CSC 211

Transistors
Transistors make our electronics world go ‘round. They’re
critical as a control source in just about every modern circuit.
Sometimes you see them, but more-o!en-than-not they’re
hidden deep within the die of an integrated circuit. In this
tutorial we’ll introduce you to the basics of the most common
transistor around: the bi-polar junction transistor (BJT).

In small, discrete quantities, transistors can be used to create

simple electronic switches, digital logic, and signal
amplifying circuits. In quantities of thousands, millions, and
even billions, transistors are interconnected and embedded
into tiny chips to create computer memories,
microprocessors, and other complex ICs.

Covered In This Tutorial

A!er reading through this tutorial, we want you to have a
broad understanding of how transistors work. We won’t dig
too deeply into semiconductor physics or equivalent models,
but we’ll get deep enough into the subject that you’ll
understand how a transistor can be used as either a switch
or amplifier.

This tutorial is split into a series of sections, covering:

Symbols, Pins, and Construction – Explaining the

di"erences between the transistor’s three pins.
Extending the Water Analogy – Going back to the water
analogy to explain how a transistor acts like a valve.
Operation Modes – An overview of the four possible
operating modes of a transistor.
Switches – Application circuits showing how transistors
are used as electronically controlled switches.

There are two types of basic transistor out there: bi-polar

junction (BJT) and metal-oxide field-e"ect (MOSFET). In this
tutorial we’ll focus on the BJT, because it’s slightly easier to
understand. Digging even deeper into transistor types, there
are actually two versions of the BJT: NPN and PNP. We’ll turn
our focus even sharper by limiting our early discussion to the
NPN. By narrowing our focus down – getting a solid
understanding of the NPN – it’ll be easier to understand the
PNP (or MOSFETS, even) by comparing how it di"ers from the
NPN.

Suggested Reading
Before digging into this tutorial, we’d highly recommend
giving these tutorials a look-through:

Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Ohm’s Law – An

introduction to the fundamentals of electronics.
Electricity Basics – We’ll talk a bit about electricity as
the flow of electrons. Find out how those electrons
flow in this tutorial.
Electric Power – One of the transistors main
applications is amplifying—increasing the power of a
signal. Increasing power means we can increase either
current or voltage, find out why in this tutorial.
Diodes – A transistor is a semiconductor device, just
like a diode. In a way, it’s what you’d get if you stacked
two diodes together, and tied their anodes together.
Understanding how a diode works will go a long way
towards uncovering the operation of a transistor.

Symbols, Pins, and

Construction
Transistors are fundamentally three-terminal devices. On a
bi-polar junction transistor (BJT), those pins are labeled
collector (C), base (B), and emitter (E). The circuit symbols
for both the NPN and PNP BJT are below:

B-INPN BI*PNP
The only di"erence between an NPN and PNP is the direction
of the arrow on the emitter. The arrow on an NPN points out,
and on the PNP it points in. A useful mnemonic for
remembering which is which is:

NPN: Not Pointing iN

Backwards logic, but it works!

Transistor Construction
Transistors rely on semiconductors to work their magic. A
semiconductor is a material that’s not quite a pure conductor
(like copper wire) but also not an insulator (like air). The
conductivity of a semiconductor – how easily it allows
electrons to flow – depends on variables like temperature or
the presence of more or less electrons. Let’s look briefly
under the hood of a transistor. Don’t worry, we won’t dig too
deeply into quantum physics.

A Transistor as Two Diodes

Transistors are kind of like an extension of another
semiconductor component: diodes. In a way transistors are
just two diodes with their cathodes (or anodes) tied together:

NPN PNP

B.

The diode connecting base to emitter is the important one

here; it matches the direction of the arrow on the schematic
symbol, and shows you which way current is intended to
flow through the transistor.

The diode representation is a good place to start, but it’s far

from accurate. Don’t base your understanding of a
transistor’s operation on that model (and definitely don’t try
to replicate it on a breadboard, it won’t work). There’s a
whole lot of weird quantum physics level stu" controlling the
interactions between the three terminals.

(This model is useful if you need to test a transistor. Using the

diode (or resistance) test function on a multimeter, you can
measure across the BE and BC terminals to check for the
presence of those “diodes”.)

Transistor Structure and Operation

Transistors are built by stacking three di"erent layers of
semiconductor material together. Some of those layers have
extra electrons added to them (a process called “doping”),
and others have electrons removed (doped with “holes” – the
absence of electrons). A semiconductor material with extra
electrons is called an n-type (n for negative because
electrons have a negative charge) and a material with
electrons removed is called a p-type (for positive).
Transistors are created by either stacking an n on top of a p
on top of an n, or p over n over p.

Simplified diagram of the structure of an NPN. Notice the

origin of any acronyms?

