Note: before circulating this manual to students, faculty

needs to add department specific details in it wherever it

required.

A Laboratory Manual for

Basic Electronics Engineering (______)

B.E. Semester _____(Branch name)

Government Engineering College, Sector-28, Gandhinagar

Directorate of Technical Education, Gandhinagar, Gujarat

 Government Engineering College, Sector-28,
Gandhinagar

Department of Electronics and Communication

Certificate
This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________________
________ Enrollment No. _______________ of B.E. Semester _____
Electronics & Communication Engineering of this Institute (GTU Code: 013)
has satisfactorily completed the Practical work for the subject Basic
Electronics Engineering (__________) for the academic year ODD 2024-25.

Place: __________
Date: __________

Name and Sign of Faculty member

Head of the Department

 Preface
Main motto of any laboratory/practical/field work is for enhancing required skills as well
as creating ability amongst students to solve real time problems by developing relevant
competencies in the psychomotor domain. By keeping in view, GTU has designed competency
focused outcome-based curriculum for engineering degree programs where sufficient weightage
is given to practical work. It shows the importance of enhancement of skills amongst the students
and it pays attention to utilize every second of time allotted for practical amongst students,
instructors and faculty members to achieve relevant outcomes by performing the experiments
rather than having merely study type experiments. It is must for effective implementation of
competency focused outcome-based curriculum that every practical is keenly designed to serve as
a tool to develop and enhance relevant competency required by the various industries among every
student. These psychomotor skills are very difficult to develop through traditional chalk and board
content delivery methods in the classroom. Accordingly, this lab manual is designed to focus on
the industry-defined relevant outcomes, rather than old practice of conducting practical to prove
concept and theory.
By using this lab manual students can go through the relevant theory and procedure in
advance before the actual performance which creates an interest and students can have basic idea
prior to performance. This in turn enhances pre-determined outcomes amongst students. Each
experiment in this manual begins with competency, industry relevant skills, course outcomes as
well as practical outcomes (objectives). The students will also achieve safety and necessary
precautions to be taken while performing practical.
This manual also provides guidelines to faculty members to facilitate student centric lab
activities through each experiment by arranging and managing necessary resources in order that
the students follow the procedures with required safety and necessary precautions to achieve the
outcomes. It also gives an idea that how students will be assessed by providing rubrics.
Basic Electronics is the fundamental course which deals with various components and
circuits for particular applications. It provides a platform for students to learn basic components
used in different circuits of all electronics as well communication circuitry. Students also learnt all
Fundamental instruments used for different measurements of the circuits.
Utmost care has been taken while preparing this lab manual however always there is
chances of improvement. Therefore, we welcome constructive suggestions for improvement and
removal of errors if any.
Note : It is possible that the instruments, components , equipmenst available at the institute may
have slightly different circuits and methodology presented here in the materials. Faculties are
requested to make proper corrections according to available resources. Virtual Lab is also an
effective alternative can be used as an extension to these practicals.
 Practical – Course Outcome matrix

Course Outcomes (COs):

CO-1 : Analyze the general and special-Purpose diode circuits
CO-2 : Design biasing circuits for BJT
CO-3 : Analyze BJT circuits in small signal domain
CO-4 : Analyze FET circuits for DC voltages and currents
CO-5 : Understand usage of Special Purpose Diodes

Sr. Objective(s) of Experiment CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5

No.

1 To measure various parameters using

different Instruments ( Regulated power
supply, Multimeter, function generator,
C.R.O.)
(A) To measure DC voltage and current, AC
voltage and current with a multimeter.
(B) To observe waveforms on an
oscilloscope, measure basic parameters
amplitude and frequency of sine wave,
square wave and triangular wave.

2 To obtain V-I characteristics of P-N √

junction diode.

3 To obtain V-I characteristics of zener diode. √

4 To observe waveform at the output of half √

wave rectifier with and without filter
capacitor. To measure DC voltage, DC
current, ripple factor with and without filter
capacitor
5 To observe waveform at the output of √
bridge rectifier with and without filter
capacitor. To measure DC voltage, DC
current, ripple factor with and without
filter capacitor

6 To construct clamper circuits on breadboard √

and To observe waveforms at the output of
clamper circuits

7 To construct clipper circuits on breadboard √

and To observe waveforms at the output of
clipper circuits

8 To set up and test a 7-segment static display √

system to display numbers 0 to 9

9 To obtain common emitter characteristics of √ √

NPN transistor

10 To obtain common base characteristics of √ √

NPN transistor

11 To understand working of transistor as a √ √

switch. To draw DC load line for given
circuit.

12 To obtain characteristics of field effect √

transistor (FET)
 Industry Relevant Skills
The following industry relevant competencies are expected to be developed in the student by
undertaking the practical work of this laboratory.
1. Analog Design & Product analog circuit understanding and design .
2. Support Hardware testing and Design validation.
3. Design the Product/POC/Prototype & Construct and test circuit using basic
electronic devices

Guidelines for Faculty members

1. Teacher should provide the guideline with demonstration of practical to the students with all
features.
2. Teacher shall explain basic concepts/theory related to the experiment to the students before starting
of each practical
3. Involve all the students in the performance of each experiment.
4. Teachers are expected to share the skills and competencies to be developed in the students and
ensure that the respective skills and competencies are developed in the students after the
completion of the experimentation.
5. Teachers should give opportunities to students for hands-on experience after the demonstration.
6. Teachers may provide additional knowledge and skills to the students even though not covered in
the manual but are expected from the students by the concerned industry.
7. Give practical assignments and assess the performance of students based on tasks assigned to check
whether it is as per the instructions or not.
8. Teacher is expected to refer to the complete curriculum of the course and follow the guidelines for
implementation.

Instructions for Students

1. Students are expected to carefully listen to all the theory classes delivered by the faculty members
and understand the COs, content of the course, teaching and examination scheme, skill set to be
developed etc.
2. Students shall organize the work in the group and make a record of all observations.
3. Students shall develop maintenance skills as expected by industries.
4. Students shall attempt to develop related hand-on skills and build confidence.
5. Students shall develop the habits of evolving more ideas, innovations, skills etc. apart from those
included in scope of manual.
6. Students shall refer to technical magazines and data books.
7. Student should develop a habit of submitting the experimentation work as per the schedule and s/he
should be well prepared for the same.

