metal
particles. This phenomenon increases the density of free electrons in the
2.2. Emission of toxic gases metal conduction band and increases the plasma frequency of the metal
[31].
Emission and distribution of deadly and toxic gases is one of the Metal nanoparticles such as gold and silver have very strong and
dangers of everyday industrial life. Unfortunately, warnings in the in­ desirable absorption properties in the ultraviolet–visible region of the
dustry are often too late to detect such leaks [18]. The carbon nanotube electromagnetic spectrum, which is due to the cumulative electron in­
(CNT) sensors are made of single-layer nanotubes about 1 nm thick and teractions between metal atoms and electrons. Nanocomposites with a
can absorb toxic gas molecules [19]. They are also able to detect a small gold-silica core-shell structure have a more advanced surface plasmon
number of deadly gas molecules in the environment [20]. The re­ resonance bond than gold nanoparticles and are therefore more sensitive
searchers claim that these sensors will be used to detect war biochemical to detecting very small amounts of heavy metals in drinking water.
gases, air pollutants and even organic molecules in space [21]. Nanocomposites with a gold-silica core-shell structure accumulate when
New three-dimensional nanostructures are other sensors that have heavy metal ions collide to detect the presence of these contaminants
been widely used due to their small dimensions and high precision. For [28].
example, ultra-thin SnO2 films in the 3D structure nanosensor can detect
very toxic gases (SO2 and H2 S) with high sensitivity [22]. 3. Adsorption of toxic gases
The use of different metals in the structure of multi-walled carbon
nanotubes offers sensors with high capabilities for selective detection of Toxic gases in the environment can be eliminated with nanotech­
toxic gases, so that the presence of platinum nanoparticles in the nology. For example, the use of CNTs modified with gold or platinum
structure of carbon nanotubes increases the sensitivity of the sensor to nanoparticles in the adsorption process [32]. CNTs consist of a hexag­
NO2 . Also, the presence of silver and copper detects NH3 and H2 S gases, onal arrangement of carbon atoms in the graphene layer that surrounds
respectively [23]. the tube axis. CNTs are both single-walled and multi-walled nanotubes
of unique molecules with one-dimensional structure, thermal stability,
2.3. Heavy metal ions pollution and exceptional chemical properties [33]. The CNTs have been shown to
have good potential as superior adsorbents for the removal of various
Scientists have long realized that exposure to particulate matter and types of organic and inorganic contaminants both in the aquatic envi­
heavy metals can cause health problems and diseases such as heart ronment and in the air. The adsorption capacity of CNTs is mainly due to
disease, lung cancer and more. In urban areas, the size of airborne the porous structure and the presence of a wide range of nanotube
particles is typically around 100–300 nm; While heavy metals can be surface functional groups, which can be achieved by chemical or ther­
found in different concentrations. Also, heavy metals cannot be broken mal modification to adapt the CNTs in order to have the desired
down by microorganisms, meaning they are not biodegradable [24]. The performance.
many problems caused by the presence of heavy metal ions in water, Benzene dioxin, benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and ρ-xylene are
soil, and air make it even more tangible that sensors need to be devel­ different toxic pollutants in the atmosphere of industrial areas [34].
oped that can detect heavy metal ions before their concentrations reach There is a strong connection between the two benzene dioxin rings and
hazardous levels [25]. the surface of the nanotube In addition, the dioxin molecule is connected