With some hand waving, we can say electrons can easily

flow from n regions to p regions, as long as they have a little
force (voltage) to push them. But flowing from a p region to
an n region is really hard (requires a lot of voltage). But the
special thing about a transistor – the part that makes our
two-diode model obsolete – is the fact that electrons can
easily flow from the p-type base to the n-type collector as
long as the base-emitter junction is forward biased
(meaning the base is at a higher voltage than the emitter).

The NPN transistor is designed to pass electrons from the

emitter to the collector (so conventional current flows from
collector to emitter). The emitter “emits” electrons into the
base, which controls the number of electrons the emitter
emits. Most of the electrons emitted are “collected” by the
collector, which sends them along to the next part of the
circuit.

A PNP works in a same but opposite fashion. The base still

controls current flow, but that current flows in the opposite
direction – from emitter to collector. Instead of electrons, the
emitter emits “holes” (a conceptual absence of electrons)
which are collected by the collector.

The transistor is kind of like an electron valve. The base pin

is like a handle you might adjust to allow more or less
electrons to flow from emitter to collector. Let’s investigate
this analogy further…

Extending the Water Analogy

If you’ve been reading a lot of electricity concept tutorials
lately, you’re probably used to water analogies. We say that
current is analogous to the flow rate of water, voltage is the
pressure pushing that water through a pipe, and resistance is
the width of the pipe.

Unsurprisingly, the water analogy can be extended to

transistors as well: a transistor is like a water valve – a
mechanism we can use to control the flow rate.

There are three states we can use a valve in, each of which
has a di"erent e"ect on the flow rate in a system.

1) On – Short Circuit
A valve can be completely opened, allowing water to flow
freely – passing through as if the valve wasn’t even present.

Likewise, under the right circumstances, a transistor can look

like a short circuit between the collector and emitter pins.
Current is free to flow through the collector, and out the
emitter.

2) O! – Open Circuit
When it’s closed, a valve can completely stop the flow of
water.

In the same way, a transistor can be used to create an open

circuit between the collector and emitter pins.

3) Linear Flow Control

With some precise tuning, a valve can be adjusted to finely
control the flow rate to some point between fully open and
closed.

A transistor can do the same thing – linearly controlling the

current through a circuit at some point between fully o" (an
open circuit) and fully on (a short circuit).

From our water analogy, the width of a pipe is similar to the

resistance in a circuit. If a valve can finely adjust the width of
a pipe, then a transistor can finely adjust the resistance
between collector and emitter. So, in a way, a transistor is like
a variable, adjustable resistor.

Amplifying Power
There’s another analogy we can wrench into this. Imagine if,
with the slight turn of a valve, you could control the flow rate
of the Hoover Dam’s flow gates. The measly amount of force
you might put into twisting that knob has the potential to
create a force thousands of times stronger. We’re stretching
the analogy to its limits, but this idea carries over to
transistors too. Transistors are special because they can
amplify electrical signals, turning a low-power signal into a
similar signal of much higher power.

Kind of. There’s a lot more to it, but that’s a good place to
start! Check out the next section for a more detailed
explanation of the operation of a transistor.

Operation Modes
Unlike resistors, which enforce a linear relationship between
voltage and current, transistors are non-linear devices. They
have four distinct modes of operation, which describe the
current flowing through them. (When we talk about current
flow through a transistor, we usually mean current flowing
from collector to emitter of an NPN.)

The four transistor operation modes are:

Saturation – The transistor acts like a short circuit.

Current freely flows from collector to emitter.
Cut-o! – The transistor acts like an open circuit. No
current flows from collector to emitter.
Active – The current from collector to emitter is
proportional to the current flowing into the base.
Reverse-Active – Like active mode, the current is
proportional to the base current, but it flows in
reverse. Current flows from emitter to collector (not,
exactly, the purpose transistors were designed for).

To determine which mode a transistor is in, we need to look

at the voltages on each of the three pins, and how they relate
to each other. The voltages from base to emitter (VBE), and
the from base to collector (VBC) set the transistor’s mode:

The simplified quadrant graph above shows how positive and

negative voltages at those terminals a"ect the mode. In
reality it’s a bit more complicated than that.

Let’s look at all four transistor modes individually; we’ll

investigate how to put the device into that mode, and what
e"ect it has on current flow.

Note: The majority of this page focuses on NPN transistors.

To understand how a PNP transistor works, simply flip the
polarity or > and < signs.

Saturation Mode
Saturation is the on mode of a transistor. A transistor in
saturation mode acts like a short circuit between collector
and emitter.

In saturation mode both of the “diodes” in the transistor are

forward biased. That means VBE must be greater than 0, and
so must VBC. In other words, VB must be higher than both VE
and VC.