Common Safety Instructions

1. Students must obey the safety instructions during laboratory sessions.
1. Keep the working area neat and clean to access the instruments.
2. Students should follow the instructions given by Lab assistant / Lab technicians and Faculty while
performing practical.
3. Be careful while operating on equipments it is expected that more than one students or , lab
assistant or faculty should remain present at the time of practicals
4. Always make circuit connections or changes after switching off the supply for the circuits/Kits.
5. Keep the resources in their designated space after the completion of practical
 Index
(Progressive Assessment Sheet)
Sr. Objective(s) of Experiment Page Date of Date of Assessment Sign. of Remar
No. No. perfor submiss ks
Marks Teacher
mance ion
with date

0 Mission & Vision

1 To measure various parameters using

different Instruments ( Regulated
power supply, Multimeter, function
generator, C.R.O.)
(A) To measure DC voltage and
current, AC voltage and current with a
multimeter.
(B) To observe waveforms on an
oscilloscope, measure basic
parameters amplitude and frequency
of sine wave, square wave and
triangular wave.

2 To obtain V-I characteristics of P-N

junction diode.

3 To obtain V-I characteristics of zener

diode.

4 To observe waveform at the output of

half wave rectifier with and without
filter capacitor. To measure DC
voltage, DC current, ripple factor with
and without filter capacitor

5 To observe waveform at the output of

bridge rectifier with and without filter
capacitor. To measure DC voltage,
DC current, ripple factor with and
without filter capacitor
6 To construct clamper circuits on
breadboard and To observe
waveforms at the output of clamper
circuits

7 To construct clipper circuits on

breadboard and To observe
waveforms at the output of clipper
circuits

8 To set up and test a 7-segment static

display system to display numbers 0 to
9

9 To obtain common emitter

characteristics of NPN transistor

10 To obtain common base

characteristics of NPN transistor

11 To understand working of transistor as `

a switch. To draw DC load line for
given circuit.

12 To obtain characteristics of field effect

transistor (FET)

Total

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5)

Clarity of 1)The student 1)The students can 1)The students can 1)The students can
concepts and understands the identify the identify the clearly identify
record book practical but struggles equipment and equipment properly components ,
to identify the connect the circuits and understand the
equipment and properly. 2)connect the circuits procedures , and
2)clumsy while 2)Struggle to take properly and arrange neatly arranges
working on proper reading. the equipment. practical setup.
practicality. 2)Takes proper
 3)Take near accurate reading, prepare
reading and can graphs and calculate
make calculations. the needed
parameters.

Knowledge and 1)Demonstrates 1)Demonstrates some 1)Demonstrates a 1)Demonstrates a deep

Understanding limited knowledge knowledge and solid knowledge and knowledge and
and understanding of understanding of understanding of understanding of basic
basic electronic basic electronic basic electronic electronic concepts
concepts and concepts and concepts and and principles.
principles. principles. principles. 2)Can identify and
2)Struggles to identify2)Can identify and 2)Can identify and explain complex
and explain keyexplain key explain key components and
components andcomponents and components and functions of electronic
functions of electronicfunctions of functions of circuits
circuits. electronic circuits electronic circuits independently.
3)Shows little with some guidance. independently. 3)Shows a high level
familiarity with 3)Shows some 3)Shows a good level of familiarity with
laboratory equipment familiarity with of familiarity with laboratory equipment
and procedures. laboratory equipment laboratory and procedures.
and procedures. equipment and
procedures.

Practical Skills 1)Struggles to 1)Can complete basic 1)Can complete 1)Can complete
complete basic laboratory tasks with laboratory tasks complex laboratory
laboratory tasks. some guidance. independently and tasks independently
2)Requires extensive 2)Requires some efficiently. and efficiently.
guidance and guidance and 2)Has a good level of 2)Has a high level of
assistance to use assistance to use proficiency in using proficiency in using
laboratory equipment. laboratory laboratory laboratory equipment.
3)Has difficulty equipment. equipment. 3)Can analyze
interpreting 3)Can interpret 3)Can interpret experimental results
experimental results experimental results experimental results and draw sophisticated
and making with some accuracy, accurately and make conclusions.
conclusions. but has difficulty well-supported
making conclusions. conclusions.
 Experiment No: 0

Vision and Mission of DTE:

Vision and Mission of Institute:

Vision and Mission of Department:

Program Objectives:
Program Outcome (PO)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
PO1.Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics,natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes:

1) Graduates will apply knowledge in the area of Analog Electronics, Digital Electronics,
Communication Engineering.
2) Graduates will demonstrate an ability to design, formulate and solve the implementation
aspects problems with the electronics systems and products.
3) Graduate will demonstrate viable project involving analysis, design, and implementation and
testing of substantial hardware, software or any combination thereof in the various
applications, with emerging technologies

Program Educational Objectives:

Course Outcomes:
CO-1 : Analyze the general and special-Purpose diode circuits
CO-2 : Design biasing circuits for BJT
CO-3 : Analyze BJT circuits in small signal domain
CO-4 : Analyze FET circuits for DC voltages and currents
CO-5 : Understand usage of Special Purpose Diodes
 Experiment No: 01
Study of Multimeter & CRO and Measurement of Voltage & current,
Amplitude & Frequency

Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: After this practical students are expected to develop following
competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of Multimeter and CRO and Measurements as these are the most basic set
of measurement instruments
2) Knowledge of Working of Multimeter and CRO ,various available functionalities how to use it in
measurements
3) Practical hands of Multimeter and CRO and Troubleshooting skills in case of not getting the
desired results.
Relevant CO: CO-1 : Analyze the general – and special-Purpose diode circuits
Objectives:
1) To achieve mentioned competency and have hands on of the Multimeter and CRO
2) To be able to measure AC and DC voltage and current in the circuitry.
3) To be able to calculate frequency , Amplitude and various shifts from the CRO which
will enable them to understand and use DSO effectively.
4) Troubleshoot the instrument in case of not getting desired results.
5) Study of CRO and to find the Amplitude and Frequency using CRO.
6) To measure the Unknown Frequency & Phase difference using CRO.
Equipment/Instruments: Digital Multimeter, Cathode-ray oscilloscope, Function Generator,
Regulated Power supply, Decade Resistance Box (DRB), CRO Probes and Bread Board.
[A] MULTIMETER:
Theory:
A digital multimeter (DMM) is a measuring instrument used to measure various electrical
quantities. The standard measurements that are performed by a DMM are current, voltage and
resistance. Apart from these, a digital multimeter can also measure temperature, frequency,
capacitance, continuity, transistor gains etc.
DMM Controls and Connection Ports
A typical DMM has a rotary switch, digital display and connecting jacks for the probes. Let’s see
the various parts of DMM in somewhat details −

Display − The DMM has an illuminated display screen for better visualisation. Most DMM have
four digit display, the first of which can only be either a 0 or 1 and a + / - indication as well.
There may also be some more indicators like AC / DC etc.

Connection Ports − There are three or four ports available on the front of the DMM. However,
only two are needed at a time. Typical ports of the DMM are −Common − It is used with all
measurements. The negative (black) probe is connected to this.

VΩmA Port − This port is used for the most measurements and positive (red)probe is connected
to it.

10A Port − It is used to measure the large currents in the circuits.