2
A. Aghababai Beni and H. Jabbari Results in Engineering 15 (2022) 100467

to the entire surface of the nanotube by a porous wall 2.9 nm in diam­ precious metals [54]. The combination of metal oxides, perovskites and
eter, and overlap occurs, which increases the adsorption potential inside spinels have been acceptable options, and the use of perovskites as
the pore. Also, high resistance of CNTs against oxidation for regenera­ catalysts in the removal of pollutants from vehicles has been studied and
tion of adsorbent at high temperature useful [35]. tested [55]. A major effort has been made to develop technology to
eliminate NOx emissions from fossil fuel combustion. Common adsor­
bents used to remove NOx at low temperatures include zeolite ion ex­
3.1. Adsorption of dioxin
change, activated carbon, and dispersed FeOOH in activated carbon
fiber [56]. The amount of NOx uptake in these adsorbents is low [57].
Dioxins, which are known as persistent environmental pollutants,
The results show that CNTs have the ability to adsorb NOx [58]. For
can remain in the environment for many years [36]. Dioxins and their
example, NO and O2 passes through the substrates of CNTs, then NO2 is
associated compounds (such as polychlorinated dibenzofurans and
synthesized and adsorbed on the surface of CNTs [59].
polychlorinated biphenyls) are persistent and highly toxic pollutants
[37]. Dibenzo-p-dioxin is a family of compounds consisting of two
3.3. Adsorption of CO2
benzene rings joined together by two oxygen atoms and zero to eight
chlorine atoms are attached to the ring [38]. Dibenzofuran is a similar
In recent years, the uptake and storage of CO2 produced by fossil fuel
compound except that there is only one oxygen interface between the
power plants has received considerable attention. The various technol­
two benzene rings [39]. The toxicity of various dioxins depends on the
ogies of CO2 recycling are used, including adsorption, cryogenic
number of chlorine atoms in them. Dioxin has no chlorine atom or has a
adsorption, membrane and other methods. Among these technologies,
chlorine atom without toxicity; Dioxin contains more than one toxic
adsorption-desorption technologies are known as the most developed
chlorine atom [40]. 2.3.7.8-Tetraklorodibenzeo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is a
process. This process is based on amine adsorption or ammonia
compound known to be carcinogenic to humans [41]. Dioxin also affects
adsorption process. However, these technologies require a lot of energy
the immune and endocrine systems and fetal growth. These compounds
for the adsorption process. Researchers are developing membranes
are mainly produced by the combustion of organic compounds in the
based on CNT and nano-silica and zeolite that can collect CO2 on a large
incinerator [42]. The concentration of dioxin compounds formed by
scale from factory chimneys and reduce greenhouse gases [60].
combustion is about 15–555 ng m2 . Regulations for dioxin emissions are
complex and vary from country to country. However, it is generally
3.4. Removal of volatile organic compounds
necessary for the dioxin concentration to fall below 1 ng m2 . Since 1991,
activated carbon adsorption has been widely used to eliminate dioxins
In addition to nitrogen and sulfur oxides, many chemicals are formed
from incinerators in Europe and Japan [43]. The removal efficiency of
by atmospheric reactions: such as soot formation, nitric acid, poly­
dioxin using activated carbon adsorbent is much higher than other ad­
aromatic compounds, and volatile compounds (VOCs). Clean air regu­
sorbents such as clay, Al2 O3 and zeolites; Due to the very high toxicity of
lations are increasingly focusing on particles that are potentially harmful
dioxin, a more efficient adsorbent than activated carbon is required, so
to human health [61]. Most advanced air purification systems were
that it reduces the production of dioxin emissions to a lower level [44].
based on photocatalysts and adsorbents such as activated carbon and the