Because the junction from base to emitter looks just like a

diode, in reality, VBE must be greater than a threshold
voltage to enter saturation. There are many abbreviations for
this voltage drop – Vth, Vγ, and Vd are a few – and the actual
value varies between transistors (and even further by
temperature). For a lot of transistors (at room temperature)
we can estimate this drop to be about 0.6V.

Another reality bummer: there won’t be perfect conduction

between emitter and collector. A small voltage drop will form
between those nodes. Transistor datasheets will define this
voltage as CE saturation voltage VCE(sat) – a voltage from
collector to emitter required for saturation. This value is
usually around 0.05-0.2V. This value means that VC must be
slightly greater than VE (but both still less than VB) to get the
transistor in saturation mode.

Cuto! Mode
Cuto" mode is the opposite of saturation. A transistor in
cuto" mode is o! – there is no collector current, and
therefore no emitter current. It almost looks like an open
circuit.

To get a transistor into cuto" mode, the base voltage must be

less than both the emitter and collector voltages. VBC and VBE
must both be negative.

In reality, VBE can be anywhere between 0V and Vth (~0.6V) to

achieve cuto" mode.

Active Mode
To operate in active mode, a transistor’s VBE must be greater
than zero and VBC must be negative. Thus, the base voltage
must be less than the collector, but greater than the emitter.
That also means the collector must be greater than the
emitter.

In reality, we need a non-zero forward voltage drop

(abbreviated either Vth, Vγ, or Vd) from base to emitter (VBE) to
“turn on” the transistor. Usually this voltage is usually around
0.6V.
Amplifying in Active Mode
Active mode is the most powerful mode of the transistor
because it turns the device into an amplifier. Current going
into the base pin amplifies current going into the collector
and out the emitter.

Our shorthand notation for the gain (amplification factor) of

a transistor is β (you may also see it as βF, or hFE). β linearly
relates the collector current (IC) to the base current (IB):

The actual value of β varies by transistor. It’s usually around

100, but can range from 50 to 200…even 2000, depending on
which transistor you’re using and how much current is
running through it. If your transistor had a β of 100, for
example, that’d mean an input current of 1mA into the base
could produce 100mA current through the collector.

Active mode model. VBE = Vth, and IC = βIB.

What about the emitter current, IE? In active mode, the

collector and base currents go into the device, and the IE
comes out. To relate the emitter current to collector current,
we have another constant value: α. α is the common-base
current gain, it relates those currents as such:

α is usually very close to, but less than, 1. That means IC is

very close to, but less than IE in active mode.

You can use β to calculate α, or vice-versa:

If β is 100, for example, that means α is 0.99. So, if IC is 100mA,

for example, then IE is 101mA.

Reverse Active
Just as saturation is the opposite of cuto", reverse active
mode is the opposite of active mode. A transistor in reverse
active mode conducts, even amplifies, but current flows in
the opposite direction, from emitter to collector. The
downside to reverse active mode is the β (βR in this case) is
much smaller.

To put a transistor in reverse active mode, the emitter voltage

must be greater than the base, which must be greater than
the collector (VBE<0 and VBC>0).

Reverse active mode isn’t usually a state in which you want to

drive a transistor. It’s good to know it’s there, but it’s rarely
designed into an application.

Relating to the PNP

A!er everything we’ve talked about on this page, we’ve still
only covered half of the BJT spectrum. What about PNP
transistors? PNP’s work a lot like the NPN’s – they have the
same four modes – but everything is turned around. To find
out which mode a PNP transistor is in, reverse all of the < and
> signs.

For example, to put a PNP into saturation VC and VE must be

higher than VB. You pull the base low to turn the PNP on, and
make it higher than the collector and emitter to turn it o".
And, to put a PNP into active mode, VE must be at a higher
voltage than VB, which must be higher than VC.

In summary:

Voltage relations NPN Mode PNP Mode

VE < VB < VC Active Reverse

VE < VB > VC Saturation Cuto"

VE > VB < VC Cuto" Saturation

VE > VB > VC Reverse Active

Another opposing characteristic of the NPNs and PNPs is the

direction of current flow. In active and saturation modes,
current in a PNP flows from emitter to collector. This
means the emitter must generally be at a higher voltage than
the collector.

If you’re burnt out on conceptual stu", take a trip to the next

section. The best way to learn how a transistor works is to
examine it in real-life circuits. Let’s look at some applications!

Switches
One of the most fundamental applications of a transistor is
using it to control the flow of power to another part of the
circuit – using it as an electric switch. Driving it in either
cuto" or saturation mode, the transistor can create the binary
on/o" e"ect of a switch.

Transistor switches are critical circuit-building blocks; they’re

used to make logic gates, which go on to create
microcontrollers, microprocessors, and other integrated
circuits. Below are a few example circuits.