Dial (Selection Knob) − There is a rotary switch to select the types of measurement to be made
and range that is needed.
Additional Connections − There are some additional connections in DMM for other
measurements like temperature, transistor gains etc.
Additional Buttons and switches − There are a few additional buttons are present in a DMM.
The main one is ON/OFF button.
Measurements using Digital Multimeter :
Measuring Current:
 To measure current, the circuit must be broken at the point where we want that current to be
measured, and the ammeter inserted at that point. In other words, an ammeter must be connected
in series with the load under test. It is very important that the insertion of the ammeter into a circuit
has little effect the circuit‘s existing resistance and, thus, alter the current normally flowing in the
circuit, ammeters are manufactured with very low values of internal resistance. Because ammeters
have a very low internal resistance, it is vitally important that they are never inadvertently
connected in parallel with any circuit component —and especially with the supply. Failure to do
so will result in a short-circuit current flowing through the instrument which may damage the
ammeter (although most ammeters are fused) or even result in personal injury.

Measuring Voltage:
To measure potential-difference, or voltage, a voltmeter must be connected between two points at
different potentials. In other words, a voltmeter must always be connected in parallel with the part
of the circuit under test. In order to operate, a voltmeter must, of course, draw some current from
the circuit under test, and this can lead to inaccurate results because it can interfere with the normal
condition of the circuit. We call this the ‗loading effect‘ and, to minimise this ‗loading effect‘
(and, therefore, improve the accuracy of a reading), this operating current must be as small as
possible and, for this reason, voltmeters are manufactured with a very high value of internal
resistance —usually many megohms
Procedure:
1. Turn the meter ON.

2. Insert the probes into the correct connecting ports.

3. Set the dial (rotary switch) to the correct measurement type and range for the measurement to be
made. While selecting the range, ensure that the maximum range is above than that is expected.
Optimise the range for the best reading. If possible enable all the leading digits to not read zero,
in this way the greatest number of significant digits can be read.

4. Once the measurement is completed, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into the voltage
measurement ports and turn the range to maximum voltage. So that if the meter probes are
accidentally connected across a high voltage point, there is a little chance of damage to the
DMM.

Circuit Diagram: Teacher can give any basic circuit for basic voltage and current measurement
Obsevations:

[B] CRO:
Theory: An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block
diagram shown below.
 Fig. 1: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a Cathode Ray Tube.
Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside the tube is a
vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of the tube is accelerated
and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of the tube, producing a bright spot on
the phosphorescent screen.

The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates fixed in
the tube. The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produce side to side movement. As you can
see, they are linked to a system block called the time base. This produces a saw tooth waveform.
During the rising phase of the saw tooth, the spot is driven at a uniform rate from left to right
across the front of the screen. During the falling phase, the electron beam returns rapidly from
right ot left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing appears on the screen. In this way, the
time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph.

The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the saw tooth and can be
adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the oscilloscope
screen into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds, milliseconds or
microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, µs/DIV). Alternatively, if the squares are 1 cm apart,
the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or µs/cm.

The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually kept in
the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier. In the AC
position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path. The capacitor blocks DC signals
but allows AC signals to pass.
The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis of the
the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV
control, so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen and can
be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV.
Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be displayed.
Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is possible using
the X-POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal applied, the normal trace is a straight
line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero level on the Y-axis to be
changed, moving the whole trace up or down on the screen to give an effective display of signals
like pulse waveforms which do not alternate between positive and negative values.
 Fig. 2: Front View of Oscilloscope
Screen: Usually displays a V/t graph, with voltage V on the vertical axis and time t on the
horizontal axis. The scales of both axes can be changed to display a huge variety of signals.

Fig. 3: Screen display of Oscilloscope

On/Off Switch: Pushed in to switch the oscilloscope on. The green LED illuminates.

X-Y Control: Normally in the OUT position.

When the X-Y button is pressed IN, the oscilloscope does not display a V/t graph. Instead,
the vertical axis is controlled by the input signal to CH II. This allows the oscilloscope to be used
to display a V/V voltage/voltage graph.

The X-Y control is used when you want to display component characteristic curves, or
Lissajous figures. (Links to these topics will be added later.)

TV-Separation: Oscilloscopes are often used to investigate waveforms inside television

systems. This control allows the display to be synchronized with the television system so that
the signals from different points can be compared.

Time / Div: Allows the horizontal scale of the V/t graph to be changed.

Fig. 4: Time division, Intensity, focus, X-Y mode knobs

With more experience of using the oscilloscope, you will develop a clear understanding of the
functions of the important trigger controls and be able to use them effectively.

Intensity and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the brightness of the
oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce a bright clear trace.
If required, TR can be adjusted using a small screwdriver so that the oscilloscope trace is exactly
horizontal when no signal is connected.

Volts / Div: Adjust the vertical scale of the V/t graph. The vertical scales for CH I and CH II
can be adjusted independently.

DC/AC/GND Slide Switches: In the DC position, the signal input is connected directly to
the Y-amplifier of the corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position, a capacitor is
connected into the signal pathway so that DC voltages are blocked and only changing AC
signals are displayed.
In the GND position, the input of the Y-amplifier is connected to 0 V. This allows you to check
the position of 0 V on the oscilloscope screen. The DC position of these switches is correct for most
signals.

Measurement of Amplitude & Frequency:

Model waveforms:
 A) Measurement of Amplitude:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the diagram shown above.
2. Put the CRO on a single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by adjusting
the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line.

3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different amplitudes by using the LEVEL and
COARSE buttons of the function generator.

4. Note on the vertical scale the peak to peak amplitude (Vpp).

Observations:

S. No. No. of Vertical Volts/Division Vp-p=X*Y Measured Input

Divisions (X) (Y) Vm=Vp-p/2 Vm from
using CRO Function
Generator
B) Measurement of Frequency:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the diagram shown above.
2. Put the CRO on a single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by
adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line.
3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different frequencies by using the LEVEL
and COARSE buttons of the function generator.
4. Note down the horizontal scale period (T) in second by observing the difference
between the two successive peaks of the waveform.

Observations:

S. No. No. of Time/Division T=X*Y Measured Input f from

Horizontal (Y) f=1/T using Function
Divisions(X) CRO Generator

Result:

Conclusion:
 Quiz:
1) List out the functions of the multimeter.

2) Draw a simple circuit diagram by placing voltmeter and ammeter to measure voltage and current
respectively.

3) Which parameters of signal can be measured using CRO?

4) Give the max range of voltage and frequency that your CRO can measure.

Suggested Reference:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electronic_measuring_instruments/measuring_instruments.htm
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills
 Experiment No: 2
Obtain V-I characteristic of P-N junction Diode.