The researchers showed that the relationship and interaction of dioxin
ozonolysis process. However, conventional systems are not useful for
with CNTs is about three times stronger than the interaction of dioxin
removing organic pollutants at room temperature [62]. Researchers
with activated carbon. The results showed that CNTs [35] were signif­
have now developed new materials that are effective in removing VOCs,
icantly better than activated carbon and Al2 O3 − γ [45,46] for elimi­
sulfur and nitrogen oxides from the air at room temperature [63]. For
nating dioxins. This improvement is probably due to the curved surface
example, a manganese oxide-based catalyst offers a highly porous space
of the nanotubes compared to their smooth surface, which leads to
that is also coated with gold nanoparticles, which can decompose
stronger interaction forces between dioxins and CNTs [37,47].
acetaldehyde, toluene and hexane and remove it from room air [64].

3.2. Adsorption of NOx 3.5. Absorption of isopropyl alcohol

Incomplete combustion of the fuel-air mixture produces pollutants In addition to being used as a solvent, isopropyl alcohol (IPA) is also
such as carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and ni­ used in the manufacture of optical and semiconductor electronics [65].
trogen oxides (NOx ) [48]; Because methane is a high percentage of Due to the lack of control over air pollution, IPA vapor is released into
natural gas, unburned hydrocarbons in gas engines mostly contain the atmosphere without treatment. The release of IPA vapor can harm
methane [49]. The ratio of carbon to hydrogen (C/H) in methane is human health as a stimulant and carcinogen [66]. The study of
lower than any other hydrocarbon, which reduces the emission of car­ single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT) oxidized with sodium hypo­
bon monoxide and carbon dioxide during gas combustion [50]. How­ chlorite and ammonia solution to adsorb IPA vapor showed that
ever, in real life, the amount of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide can oxidation with sodium hypochlorite and ammonia solution reduces the
not be ignored. Methane is a greenhouse gas and has a far greater pore diameter of carbon nanotubes and increases the pore surface area,
greenhouse effect than carbon dioxide. For years, catalytic converters surface functional groups and base active surface area [67,68].
have played an important role in reducing emissions from internal
combustion engines. These converters reduce carbon monoxide, nitro­ 4. Water and wastewater treatment
gen oxides and unburned hydrocarbons in car exhaust [51]. Precious
metals including palladium, rhodium and platinum are used to convert Today, nanotechnology is used to produce ceramic and polymer
pollutant gases, but efforts have always been made to eliminate or membranes in water treatment [69]. These nanoscale membranes
reduce the consumption of noble metals to reduce prices and improve include ceramic membranes coated with catalytic and zeolite nano­
the efficiency of catalytic converters [52]. Using suitable catalytic con­ particles, organic-inorganic hybrid nanocomposite membranes, and
verters to reduce pollutant gases is an effective solution. In the case of biomimetic membranes. Bio-mimic membranes include biopolymer
gasoline-burning vehicles, precious metals such as platinum, palladium membranes containing protein molecules, carbon nanotube membranes,
and rhodium are used to remove contaminants in catalytic converters, and block copolymer membranes with equivalent porosity. The perfor­
but the high price of these metals and the gradual reduction of their mance of these membranes is improved based on water permeability,
resources limit their use [53]. In recent years, many attempts have been selectivity of contaminant molecules and mechanical strength. In gen­
made to propose alternative compounds such as perovskites instead of eral, biomimetic membranes have very little commercialization

