Haliç University

Faculty of Engineering

EEE213

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Lecture-1: ’’Electrical Fundamentals’’

Lecturer: Asst.Prof. Zehra Merve Cinan

 This lecture of our course has been prepared to provide you with the background
knowledge required to help you understand the concepts introduced in the later lectures.
If you have studied electrical science, electrical principles, or electronics beyond the
school level then you already be familiar with many of these concepts. If, on the other
hand, you are returning to university or are a newcomer to electronics or electrical
technology this chapter will help you get up to speed after summertime break.

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 Week-1:Topics
 Fundamental Units
 Derived Units
 Measuring Angles
 Electrical Units and Symbols
 Multiples and Sub-Multiples
 Exponent Notation
 Conductors and Insulators
 Voltage and Resistance
 Ohm’s Law
 Resistance and Resistivity
 Energy and Power

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 Fundamental Units

Firstly, you must know that the units

that we now use to describe such things as
length, mass, and time are standardized
within the International System of Units
(SI).
This SI system is based upon the
seven fundamental units.

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 Derived Units

All other units are derived from these

seven fundamental units. These derived
units generally have their own names and
those commonly encountered in electrical
circuits are exhibited together with the
corresponding physical quantities.

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 Capacitance

Farad (F) is the unit of electrical capacitance,

the ability of a body to store an electrical charge, in
the International System of Units (SI), equivalent to
1 coulomb per volt (C/V). The relationship between
capacitance, charge, and potential difference is linear.
For example, if the potential difference across a
capacitor is halved, the quantity of charge stored by
that capacitor will also be halved.

𝒔𝟒 . 𝑨𝟐 𝒔𝟐 . 𝑪 𝟐 𝑪 𝑨. 𝒔 𝑾. 𝒔 𝑱 𝑵. 𝒎 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒔 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔𝟐
𝑭= 𝟐 = = = = 𝟐 = 𝟐= 𝟐 = = = = = =
𝒎 . 𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 . 𝒌𝒈 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑱 𝑵. 𝒎  . 𝑯𝒛 𝑯𝒛 𝑯

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 Charge

Coulomb (C) is the unit of electric charge in the International System of Units (SI). In the present
version of the SI, it is equal to the electric charge delivered by a 1 ampere constant current in 1 second. The
SI defines the coulomb in terms of the ampere and second:

𝟏 𝑪 = 𝟏𝑨 × 𝟏 𝒔

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 Energy

Joule (J) is the unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI), It is equal to the amount of work
done when a force of 1 newton displaces a mass through a distance of 1 meter in the direction of the force
applied. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a
resistance of one ohm for one second.

𝑱 = 𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 . 𝒔−𝟐

= 𝑵. 𝒎

= 𝑷𝒂. 𝒎𝟑

= 𝑾. 𝒔

= 𝑪. 𝑽

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 Force

Newton (N) is the unit of force in the International System of Units (SI). It is defined as 1 kg⋅m/𝑠 2 , the
force which gives a mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 meter per second per second. One newton is
therefore the force needed to accelerate one kilogram of mass at the rate of one meter per second squared in
the direction of the applied force. The units "meter per second squared" can be understood as measuring a rate
of change in velocity per unit of time, i.e. an increase in velocity by 1 meter per second every second.

𝒌𝒈. 𝒎
𝑭 = 𝒎. 𝒂 𝟏𝑵=𝟏
𝒔𝟐

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 Frequency
Hertz (Hz) is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), equivalent to one event (or
cycle) per second. The hertz is an SI derived unit whose expression in terms of SI base units is 𝑠 −1 , meaning
that one hertz is the reciprocal of one second. The dimension of the unit hertz is 1/time (𝑇 −1 ). Hertz are
commonly expressed in multiples: kilohertz (kHz, 103 Hz), megahertz (MHz, 106 Hz), gigahertz (GHz, 109
Hz), terahertz (THz, 1012 Hz).

Some of the unit's most common uses are in the description of

periodic waveforms and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-
and audio-related applications. It is also used to describe the clock speeds
at which computers and other electronics are driven. The units are
sometimes also used as a representation of the energy of a photon, via the
Planck relation E = hν, where E is the photon's energy, ν is its frequency,
and h is the Planck constant.