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of Diode functioning
2) Knowledge of V-I characteristics of Diode
3) Practical hands and observation of diode voltages and current.
Relevant CO: CO-1 : Analyze the general Purpose diode circuits
Objectives:
1) To perform an Experiment to Study forward bias and reverse bias characteristics of P-N
Junction Diode
2) Observe and calculate diode voltages and current

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit, Power supply, Patch cords, Digital Multimeters, PN

junction Diode, Resistors , bread board, Connectors

Theory:
Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into the
other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a junction
called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This region gives rise to a
potential barrier called Cut-in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at which it starts
conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this potential.
Forward bias :
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected the cathode. Then
diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the junction
is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-side and
electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current from n-
side (injected minority current – due to holes crossing the junction and entering P- side of the
diode). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be
approximated as short- circuited switch.
Reverse bias:

If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this condition
an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier at the
junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the junction
there by increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a
small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This current is
negligible hence the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.

Circuit diagram:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to damaging
of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.

Procedure:
Forward Bias Condition:
1. Connect the components as shown in the Fig.1.
2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the Silicon diode varies from 0 to 0.6 V in
steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to 0.76 V. In each step record the current flowing
through the diode as Id and Voltage across diode Vd.
3.Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too but with the exception that the voltage across
the diode should be varied in steps of 0.01 V from 0.1 to 0.3 V in step-2.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the diode in the reverse bias as shown in the Fig.2.
2.Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the diode varies from 0 to 10V in steps of
1V. Record the current flowing through the diode Id and Voltage across diode Vd in each step.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too and record the current in each step.
4. Now plot a graph between the voltage across the diode and the current flowing through the
diode in forward and reverse bias, for Silicon and Germanium diodes on separate graph sheets.
This graph is called the V-I characteristics of the diodes.
5. Calculate the static and dynamic resistance of each diode in forward and reverse bias using the
following formulae.
Static resistance, R = V/I
Dynamic resistance, r = ∆V/∆I
Graph:
1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as VF, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as IF and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first Quadrant and reverse biased
condition in third Quadrant.

Observations:
Forward Bias:
 Sr. Input voltage Forward Voltage Forward
No. Vi (volt) VD (volt) Current
I D (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Reverse Bias:

Sr. Input voltage Reverse Voltage Reverse

No. Vi (volt) VR (volt) Current
IR (𝑢A)
 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Calculation: (Sufficient space to be provided)

Results:
Cut in Voltage = _______________V
Reverse Breakdown Voltage = _____________V
 Static Forward Resistance = ______________Ω
Dynamic Forward Resistance = _____________Ω
Static Reverse Resistance = ______________Ω
Dynamic Reverse Resistance = _____________Ω

Quiz:
1) Give applications of P-N junction diode.

2) Define Forward breakdown voltage.

3) Define PIV

Suggested Reference:

1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score
(3)

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge
and
Understanding

Practical Skills

Experiment No: 3
Obtain V-I characteristic of Zener Diode.

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
4) Proper understanding of Diode functioning
5) Knowledge of V-I characteristics of Diode
6) Practical hands and observation of diode voltages and current.
Relevant CO: CO-5 : Understand usage of Special Purpose Diodes

Objectives:
1) To perform an Experiment to Study forward bias and reverse bias characteristics of Zener Diode
2) Observe and calculate diode voltages and current
Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit, Power supply, Patch cords, Digital Multimeters, Zener
Diode, Resistors , bread board, Connectors

Theory:
Zener diode is a heavily doped Silicon diode. An ideal P-N junction diode does not conduct in
reverse biased condition. A Zener diode conducts excellently even in reverse biased condition.
These diodes operate at a precise value of voltage called break down voltage. A Zener diode when
forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A Zener diode when reverse biased
can undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.
Avalanche Break down:
If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction widens.
Application of a very large electric field at the junction increases the kinetic energy of the charge
carriers which collides with the adjacent atoms and generates charge carriers by breaking the bond,
they in-turn collides with other atoms by creating new charge carriers, this process is cumulative
which results in the generation of large current resulting in Avalanche Breakdown.
Zener Break down:
If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction reduces,
it leads to the development of strong electric field and application of even a small voltage at the
junction may rupture covalent bond and generate large number of charge carriers. Such sudden
increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener break down.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 3 : Forward Bias Condition

 Fig. 4: Reverse Bias Condition
Safety and necessary Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to damaging
of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.
Procedure:
Forward Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.3.
2. Vary VF gradually from 0 to 0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and In each step record the current flowing
through the diode as IF.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
Reverse Bias Condition:
1. Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias as shown in the fig.4. Vary the voltage across the diode
in steps of 1V from 0 V to 6 V and in steps 0.1 V till its breakdown voltage is reached. In each
step note the current flowing through the diode
2. Plot a graph between V and I. This graph will be called the V-I characteristics of Zener diode.
From the graph find out the breakdown voltage for the diode.

Graph:
1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as VF, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as IF and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first Quadrant and reverse biased
condition in third Quadrant.
Observations:
Forward Bias:

Sr. Input voltage Forward Voltage Forward Current

No. Vi (volt) VD (volt) I D (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Reverse Bias:

Sr. Input voltage Reverse Voltage Reverse Current

No. Vi (volt) VR (volt) IR (𝑢A)
 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Calculation: (Sufficient space to be provided)

Results:
Cut in Voltage = _______________V
Reverse Breakdown Voltage = _____________V
Static Forward Resistance = ______________Ω
Dynamic Forward Resistance = _____________Ω
Static Reverse Resistance = ______________Ω
Dynamic Reverse Resistance = _____________Ω

Conclusion: (Sufficient space to be provided)

Quiz:
1) Give applications of zener diode.

2) Differentiate zener breakdown & Avalanche breakdown voltage.

 3) Define PIV

Suggested Reference:
3) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
4) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

(3)

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge
and
Understanding

Practical Skills
 Experiment No:3
Half Wave Rectifier with and without Filter
Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of Half wave Rectifier circuit.
2) Knowledge of rectification and filtration phenomena of circuit.
3) Knowledge of Ripple factor & rectification efficiency.

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Analyze the general – and special-Purpose diode circuits
Objectives: 1) To perform an Experiment to Study rectification by one diode.
2) Observe input output waveforms for given circuits
3) Measure output voltage, frequency, ripple factor and efficiency of the circuits.
Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / ( PN junction Diode , Resistors , bread board) , function
generator, C.R.O., Patch cords, Digital Multimeters
Theory:
A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a signal
that is a combination of AC and DC components.

A half wave rectifier makes use of single diode to carry out this conversion. It is named so as the
conversion occurs for half input signal cycle. During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward
biased and it conducts and hence a current flows through the load resistor. During the negative half
cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is equivalent to an open circuit, hence the current through
the load resistance is zero. Thus the diode conducts only for one half cycle and results in a half
wave rectified output.