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A. Aghababai Beni and H. Jabbari Results in Engineering 15 (2022) 100467

potential despite excellent performance. While nanocomposite mem­ of using zeolite in the manufacture of reverse osmosis membranes are
branes, in addition to high efficiency in water treatment, are now good chemical resistance, good mechanical stability at high pressures
mass-produced. Zeolite and catalytic membranes, in addition to low to and high resistance to pore clogging [79,80].
moderate improvements in the performance of conventional mem­ The pore size and frame density (FD) of zeolites play a decisive role
branes, have very little use in water treatment. in the efficiency of these materials for water treatment or separation. In
fact, pore size, ion selectivity and frame density are among the factors
4.1. Nanofilters that determine the degree of water permeability of channels in zeolite
structures [81]. By ion exchange, other atoms can be substituted for
Another important application of nanotechnology in the environ­ aluminum and silicon in the structure of zeolites. Since the ability of
ment is the use of nanofilters in water and wastewater treatment. The molecular screening of these structures arises from the width of its
membrane used in the nanofiltration process usually repels large mol­ nanoscale channels, by replacing atoms in the structure of the zeolite
ecules and, compared to other methods, is able to purify well water or framework and thus changing the channel width, the screening prop­
surface water well with less energy. This process is able to remove a erties, especially the membrane strength in the permeability of the
variety of bacteria, viruses, pesticides, pollutants of organic origin and species change. In addition, the mobility of ions and water molecules
calcium and magnesium salts from the water [70]. through the zeolite membrane depends on the relative density of the
Due to the fact that no chemicals are used in the nanofiltration frame structure, so that open porosity structures facilitate the transfer
process to soften the water, so its negative environmental effects are far process [82]. Separation of contaminants by zeolite membranes is based
less than conventional chemical methods. In addition, nanoparticles on molecular screening, competitive adsorption or ion exchange. Mo­
have a great deal of flexibility in the treatment of pollutants. For lecular screening means that ions with a hydrodynamic radius of less
example, nanostructured particles are used for the immediate treatment than a certain value can pass rapidly through porous zeolite structures.
of soil, sediments, solid waste, water treatment and liquid waste. The larger the ion radius, the more difficult it will be to pass through the
Research shows that nanostructured bimetallic particles such as iron- cavities. Also, the basis of the competitive adsorption mechanism is the
palladium, iron-silver and zinc-palladium have found many applica­ chemical adsorption of analyte species on negative zeolite surfaces [83,
tions in the treatment and purification of environmental pollutants, such 84].
as chlorinated pesticides of organic origin and halogenated organic
solvents. Experience has shown that the use of bimetallic nanostructured
particles converts all hydrocarbons containing chlorinated compounds 4.3. Catalytic ceramic membranes
that are highly toxic to environmentally safe hydrocarbons [71].
In addition, there is ample evidence that iron-based nanostructured Catalytic ceramic membranes (such as TiO2 , ZnO, and Fe2 O3 ) are
particles are capable of degrading highly stable contaminants such as semiconductor materials that are subjected to oxidation-reduction re­
perchlorates, nitrates, heavy metals (nickel and mercury), and radio­ actions by ultraviolet or sunlight, destroying organic compounds and
active materials such as uranium dioxide. In addition, nanostructures dyes. The photocatalytic properties of nanoscale systems appear when
can be used to decolorize drinking water. The dye in drinking water semiconductor nanoparticles are exposed to radiation, so that this
should be removed not only because of its appearance but also because it amount of energy is greater than the width of the forbidden band of
can be the source of trihalomethane production, which is very matter [85]. As a result of this excitation, electron-hole pairs are formed
dangerous. When combined with chlorine, it forms chloroform and in the material that may recombine after a few nanoseconds or react
other harmful and carcinogenic halogen compounds [72]. Most con­ with the surrounding environment. The reaction of excited charge car­
ventional water treatment methods are not able to separate the acid azo riers with the surrounding organic agents is only possible if they are
dye, but with the use of nano-membranes, up to 88% of such materials trapped by surface defects or electron/hole-friendly material called a
can be easily separated from the water [73]. Research also shows that scavenger and prevented from recombining [20].
the use of nanotechnology in water treatment can greatly reduce treat­ In semiconductor bulk materials, only one of the charge carriers (ie,
ment costs [74]. Alcohols such as ethanol are widely used in industry as electrons) can effectively participate in catalytic reactions, but in
solvents or detergents. These substances absorb large amounts of various nanoscale materials, both types of charge carriers can reach the surface
impurities while consuming. Due to the fact that disposing of them after and form effective interactions. Most photocatalytic materials are used
consumption has harmful effects on the environment, must be treated as dispersed particles in an aqueous medium; Because in this case they
for reuse. Conventional methods such as distillation waste a lot of energy have a larger free surface and produce a more desirable photocatalytic
while polluting the environment [75]. efficiency. However, the main problem with the dispersion processes of
The use of nanofilters is an effective step in protecting the environ­ nanoparticles in aqueous solutions is their low efficiency in material
ment and saving energy in this area. Filters are classified according to recovery after optical degradation. One of the effective ways to increase
the size of their pores and are classified into microfilters, ultrafilters and the efficiency is the catalyst coating on magnetic iron oxide nano­
nanofilters. Nanofiltration is basically lower pressure filtration than particles, which allows the magnetic recovery of the particles [71].
reverse osmosis, so the cost of nanofilters is more reasonable. In addi­ In recent years, photocatalytic materials have been coated on poly­
tion, nanofilters have the ability to remove viruses and bacteria so they mer membranes to form active surfaces to improve the separation of
can be used to remove contaminants in human drinking water and contaminants from aqueous media. In this technology, the recovery of
agricultural waters [76,77]. catalytic materials will no longer be a serious challenge. TiO2 is often
used as a coating, as it exhibits antibacterial and photocatalytic prop­
4.2. Ceramic membranes with zeolite coating erties against ultraviolet light. Inactivation of pathogens or pathogens
occurs by destroying their DNA by ultraviolet radiation and by pro­
One of the major challenges in the field of ceramic membranes is the ducing reactive oxygen species and destroying the cell wall of micro­
fabrication of membranes for which the water permeability in the range organisms. For example, a TiO2 layer on porous polymer membranes can
of ultrafiltration membranes and the selectivity of contaminant species filter a nanoparticle suspension using high-efficiency ultraviolet light.
for them is similar to nanofiltration membranes and reverse osmosis Also, by adding titanium oxide nanoparticles on reverse osmosis mem­
membranes [78]. In 2001, the results of molecular dynamics simulations branes, they can be self-cleaning. This property appears in the presence
showed that reverse osmosis zeolite membranes could be used to desa­ of ultraviolet light. It seems that the self-cleaning of these membranes is
linate saline water. Since then, extensive studies on saline water desa­ due to the photocatalytic properties of TiO2 and the hydrophilicity of the
lination and aqueous waste treatment have begun. The main advantages membrane [85].