Transistor Switch
Let’s look at the most fundamental transistor-switch circuit:
an NPN switch. Here we use an NPN to control a high-power
LED:

Our control input flows into the base, the output is tied to the
collector, and the emitter is kept at a fixed voltage.
While a normal switch would require an actuator to be
physically flipped, this switch is controlled by the voltage at
the base pin. A microcontroller I/O pin, like those on an
Arduino, can be programmed to go high or low to turn the
LED on or o".

When the voltage at the base is greater than 0.6V (or whatever
your transistor’s Vth might be), the transistor starts saturating
and looks like a short circuit between collector and emitter.
When the voltage at the base is less than 0.6V the transistor is
in cuto" mode – no current flows because it looks like an
open circuit between C and E.

The circuit above is called a low-side switch, because the

switch – our transistor – is on the low (ground) side of the
circuit. Alternatively, we can use a PNP transistor to create a
high-side switch:

Similar to the NPN circuit, the base is our input, and the
emitter is tied to a constant voltage. This time however, the
emitter is tied high, and the load is connected to the
transistor on the ground side.

This circuit works just as well as the NPN-based switch, but

there’s one huge di"erence: to turn the load “on” the base
must be low. This can cause complications, especially if the
load’s high voltage (VCC in this picture) is higher than our
control input’s high voltage. For example, this circuit
wouldn’t work if you were trying to use a 5V-operating
Arduino to switch on a 12V motor. In that case it’d be
impossible to turn the switch o" because VB would always be
less than VE.

Base Resistors!
You’ll notice that each of those circuits uses a series resistor
between the control input and the base of the transistor.
Don’t forget to add this resistor! A transistor without a resistor
on the base is like an LED with no current-limiting resistor.

Recall that, in a way, a transistor is just a pair of

interconnected diodes. We’re forward-biasing the base-
emitter diode to turn the load on. The diode only needs 0.6V
to turn on, more voltage than that means more current. Some
transistors may only be rated for a maximum of 10-100mA of
current to flow through them. If you supply a current over the
maximum rating, the transistor might blow up.

The series resistor between our control source and the base
limits current into the base. The base-emitter node can get
its happy voltage drop of 0.6V, and the resistor can drop the
remaining voltage. The value of the resistor, and voltage
across it, will set the current.

The resistor needs to be large enough to e"ectively limit the

current, but small enough to feed the base enough current.
1mA to 10mA will usually be enough, but check your
transistor’s datasheet to make sure.

Digital Logic
Transistors can be combined to create all our fundamental
logic gates: AND, OR, and NOT.

These gates (which we’ll talk more about in the next class)
form the basis of operations on Boolean values, which you’ll
be familiar with from both C (where they’re written as && ,
|| , and ! ) as well as Scheme (where the operators are the
more intellegible and , or , and not ).

In circuits for digital logic, a (continuous) voltage is used to

represent the (discrete) Boolean values you are more
accustomed to seeing in programs. One possible convention
might be that 0V represents “o"” or false , while +5V
represents “on” or true . In the following, we look at how to
use transistors in circuits to code these values and combine
them with the typical Boolean operators, AND, OR, and NOT.

(Note: These days MOSFETS are more likely to be used to

create logic gates than BJTs. MOSFETs are more power-
e"icient, which makes them the better choice.)

Inverter
Here’s a transistor circuit that implements an inverter, or
NOT gate:

An inverter built out of transistors.

Here a high voltage into the base will turn the transistor on,
which will e"ectively connect the collector to the emitter.
Since the emitter is connected directly to ground, the
collector will be as well (though it will be slightly higher,
somewhere around VCE(sat) ~ 0.05-0.2V). If the input is low, on
the other hand, the transistor looks like an open circuit, and
the output is pulled up to VCC

(This is actually a fundamental transistor configuration called

common emitter. More on that later.)

AND Gate
Here are a pair of transistors used to create a 2-input AND
gate:

2-input AND gate built out of transistors.

If either transistor is turned o", then the output at the second

transistor’s collector will be pulled low. If both transistors are
“on” (bases both high), then the output of the circuit is also
high.

OR Gate
And, finally, here’s a 2-input OR gate:

2-input OR gate built out of transistors.

In this circuit, if either (or both) A or B are high, that

respective transistor will turn on, and pull the output high. If
both transistors are o", then the output is pulled low through
the resistor.

This derivative work is used and licensed under a Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0
International license. The original Transistors is by Jimb0.

Copyright © Charlie Curtsinger, Janet Davis, and Jerod Weinman.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported

License. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ or send a letter to Creative
Commons, 543 Howard Street, 5th Floor, San Francisco, California, 94105,
USA.

This website was built using Jekyll, Twitter Bootstrap, and the Bootswatch
Cosmo Theme.