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a signal that is a
combination of AC and DC components. In DC supplies, a rectifier is often followed by a filter
circuit which converts the pulsating DC signal into pure DC signal by removing the AC
component. An L-section filter consists of an inductor and a capacitor connected in the form of an
inverted L. A - section filter consists of two capacitors and one induction in the form symbol pi.

In this practical we will use Capacitor Filter.

 Ripple Factor: Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components
to the average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.
Rectification Factor: The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as
efficiency. It is denoted by the symbol ‘η’

Circuit Diagram:

Waveforms:
Safety and necessary Precautions:
1) Always keep power off while making connections.
2) Necessary care should be taken while working with ammeters , voltmeters and multimeters.
3) Before applying a signal to the C.R.O., make sure all the push buttons of control panel should
be in depressed condition.
Procedure:
1.Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.
2. Connect the multimeter across the 1kΩ load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4.Calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
Ripple factor ( γ ) = VAC/ VDC

5. Calculate the rectification efficiency using the following formula.

rectification efficiency ( η ) = VDC/ VAC * 100 %
 6. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and Observe the
input and output Waveforms. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and
also the frequency

Observations:
Half wave rectifier without filter

Load Multimeter Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) VAC(V) VDC(V) Vp-p(V) Freq(Hz) Vp-p(V) Freq(Hz)

Half wave rectifier with Capacitor filter

Load Multimeter Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) VAC(V) VDC(V) Vp-p(V) Freq(Hz) Vp-p(V) Freq(Hz)

Calculations:
1) Ripple Factor (With and without filter) :

2) Rectification Efficiency (With and without filter) :

Results:
1) Ripple Factor without filter =____________ and with capacitor filter =_______
2) Rectification Efficiency without filter =____________ and with capacitor filter=_______
Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) Write the limitations of half wave rectifier.

2) Derive the value of ripple factor for half wave rectifier circuit.

3) Draw the circuit for negative half wave rectifier.

Suggested Reference:
1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:
 Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills

Experiment No:4
Bridge Rectifier with and without Filter
Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of Bridge Rectifier circuit.
2) Knowledge of rectification and filtration phenomena of circuit.
3) Knowledge of Ripple factor & rectification efficiency.

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Analyze the general – and special-Purpose diode circuits
Objectives: 1) To perform an Experiment to Study rectification by four diodes.
2) Observe input output waveforms for given circuits
3) Measure output voltage, frequency, ripple factor and efficiency of the circuits.
Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / ( PN junction Diodes , Resistors , bread board) , function
generator, C.R.O., Patch cords, Digital Multimeters
Theory:
Another type of circuit that produces the same output as a full-wave rectifier is that of the
Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses 4 individual rectifying diodes connected
in a "bridged" configuration to produce the desired output but does not require a special centre
tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected
to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown in figure. The 4
diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in
Fig. 1: Full-wave Bridge Rectifier series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current
flows through the load as shown below (Fig. 2). During the negative half cycle of the supply,
diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse
biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a

signal that is a combination of AC and DC components. In DC supplies, a rectifier is often followed
by a filter circuit which converts the pulsating DC signal into pure DC signal by removing the AC
component. An L-section filter consists of an inductor and a capacitor connected in the form of an
inverted L. A - section filter consists of two capacitors and one induction in the form symbol pi.

In this practical we will use Capacitor Filter.

Ripple Factor: Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components
to the average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.
Rectification Factor: The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as
efficiency.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘η’

Circuit Diagram:
Waveforms:
Safety and necessary Precautions:
1) Always keep power off while making connections.
2) Necessary care should be taken while working with ammeters , voltmeters and multimeters.
3) Before applying a signal to the C.R.O., make sure all the push buttons of control panel should
be in depressed condition.

Procedure:
1.Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.
2. Connect the multimeter across the 1kΩ load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4.Calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
Ripple factor ( γ ) = VAC/ VDC

5. Calculate the rectification efficiency using the following formula.

rectification efficiency ( η ) = VDC/ VAC * 100 %
 6. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and Observe the
input and output Waveforms. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and
also the frequency

Observations:
Bridge rectifier without filter

Load Multimeter Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) VAC(V) VDC(V) Vp-p(V) Freq(Hz) Vp-p(V) Freq(Hz)

Bridge rectifier with capacitor filter

Load Multimeter Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) VAC(V) VDC(V) Vp-p(V) Freq(Hz) Vp-p(V) Freq(Hz)

Calculations:
1) Ripple Factor (With and without filter) :

2) Rectification Efficiency (With and without filter) :

 Results:
1) Ripple Factor without filter =____________ and with capacitor filter =_______
2) Rectification Efficiency without filter =____________ and with capacitor filter=_______
Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) Compare Full wave rectifier and Bridge rectifier.

2) Give the reason why bridge rectifier is used than full wave rectifier?

Suggested Reference:
1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills
 Experiment No:5
Clamper Circuits

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of the Clamper circuit.
2) Knowledge of positive and negative clamping.
Relevant CO: CO-1 : Analyze the general – and special-Purpose diode circuits
Objectives: 1) To perform positive and negative clamper circuits.
2) Observe input output waveforms for given circuits
Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / ( PN junction Diode , Resistor ,Capacitor, bread board) ,
function generator, C.R.O., Patch cords.
Theory:
A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal. Actually, the positive and
negative peaks of the signals can be placed at desired levels using the clamping circuits. As the
DC level gets shifted, a clamper circuit is called as a Level Shifter.

Clamper circuits consist of energy storage elements like capacitors. A simple clamper circuit
comprises of a capacitor, a diode, a resistor and a dc battery if required.

Clamper Circuit
A Clamper circuit can be defined as the circuit that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor
that shifts the waveform to a desired DC level without changing the actual appearance of the
applied signal.

In order to maintain the time period of the wave form, the tau(τ) must be greater than, half the
time period (τ>T/2)
τ=RC
Where R is the resistance of the resistor employed
C is the capacitance of the capacitor used
The time constant of charge and discharge of the capacitor determines the output of a clamper
circuit.
In a clamper circuit, a vertical shift of upward or downward takes place in the output waveform
with respect to the input signal.
The load resistor and the capacitor affect the waveform. So, the discharging time of the capacitor
should be large enough.
Discharging time of the capacitor should be slow.

Positive Clamper Circuit

A Clamping circuit restores the DC level. When a negative peak of the signal is raised A Positive
Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that shifts the output
signal to the positive portion of the input signal.
Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and the diode is reverse biased.
The output is not considered at this point of time. During the negative half cycle, at the peak
value, the capacitor gets charged with negative on one plate and positive on the other. The
capacitor is now charged to its peak value Vm. The diode is forward biased and conducts
heavily.
During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to positive Vm while the diode gets
reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be

Vo = Vi + Vm

Negative Clamper Circuit

A Negative Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that shifts
the output signal to the negative portion of the input signal.