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A. Aghababai Beni and H. Jabbari Results in Engineering 15 (2022) 100467

4.4. Organic-inorganic hybrid membranes nanoparticles to reverse osmosis thin film nanocomposite membranes is
carried out by common season polymerization processes or by surface
Organic-inorganic hybrid membranes include mixed background bonding by self-assembly, with the aim of exploiting the properties of
membranes and thin film nanocomposite membranes. Blended ground nanomaterials in the field of water and wastewater treatment.
membranes are designed to take advantage of the advantages of organic
polymer membranes (such as low cost and ease of production) and 4.5. Nanotubes and nanofiber
inorganic materials (such as mechanical strength and high performance
properties). For the first time in the 1990s, mixed ground membranes Carbon nanotubes are the first generation of nano-products to be
were introduced to remove the limitations of polymer membranes for discovered and introduced to the world in 1991. Nanotubes are made by
gas separation. These membranes include inorganic molecular sieves wrapping granite sheets with a honeycomb-like structure. These pipes
such as zeolites and silicates embedded within the polymer substrate are very long and thin and have stable, strong and flexible structures.
that provide preferred pathways for the species to pass. Continuous Nanotubes are the strongest known fibers and are 1–100 times stronger
pathways of molecular sieves for rapid penetration are theoretically than the weight unit of steel and can replace conventional ceramics and
formed into a specific volume fraction of the filler. This specific volume even metals in aircraft, gears, bearings, machine components, medical
fraction is known as the “permeability threshold”. In this case, the target devices, sports equipment and industrial food production equipment
molecules can cross the entire cross section of the membrane through [92].
the filler. For volume fractions above the permeability threshold, defects Carbon nanotubes are insoluble in aqueous media. Therefore for the
occur in the common polymer-filler season and reduce selectivity. applications of carbon nanotubes is the development of electrically
Blended ground membranes are a powerful and adjustable water treat­ conductive membranes. Due to their high length-to-diameter ratio,
ment tool due to their high selectivity, targeted performance, and carbon nanotubes can be converted into conductive polymers, which, if
improved thermal, chemical, and mechanical stability. The interaction used to develop new membranes, will increase the separation of flavours
between the promotion of properties and the formation of defects should and nutrients. This substance is an additive used in the production of
be balanced without losing the integrity of the membrane [86]. nanocomposites. The additive makes only 3–5% of this plastic material
Inorganic micrometer particles are added to conventional porous lighter, stronger and more resistant to heat, and has better barrier
water treatment membranes, improving its selectivity and other func­ properties against oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture and volatiles. In­
tional properties. The role of inorganic fillers in porous membranes is to crease these properties for packaging foods such as processed meats,
prevent the formation of large cavities, increase the cohesion of the cheeses, pastries, cereals and canned foods [93].
cavities and improve the mechanical strength. These changes in Among wastewater treatment methods, biological methods are very
morphology and mechanical properties prevent the membrane from important due to their unique properties. Features such as the removal
compacting during the separation process under pressure. The mixed of organic matter and less damage to the environment have led to the use
background membrane consisting of zirconia particles in a polysulfone of this method for more wastewater treatment today [94]. One of the
background is a good example of these membranes. These membranes main components in biological methods is the growth medium of bio­
have a higher permeability without reducing the particle retention. film. The characteristics of a suitable substrate are: creating a suitable
Increased permeability due to particle turbulence at high weight frac­ place for the accumulation of microorganisms, physical and chemical
tion (about 40% by weight) occurs during the occurrence of phase stability, surface morphology with high specific surface area, relative
inversion in the upper layer and intensification of the distribution of density in comparison with wastewater and suitable size for installation
cavities preferentially in the joint season of particles and background. in the wastewater treatment system. Considering the mentioned prop­
Whenever the amount of zirconia particles with an average diameter of erties, the structure of nanofibers is such that they can be a suitable
0.9 μm increases, the elastic strain of the membrane decreases and its substrate for biological reactions and accelerate the process of biodeg­
mechanical strength increases simultaneously. As another example, by radation [95]. Substrates made of nanofibers have a high specific surface
dispersing alumina particles with an average diameter of 0.34 μm in a area and small porosity [96,97]. Depending on the type of polymer used,
cellulose acetate field during phase inversion, the amount of large cav­ nanofibers can be well-formed on the one hand and have chemical sta­
ities is reduced and selectivity is improved [86,87]. bility on the other. The most important advantage of nanofibers is their
Today, mixed ground membranes consisting of filler nanoparticles surface morphology and biocompatibility compared to microorganisms,
have been developed. These membranes are also known as polymer- which increases the rate of accumulation of microorganisms at the
based nanocomposite membranes. Nanoparticles of the same size are surface of nanofibers [4]. Nanofibers are made of flexible polymeric
usually used as nanocomposite fillers because these nanoparticles have materials. The preparation of flexible fiber causes the biofilm to form not
the largest surface area per unit volume of material [88]. Nanoparticles only on the surface but also inside the substrate (close to the center).
are able to disinfect, adsorb and preferentially decompose contaminants Inside the bed, bacteria and microorganisms are protected against the
in aqueous solutions. Metal oxide nanoparticles, especially magnesium toxic effects of sewage and shear forces [98]. This is while it is possible
oxide (MgO), inactivate gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative bacteria, for oxygen and other components to penetrate into the substrate and
and viral cells. Alumina nanoparticles act as adsorbents for nickel ions in react with microorganisms easily. The high specific surface area of the
aqueous solutions. Nanoparticles of iron oxide, aluminum oxide and nanofibers causes the bacteria to adhere better to the surface and as a
titanium oxide absorb heavy metals [89]. Zero-valent iron nanoparticles result, the microorganisms do not move and the accumulation process at
are used to remove halogenated hydrocarbons, radioactive isotopes and the substrate surface occurs more quickly [99]. This feature can be used
organic compounds. These nanoparticles are a suitable alternative to in systems that require a faster operation. After the microbial accumu­
activated carbon used in water and wastewater treatment due to their lation stage, the microorganisms can grow in place without the need for
surface area and high reactivity. Nanocomposite membranes have been nanofibers.
studied with the aim of targeted degradation, high permeability and
selectivity, reduction of clogging and improvement of thermal and me­ 4.6. Nano-adsorbents
chanical stability, while maintaining easy production and lower cost
than similar samples. Reducing the clogging of nanocomposite mem­ Use of adsorbent materials is one of the most efficient technologies in
branes is usually done by increasing the hydrophilicity of the membrane. water and wastewater treatment. In water treatment using adsorbents,
The use of nanoparticles with antimicrobial properties such as silver molecules or ions are removed from the liquid phase to the solid phase
nanoparticles can also help reduce the biological contamination of by adsorption (Akbar [100]. Various types of sorbents including natural
polymer-based nanocomposite membranes [90,91]. Addition of sorbents, agricultural wastes, industrial wastes and biomass of branched