During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its peak value vm. The diode is
forward biased and conducts. During the negative half cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and
gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be
Vo = Vi + Vm
Circuit Diagram with Waveforms:

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1) Always keep power off while making connections.

2) Necessary care should be taken while working with ammeters , voltmeters and multimeters.
3) Before applying a signal to the C.R.O., make sure all the push buttons of control panel should
be in depressed condition.
Procedure:
1.Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.
2. Connect the function generator to the input of the circuit and give this signal to Ch. 1 of CRO .
3. Take the output from the load resistor and give this signal to Ch.l 2 of CRO.
4. Observe input output signals on CRO screen.
5. Draw the input output waveforms for both positive and negative clamper circuits.
Observations:
I/O waveforms of positive clamper I/O waveforms of negative clamper
 Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) Draw the circuits for positive biased positive clamping and negative biased positive clamping.

2) Draw the circuits for positive biased negative clamping and negative biased negative clamping.
 Suggested Reference:
1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills
 Experiment No:6
Clipper Circuits

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of Clipper circuit.
2) Knowledge of positive and negative clipping.

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Analyze the general – and special-Purpose diode circuits

Objectives: 1) To perform positive and negative clipper circuits.

2) Observe input output waveforms for given circuits

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / ( PN junction Diode , Resistor , bread board) , function

generator, regulated power supply, C.R.O., Patch cords.
Theory:
A Clipper circuit is a circuit that rejects the part of the input wave specified while allowing the
remaining portion. The portion of the wave above or below the cut off voltage determined is
clipped off or cut off.
The clipping circuits consist of linear and non-linear elements like resistors and diodes but not
energy storage elements like capacitors.
Positive Clipper:
The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate positive portions of the input signal can be termed
as a Positive Clipper.
1) Positive Series Clipper
A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that attenuates
the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Series Clipper. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for positive series clipper.
Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input
makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse
 biased and hence it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor becomes
zero as no current flows through it and hence V0 will be zero.
Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit
negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and hence it conducts
like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be equal to the applied input
voltage as it completely appears at the output V0
2) Positive Shunt Clipper
A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and that attenuates
the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Shunt Clipper. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for positive shunt clipper.
Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input
makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward
biased and hence it conducts like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor becomes
zero as no current flows through it and hence V0 will be zero.
Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit
negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse biased and hence it behaves like
an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be equal to the applied input voltage
as it completely appears at the output V0.
Negative Clipper:
The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate negative portions of the input signal can be termed
as a Negative Clipper.
1) Negative Series Clipper
A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that attenuates
the negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Series Clipper. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative series clipper.
Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input
makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward
biased and hence it acts like a closed switch. Thus the input voltage completely appears across the
load resistor to produce the output V0.
Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit
negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse biased and hence it acts like an
open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be zero making V0 zero.

2) Negative Shunt Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and that attenuates
the negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Shunt Clipper. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative shunt clipper.
Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the input
makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse
biased and hence it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor equals
the applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output V0 is 0
Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit
negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and hence it conducts
like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor becomes zero as no current flows
through it.
Circuit Diagram with Waveforms:

Positive Clipper:

Negative Clipper:
Safety and necessary Precautions:
1) Always keep power off while making connections
2) Necessary care should be taken while working with ammeters , voltmeters and multimeters.
3) Before applying a signal to the C.R.O., make sure all the push buttons of control panel should
be in depressed condition.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.
2. Connect the function generator to the input of the circuit and give this signal to Ch. 1 of CRO .
3. Take the output from the load resistor and give this signal to Ch.l 2 of CRO.
4. Observe input output signals on CRO screen.
5. Draw the input output waveforms for both positive and negative (series and shunt) clipper
circuits.
Observations:
I/O waveforms of positive clipper I/O waveforms of negative clipper
(Series and shunt) (Series and shunt)
 Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) Draw the circuits for biased (positive & negative) series positive clipping.

2) Draw the circuits for biased (positive & negative) shunt positive clipping.
3) Draw the circuits for biased (positive & negative) series negative clipping.

4) Draw the circuits for biased (positive & negative) shunt negative clipping.

Suggested Reference:
1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills

Experiment No: 7
7-segment static display system
Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of the 7 Segment static display system.
2) Knowledge of testing a 7-segment static display system to display numbers 0 to 9.

Relevant CO: CO-5: Understand usage of Special Purpose Diodes

Objectives:
1) To learn about various applications of decoder T
2) o learn and understand the working of IC 7447
3) To learn about types of seven-segment display

Equipment/Instruments: IC7447, 7-Segment display (common anode), Patch chords,

Breadboard.

Theory:
 The Light Emitting Diode (LED) finds its place in many applications in these modern
electronic fields. One of them is the Seven Segment Display. Seven-segment displays contains the
arrangement of the LEDs in “Eight” (8) passion, and a Dot (.) with a common electrode, lead
(Anode or Cathode). The purpose of arranging it in that passion is that we can make any number
out of that by switching ON and OFF the particular LED’s. Here is the block diagram of the Seven
Segment LED arrangement.
The Light Emitting Diode (LED), finds its place in many applications in this modern electronic
fields. One of them is the Seven Segment Display. Seven-segment displays contains the
arrangement of the LEDs in “Eight” (8) passion, and a Dot (.) with a common electrode, lead
(Anode or Cathode). The purpose of arranging it in that passion is that we can make any number
out of that by switching ON and OFF the particular LED’s. Here is the block diagram of the Seven
Segment LED arrangement.

Seven Segment Display

LED’s are basically of two types-

Common Cathode (CC) -All the 8 anode legs uses only one cathode, which is common. Common
Anode (CA)-The common leg for all the cathode is of Anode type.
A decoder is a combinational circuit that connects the binary information from ‘n’ input lines to a
maximum of 2n unique output lines. The IC7447 is a BCD to 7-segment pattern converter. The
IC7447 takes the Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) as the input and outputs the relevant 7 segment
code.

Circuit Diagram:
PROCEDURE:

● Check all the components for their working.

● Insert the appropriate IC into the Breadboard.
● Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
● Verify the Truth Table and observe the outputs.
OBSERVATION TABLE

BSD Inputs Output Logic Level from IC 7447 to 7 - Segment Decimal

Number
D C B A a b c d e f g
Display

Conclusion:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills

Experiment No: 8
Common Emitter BJT Characteristics

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of CE configuration of BJT circuits.
2) Knowledge of biasing of CE configuration for both NPN and PNP transistors.
3) Knowledge of Ideal input output characteristics for CE configuration of transistor circuit .

Relevant CO: CO-2 : Design biasing circuits for BJT

Objectives:
1) To perform an Experiment to Study Input Output characteristic of Common Emitter transistor
configuration .
2) Observe change in input parameters(V and I) by keeping output parameter constant.
3) Observe change in output parameters(V and I) by keeping input parameter constant.