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A. Aghababai Beni and H. Jabbari Results in Engineering 15 (2022) 100467

polymers have been reported to remove various contaminants from Nanostructures such as biopolymers can be used to make electronic
contaminated water and wastewater [101]. Due to its simplicity and chips. According to the available information, to produce each gram of
cost-effectiveness, the method of adsorption of water pollutants is a 32 MB microchip, 85 g of fossil fuels and chemicals and 16 kg of water
suitable method for the treatment of polluted water. The choice of are required [115]. Using nano-processes, the conventional method of
adsorbent used to remove water contaminants depends on the concen­ producing semiconductor chips can be greatly improved. In addition,
tration and type of contaminants, their efficiency and adsorption ca­ the use of nanotechnology leads to the production of safe substances
pacity for each of the contaminants (A [102]. Different types of sorbents instead of toxic substances. For example, monitors are made of cathode
such as natural materials, agricultural waste, industrial wastewater and ray tubes (which contain toxic substances) and have higher efficiency.
biomass materials are used to treat water and wastewater. Different Liquid crystal displays are small and do not contain lead, and their en­
types of cheap absorbent materials are: I) natural materials such as ergy consumption is much lower than similar cathode types [115]. In
wood, coal, plant fertilizers, chitin or chitosan, clay materials and nat­ addition, the use of carbon nanotubes in computer monitors helps
ural zeolites. II) agricultural wastes such as husks, bran and kernels of reduce the consumption of heavy metals in them, thereby reducing
fruits and nuts, sawdust, corn stalks, sunflower stalks and straw. III) environmental damage [116].
industrial wastes such as ash, blast furnace slag, sugarcane pulp, sug­
arcane stems and kernels, palm oil ash, palm oil ash and red mud. 6. Porous nanopolymers
Clay (hydrated alumina silicate) is a natural adsorbent for use in
removing water contaminants. The clays mainly consist of montmoril­ When hydrophobic organic pollutants enter the soil through water,
lonite, bentonite and kaolinite [79]. These materials have high adsorp­ they are easily absorbed by water-insoluble solid particles and separated
tion capacity, low permeability, high chemical and mechanical stability from the water [117]. The phenomenon of adsorption and disposal of
and large surface area. There are many cations (Ca2+ , Mg2+ , H+ , K+ , such pollutants from water to soil and from soil to air is very complex
NH4+ , Na+ ) and anions (SO2− 3− and depends on several factors such as solubility in water, water in the
4 , Cl , PO4 , NO3 ) on the clay surface that
− −