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / (BJT (BC 107) , Resistors , bread board) ,Regulated power
supply, Patch cords, Digital Multimeters
Theory:
The configuration in which the emitter is connected between the collector and base is
known as a common emitter configuration. The variation of Base current(IB) with Base-Emitter
voltage(VBE), keeping Collector Emitter voltage(VCE) constant gives input characteristics and
variation of collector current(IC) with Emitter-collector voltage(V CE), keeping Base current(IB)
constant gives output characteristics

Circuit Diagram:

Model graph :

1. Plot the Input characteristics by taking IB on y-axis and VBE on x-axis.

2. Plot the Output characteristics by taking IC on the y-axis and VCE on x-axis.

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

 Safety and necessary Precautions:
1) Always keep power off while making connections.
2) Necessary care should be taken while working with ammeters , voltmeters and multimeters.

Procedure:
TO FIND THE INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep VBB and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply

3. Set VCE = 1 volt by varying VCC and vary the VBB smoothly with fine control such that base current
IB varies in steps of 5μA from zero upto 200μA, and note down the corresponding voltage V BE for
each step in the tabular form.

4. Repeat the experiment for VCE =2 volts and 3 volts.

5. Draw a graph between VBE Vs IB against VCE = Constant.

TO FIND THE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Start VBB and VCC from zero Volts.

2. Set the IB = 20μA by using VBB such that, VCE changes in steps of 0.2 volts from zero upto 10 volts,
note down the corresponding collector current IC for each step in the tabular form.

3. Repeat the experiment for IB = 40μA and IB = 60μA, tabulate the readings.

4. Draw a graph between VCE Vs IC against IB = Constant.

Observations:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS;

Sr. No. VCE=______V VCE=______V VCE=______V

VBE (V) IB (µA) VBE (V) IB (µA) VBE (V) IB (µA)

7
 8

10

11

12

13

14

15

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS;

Sr. No. IB = ______µA IB = ______µA IB = ______µA

VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA)

7
 8

10

11

12

13

14

15

Graph:
Draw the graph for both input and output characteristics on separate graph paper.
Results:
1) Input Rsistance ri = ΔVBE / ΔIB = ___________Ω
2) Output Rsistance ro = ΔVCE / ΔIC =___________Ω
3) Current amplification factor ꞵ = ΔIc / ΔIb = _______

Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) Enlist the input output terminals for Common Emitter configuration of BJT.

2) Which parameters should keep constant while measuring input characteristics in CE

configuration?
3) Which parameters should keep constant while measuring output characteristics in CE
configuration?

4) What will be the biasing condition for Cut-off, Active and Saturation region of BJT.

5) What is the range of ꞵ?

Suggested Reference:
1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score
Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills
 Experiment No:9
Common Base BJT Characteristics

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding of CB configuration of BJT circuit.
2) Knowledge of biasing of CB configuration for both NPN and PNP transistor.
3) Knowledge of Ideal input output characteristics for CB configuration of transistor circuit .

Relevant CO: CO-2 : Design biasing circuits for BJT

Objectives:
1) To perform an Experiment to Study Input Output characteristic of Common Base transistor
configuration .
2) Observe change in input parameters(V and I) by keeping output parameter constant.
3) Observe change in output parameters(V and I) by keeping input parameter constant.

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / (BJT (BC 107) , Resistors , bread board) ,Regulated power
supply, Patch cords, Digital Multimeters

Theory:
In CB Configuration, the base terminal of the transistor will be connected common between
the output and the input terminals. The variation of emitter current(I E) with Base-Emitter
voltage(VBE), keeping Collector Base voltage(VCB) constant gives input characteristics and
variation of collector current(IC) with Base-Collector voltage(VCB), keeping emitter current(IE)
constant gives output characteristics
 Circuit Diagram:

Model graph :

1) Plot the Input characteristics by taking IE on y–axis and VEB on x–axis.

2) Plot the Output characteristics by taking IC on y–axis and VCB on x–axis.
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1) Always keep power off while making connections.
 2) Necessary care should be taken while working with ammeters , voltmeters and multimeters.

Procedure:
TO FIND THE INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep VEE and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply

3. Set VCB = 1 volt by varying VCC. and vary the VEE smoothly with fine control such that emitter current
IE varies in steps of 0.2mA from zero upto 20mA, and note down the corresponding voltage V EB for
each step in the tabular form.

4. Repeat the experiment for VCB =2 volts and 3 volts.

5. Draw a graph between VEB Vs IE against VCB = Constant.

TO FIND THE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Start VEE and VCC from zero Volts.

2. Set the IE = 1mA by using VEE such that, VCB changes in steps of 1.0 volts from zero upto 20 volts,
note down the corresponding collector current IC for each step in the tabular form.

3. Repeat the experiment for IE = 3mA and IE = 5mA, tabulate the readings.

4. Draw a graph between VCB Vs IC against IE = Constant.

Observations:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS;

Sr. No. VCB=______V VCB=______V VCB=______V

VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA)

10

11

12

13

14

15
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS;

Sr. No. IE = ______mA IE = ______mA IE = ______mA

VCB (V) Ic (mA) VCB (V) Ic (mA) VCB (V) Ic (mA)

10

11

12

13

14

15

Graph:
 Draw the graph for both input and output characteristics on separate graph paper.
Results:
1) Input Rsistance ri = ΔVEB / ΔIE = ___________Ω
2) Output Rsistance ro = ΔVCB / ΔIC =___________Ω
3) Current amplification factor 𝜶 = ΔIc / ΔIe = _______
Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) Enlist the input output terminals for Common Base configuration of BJT.

2) Which parameters should keep constant while measuring input characteristics in CB

configuration?

3) Which parameters should keep constant while measuring output characteristics in CB

configuration?

4) What is the value of ?

5) Derive relation between and ꞵ.

Suggested Reference:
1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills
 Experiment No:10
Transistor as a Switch

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding BJT circuit working.
2) Knowledge of biasing of BJT circuit .

Relevant CO: CO-2 : Design biasing circuits for BJT

CO-3 : Analyze BJT circuits in small signal domain

Objectives:
1) To make the load ON or OFF as per the switching effect of BJT.
2) To observe the required current to drive any application load.

Equipment/Instruments: BJT (Q2N3904) , Resistors , Switch , LED, bread board ,Regulated

power supply, Digital Multimeters, Connectors

Theory:
A transistor is a semiconductor device has three terminals emitter-base and collector. There are
many uses of this electronic component but most common is it used as switch and amplifier. Here,
we will have discuss use of tra nsistor or BJT as Switch, application, circuits and different
parameters related to it.

BJT as Switch

In the below figure the circuit shown explains the operation of BJT as a switch.