can be easily replaced by ions in the adsorbents. These clays are used in soil network and the competition of different soil components to absorb
their natural or modified state to absorb contaminants [103,104]. these particles [118]. When there is more than one hydrophobic mole­
Kaolinite, montmorillonite and their acid-activated form are used to cule in the environment, the pollutant molecules attach to the body that
adsorb Pb2+ and Cd2+ ions from aqueous solution. High pH helps the most closely resembles them chemically. For this reason, porous nano­
surface adsorption of these ions on the clay [105]. Contact time, tem­ polymers, which are very similar to pollutant molecules, are the most
perature, pH and initial concentration of contaminants are among the suitable means for separating this type of organic pollutants from water
factors affecting the adsorption capacity of clay materials. Safranin-O and soil. In general, the environmental applications of these nano­
removal has been successfully performed up to 90% using natural raw structures are: separation of organic pollutants from drinking water,
kaolinite [106]. treatment of effluents of industrial units such as nuclear power plants for
reuse of treated effluents [99]. Cleaning of water sources contaminated
5. Nano biomaterials with petroleum products. Cleaning of groundwater resources from
organic pollutants [119]. Due to the fact that porous nanopolymers are
New materials have always been one of the key factors for the used in many cases, so the treatment costs are much lower [120].
development of new systems in the environment that offer attractive
applications [107]. These materials can break down barriers to previous 7. Environmental catalysts
processes and ultimately produce applications with potential global
benefits [108]. Nanoscale materials are materials whose properties can Halogenated Organic Compounds (HOCs) are one of the most
be controlled at a level less than micro (less than 6–10 or 9–10 nano) important water pollutants. These organic molecules, as solvents and
[109]. The properties of materials in such dimensions and sizes are additives, have important applications in various industries, including
fundamentally different from conventional materials, and therefore pharmaceuticals. These compounds are dangerous and toxic and can
research in the field of nanomaterial is becoming more active day by day cause health problems such as cancer. Therefore, complete decomposi­
[110]. Nanoparticles are colloidal and solid particles that contain tion of these compounds from water and wastewater is essential [121].
macromolecular components with a size of 10,000–100 nm with com­ Conventional water treatment methods cannot solve such a problem.
plex surface chemistry. Depending on the production method, nano­ One of the innovative methods for detoxification of water through se­
particles are in the form of nanocapsules or nanospheres. Nanospheres lective degradation of HOCs is the use of palladium nanocatalysts. In this
are matrix systems, while nanocapsules are vesicular systems [111]. method, stable HOCs are converted to organic compounds and these
Nanocapsules are nanoparticles that have a shell and empty space inside organic compounds can be easily removed through biodegradation in
them to hold and carry the desired materials. Phospholipids with a hy­ water treatment plants [64]. Palladium/magnetite nanocatalysts have
drophilic head and a hydrophobic head, when placed in an aqueous also been developed to effectively remove halogenated organic pollut­
medium, form capsules with the hydrophilic head outside and the hy­ ants from effluents. Numerous experiments have shown that palla­
drophobic head of the molecule inside. Polymers such as lipids and dium/magnetite nanocatalysts act reliably in a variety of water
proteins can also be used to make nanocapsules [112]. Dendrimers are conditions. They also have the advantage of being recovered from the
macromolecules with a regular, branched three-dimensional structure desired water or effluent through magnetic separation technology
that have many applications due to the high density of active groups. [122].
Due to the competition for design and fabrication with completely Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen monoxide are major
atomic precision, dendrimers show the greatest potential compared to air pollutants. Catalytic converters can reduce the emission of these
nanopores, nanocapsules and nanoparticles. Cochleates are stable pollutants. Current catalytic converters use expensive metal catalysts,
phospholipid bivalent sediments of natural materials [97]. These ma­ and the air-to-fuel ratio must follow a certain stoichiometry. For this
terials are composed of large, continuous, multi-layered structures of fat reason, there is a strong desire to develop low-cost, high-efficiency
that are helical. They transfer their contents through the outer fluid catalysts [123]. Carbon monoxide is used as a model reaction to study
layer to the membrane of the target cells [113]. Cochleates are resistant the oxidation reaction due to its simple kinetics. Cu − CeO2 and Au −
to environmental factors and their strong layered structure protects CeO2 catalysts show very high activity and stability compared to copper
them from decomposition by brittle molecules, even if exposed to harsh oxide or sodium oxide catalysts for CO oxidation. At a spatial velocity,
environmental conditions or enzymes [114]. complete conversion of CO on the Cu − CeO2 and Au − CeO2 catalysts
occurs at temperatures of 80 and 20 ◦ C, respectively. The catalytic

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A. Aghababai Beni and H. Jabbari Results in Engineering 15 (2022) 100467

activity of Cu − CeO2 for CO oxidation is better than the catalytic ac­ negative environmental effects. Examples of environmentally friendly
tivity of platinum metal [3,61]. materials that can be produced using nanotechnology are: Non-toxic
Given the current problems in human societies such as environ­ nanocrystalline composites are used instead of lithium graphite elec­
mental pollution, lack of raw materials for production, and lack of en­ trodes in rechargeable batteries or self-cleaning glass or biodegradable
ergy resources, it is possible to use nanotechnology, materials with plastic is made of polymers with a molecular structure that is easy to
extraordinary properties to solve these problems; modern catalysts can break down [9].
be achieved that have a higher specific level than conventional catalysts
and in addition to consuming less precious metals, they show higher 9.2. Green production
efficiency.
The production process is always accompanied by a wide range of
8. Nano-coatings waste materials that are harmful to the environment. Ideally, the pro­
duction process should be designed to minimize the use of raw materials
Advanced nanostructured coatings adhere well to a variety of sur­ and waste generation and energy consumption [133]. Green production
faces such as metals, glass, ceramics and plastics. These coatings are only is a common name that broadly covers the methods and technologies to
a few microns thick. The distinctive feature of these nano-coatings is the achieve these goals [134]. Green production includes the development
increased anti-corrosion property [124]. Therefore, one of the applica­ of environmentally friendly industrial processes, for example, the design
tions of these coatings is to increase the resistance of light metals such as of water-based processes and their replacement with organic
aluminum and magnesium against corrosion [125]. These coatings are solvent-based processes, as well as the reduction of hazardous sub­
very resistant to heat and can withstand temperatures up to 700 ◦ C stances, the development of green chemicals that are less harmful to the
[126]. The use of this type of coating will reduce the corrosion of metals environment, and the use of processes with less energy consumption
and ultimately, will protect the environment by reducing the con­ [110].
sumption of raw materials [127]. Other applications of nanostructured Toxic and carcinogenic compounds, such as chloroform, hexane and
coatings are in removing dust from various surfaces and reducing the perchloroethylene, are commonly used in the cleaning, textile and oil
consumption of cleaners. These nanoparticles are used as a very thin extraction industries [135]. Nano-sized micro emulsions can be used as
layer to coat various surfaces such as car glass [7]. As a result, the liquid receptors to extract specific molecules at the nanoscale level. For
does not wet the coated surface and remains on it in the form of droplets example, the use of nanotechnology in the synthesis of micro emulsions
and is quickly removed. This speeds up the drying process. It is obvious for the separation of organic matter and the cleaning of textiles [8].
that the consumption of detergents is drastically reduced and environ­ Researchers have synthesized micro emulsions that reduce the surface
mental pollution is prevented [128]. tension of organic matter, making it easier to separate oil from seawater
[136]. Micro emulsions are also able to clean textiles from oil, so that
9. Nanotechnology to prevent pollution microemulsions are very competitive with conventional cleaning com­
pounds [137].
At present and future, nanotechnology has attracted a lot of atten­
tion. This technology has raised great hopes not only among researchers 10. Role of nanomaterial in the environment
but also between governments and artisans to solve existing problems.
One of the major problems in the world today is energy supply and The application of nanotechnology can be divided into two main
environmental protection. On the one hand, fossil fuels are running out, areas of the environment:
and on the other hand, their use has led to environmental pollution. One Field of monitoring of environmental pollutants using nanotech­
of the most promising ways to provide clean and sustainable energy as nology: One of the important and basic needs in relation to environ­
well as control and treat pollution is to use nanotechnology. mental pollution control is continuous monitoring of environmental
Pollution prevention refers to the reduction of pollution sources and pollution. Collection of data related to pollution in each region, the type
other methods that effectively use raw materials, energy, water and of pollution, the extent of the spread of pollution, and as a result, an
electricity and other sources to reduce or eliminate waste. Nanotech­ appropriate strategy will be determined to deal with it. Today, envi­
nology offers many new strategies to reduce pollution in various pro­ ronmental organizations have set environmental laws and standards for
cesses, including improving production processes, reducing hazardous industries and food to control pollution. Continuous control of pollution-
chemicals, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and reducing the use of producing sources is a difficult, complex and time-consuming task.
plastics and replacing plastics with biodegradable materials. Today, nano-sensors make it possible to monitor the contamination
status of the target areas point by point at low cost and on a large scale.
9.1. Eco-friendly materials Nanosensors consume less energy and can operate for a long time at low
voltage without the need for a direct power source and transmit infor­
Nanotechnology is capable of creating environmentally friendly mation wirelessly [110].
materials or materials that are widely substituted for toxic substances Environmental pollution elimination using nanotechnology: The
[129]. For example, the computer’s less toxic liquid crystal display biggest environmental challenge is the elimination of pollution in na­
(LCD) has replaced the cathode ray tubes (CRT), which contained highly ture. These pollutants include air, soil and water pollution, which in the
toxic substances. Also, LCDs do not contain lead and consume less en­ short and long term have devastating effects on the environment and
ergy compared to CRT screens [130]. CNT display technology is also human health. Removal of pollutants from the environment is very
used instead of radiation display. The use of CNTs in computer screens difficult due to its wide range. On the other hand, the elimination of
reduces the negative impact on the environment by removing toxic contamination at the source and sources of contaminants is very
heavy metals, reducing the severe need for materials and energy, as well important. In many countries, various methods have been used to reduce
as improving performance according to customer needs [131]. In air, water and soil pollution in the environment. The use of nanotech­
addition, the use of nanotechnology in composite materials has the nology makes it possible to reduce many air pollutants in cities and
potential to produce materials with better mechanical properties and industries to a reasonable level, treat industrial and urban effluents in
other good properties. Because nanotechnology has the ability to pro­ the best possible way to prevent water pollution, and minimize soil
duce structures that are lighter and smaller; no change in the quality of pollutants [92].
its properties [132]. The use of this technology increases the robustness,
reduces the cost of the system and all alternatives, as well as reduces the

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A. Aghababai Beni and H. Jabbari Results in Engineering 15 (2022) 100467

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