In the first circuit, the transistor is in the cutoff region because the emitter-base junction is not
forward biased condition.In this state, there is no connection between emitter and collector of a
transistor as shown like an open switch.
 In the second circuit, a transistor is in a saturation state as both base-collector and the base-emitter
junction is in forward biased state. The value of base current is such large that it makes collector
current such level that transistor is in saturation state. In a saturation state, there is a short circuit
between emitter and collector as it is shown in a circuit like closes switch configuration.

In real, a minor voltage loss across the transistor of up to some 10th of a volt usually exits, that is
the saturation voltage, VCE(sat).

Transistor Cutoff Mode

The state where both junctions of transistor base-emitter and base-collector are in reverses biased
condition called a cutoff mode of a diode. In this case voltage across the base-emitter is less that
does not allow current to flow from collector to emitter. In this state, VCE is equal to the VCC.

VCE(cutoff) = VCC

Transistor saturation Mode

In this mode of operation, their base-emitter junction is in forward biased condition due to that
base current generated that results in the production of collector current.

The expression for saturation collector current is given here.

IC(sat)=VCC-VCE(sat)/RC

As the value of VCE(sat) is less as compare to the VCC so it can be ignored.

The minimum value of the base current required to generated saturation is given here.

IB(min)= IC(sat)/ βDC

Usually, IB must be significantly larger than IB(min) to confirm that the transistor is saturated.
Circuit Diagram:

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1) Always keep power off while making connections.
 2) Necessary care should be taken while working with ammeters , voltmeters and multimeters.
3) While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to
damage the transistor.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Connect current meter between Switch and RB.
3. When the switch at the base terminal is open, no current flows through the base so the transistor is
in the cutoff state. Therefore, the transistor acts as an open-circuit and the LED becomes OFF.So
current meter deflection will be zero.
4. When the switch is closed, base current starts flowing through the transistor and then drives into
saturation, which results in LED to turn ON.
5. Note down the reading of current meter.
6. Resistors are placed to limit the currents through the base and LED. It is also possible to vary the
intensity of LED by varying the resistance in the base current path.
Observations:

Switch position IB (mA) IC (mA) LED On/OFF?

ON

OFF

Results:
1. Minimum Current IB required to ON the LED is ______________ mA

Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) Derive the equation for the output loop to find the output/ load current for NPN transistor.
 2) Draw the circuit for transistor working as a switch to ON-OFF another device (except LED)

Suggested Reference:
1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:

Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills
 Experiment No:11
Characteristics of FET

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding FET terminals .
2) Knowledge of biasing of CS configuration FET .
3) Knowledge of Drain Resistance, Trans-conductance and Amplification factor of FET circuit.

Relevant CO: CO-4 : Analyze basic FET circuits

Objectives:
1) To plot the transfer characteristics and Drain characteristics of CS FET configuration.
2) To find Drain Resistance, Trans-conductance and Amplification factor of FET circuit.

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / (JFET BFW11 , Resistors , bread board) ,Regulated power
supply, Digital Multimeters, Connectors

Theory:
A JFET is called as Junction Field effect transistor. It is a unipolar device because the flow of
current through it is due to one type of carriers i.e., majority carriers where as a BJT is a Bi - Polar
device, It has 3 terminals Gate, Source and Drain. A JFET can be used in any of the three
configurations viz, Common Source, Common Gate and Common Drain. The input gate to source
junction should always be operated in reverse bias, hence input resistance R i = ∞, IG ≈ 0.

Pinch off voltage VP is defined as the gate to source reverse bias voltage at which the output
drain current becomes zero.

In CS configuration Gate is used as input node and Drain as the output node. A JFET in
CS configuration is used widely as an amplifier. A JFET amplifier is preferred over a BJT amplifier
when the demand is for smaller gain, high input resistance and low output resistance. Any FET
operation is governed by the following equation.
 The drain current equation and trans-conductance is given as

ID = IDSS [ 1- VGS/Vp]2 gm = ∆ Iout/∆ Vin = ID / VGS

Where 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 is called as Drain to Source Saturation current & V p is called as the Pinch off voltage

Circuit Diagram:

Characteristics of FET in CommonSource

Safety and necessary Precautions:

1) While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the FET. This may lead to damage
the FET.
2) Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3) Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.
4) Make sure while selecting the Source, Drain and Gate terminals of the transistor.

Procedure:
Transfer Characteristics:
1) Connect the circuit as shown. All the knobs of the power supply must be at the minimum position
before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the output voltage VDS to 4V by adjusting the supply VDD.
3) Vary the supply voltage VGG so that the voltage VGS varies in steps of -0.25 V from 0 V onwards.
In each step note the drain current ID. This should be continued till ID becomes zero.
4) Repeat above step for VDS = 8 V.
5) Plot a graph between the input voltage V GS and output current ID for output voltage VDS in the
second quadrant. This curve is called the transfer characteristics.
Drain Characteristics:
1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their minimum
positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the input voltage VGS to 0 V by adjusting the supply VGG
3) Vary the supply voltage VDD so that VDS varies in steps of 0.5 V from 0 to 4 V and then in steps
of 1 V from 4 to 10 V. In each step note the value of drain current I D.
4) Adjust VGS to -1 and -2 V and repeat step-3 for each value of V GS.
5) Plot a graph between VDS and ID for different values of VGS. These curves are called drain
characteristics.
6) Mark the various regions in the drain characteristics graph and calculate the drain resistance.

Observations:

Transfer Characteristics:

VDS = 4V VDS = 6V

VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)

Drain Characteristics:

VGS = 0V VGS = -1V VGS = -2V

VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

Graph:
1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at a constant VGS.
2. Plot the transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and taking ID on Y-axis at constant
VDS.

Model graph :
 Transfer Characteristics Drain Characteristics

Calculations from Graph:

1. Drain Resistance (rd): It is given by the relation of small change in drain to source voltage ( V DS)
to the corresponding change in Drain Current ( ID) for a constant gate to source voltage ( V GS),
when the JFET is operating in pinch-off region.

2. Trans Conductance (gm): Ratio of small change in drain current ( ID) to the corresponding change
in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant VDS.

gm at constant VDS (from transfer characteristics). The value of gm is expressed

in mho’s ( ) or Siemens (s).
3. Amplification factor (µ): It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage ( V DS)
to the corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( V GS) for a constant drain current (ID).

Results:
1. Drain Resistance rd=_____________

2. Transconductance gm = ___________
3. Amplification Factor µ = _____________
 Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) What are the advantages of FET?

2) What are the disadvantages of FET?

3) What is transconductance?

4) Relation between µ, gm and rd?

Suggested Reference:
1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
References used by the students:
 Insert the marks according to observations ;

Category Novice (2) Developing (3) Proficient (4) Expert (5) Score

Clarity of
concepts and
record book

Knowledge and
Understanding

Practical Skills