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 Illuminance
Lux (lx) is the unit of illuminance, or luminous flux per unit area, in the International System of Units
(SI). It is equal to one lumen per square meter. In photometry, this is used as a measure of the intensity, as
perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. It is analogous to the radiometric
unit watt per square meter, but with the power at each wavelength weighted according to the luminosity
function, a model of human visual brightness perception, standardized. In English, "lux" is used as both the
singular and plural form. The word is derived from the Latin word for "light", lux.

1 lx = 1 lm/𝒎𝟐

= 1 cd·sr/𝒎𝟐

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 Inductance

Henry (H) is the unit of electrical inductance in the International System

of Units (SI). If a current of 1 ampere flowing through a coil produces flux
linkage of 1 weber turn, that coil has a self inductance of 1 Henry. The
inductance of an electric circuit is one henry when an electric current that is
changing at one ampere per second results in an electromotive force of one
volt across the inductor: V(t)=L⋅(dI/dt), where V(t) is the resulting voltage
across the circuit, I(t) is the current through the circuit, and L is the
inductance of the circuit.
The henry is expressed in combinations of SI units, the henry is:

𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 𝑵. 𝒎 𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 𝑱 𝑻. 𝒎𝟐 𝑾𝒃 𝑽. 𝒔 𝒔𝟐 
𝑯= 𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟐 = = 𝟐= = = = = = . 𝒔
𝒔 .𝑨 𝑨 𝑪𝟐 𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝑭 𝑯𝒛
where: H = henry, kg = kilogram, m = meter, s = second, A = ampere, N = newton, C = coulomb, J = joule, T = tesla,
Wb = weber, V = volt, F = farad, Ω = ohm, Hz = hertz.
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 Luminous Flux
Lumen (lm) is the unit of luminous flux, a measure of the total quantity of visible light emitted by a
source per unit of time, in the International System of Units (SI). Luminous flux differs from power (radiant
flux) in that radiant flux includes all electromagnetic waves emitted, while luminous flux is weighted
according to a model (a "luminosity function") of the human eye's sensitivity to various wavelengths, this
weighting is standardized. The lumen is defined in relation to the candela as: 1 lm = 1 cd·sr.
A full sphere has a solid angle of 4π steradians, so a light source that uniformly radiates one candela in
all directions has a total luminous flux of 1 cd × 4π sr = 4π cd⋅sr ≈ 12.57 lm.

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 Magnetic Flux

Weber (Wb) is the unit of magnetic flux in the International System of Units (SI), whose units are
volt-second. A magnetic flux density of one Wb/𝑚2 (one weber per square meter) is one tesla. The weber
may be defined in terms of Faraday's law, which relates a changing magnetic flux through a loop to the
electric field around the loop. A change in flux of one weber per second will induce an electromotive force
of one volt (produce an electric potential difference of one volt across two open-circuited terminals).
Weber (unit of magnetic flux) — The weber is the magnetic flux that, linking a circuit of one turn,
would produce in it an electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 second.

𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 𝑱
𝑾𝒃 = 𝟐 = 𝑽. 𝒔 = 𝑯. 𝑨 = 𝑻. 𝒎 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑴𝒙
𝟐
𝒔 .𝑨 𝑨

where: Wb = weber, kg = kilogram, V = volt, V = volt,

T = tesla, J = joule, m = meter, s = second, A = ampere,
H = henry, Mx = Maxwell.
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 Potential

Volt (V) is the unit of electric potential, electric potential difference (voltage), and electromotive force
in the International System of Units (SI). One volt is defined as the electric potential between two points of
a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those
points. Equivalently, it is the potential difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per
coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can be expressed in terms of SI base units (m, kg, s, and A), and
it can also be expressed as amperes times ohms (current times resistance, Ohm's law), webers per second
(magnetic flux per time), watts per ampere (power per current), or joules per coulomb (energy per charge),
which is also equivalent to electronvolts per elementary charge:

𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑱 𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 . 𝒔−𝟐

𝑽= = = = 𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 . 𝒔−𝟑 . 𝑨−𝟏
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑪 𝑨. 𝒔

𝑾𝒃 𝑾 𝑱 𝒆𝑽
= 𝑨. = = = =
𝒔 𝑨 𝑪 𝒆

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 Power

Watt (w) is the unit of power or radiant flux in the International System of Units (SI), equal to 1 joule
per second or 1 kg⋅𝑚2 ⋅𝑠 −3 . It is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. When an object's velocity is
held constant at one meter per second against a constant opposing force of one newton, the rate at which
work is done is one watt. In terms of electromagnetism, one watt is the rate at which electrical work is
performed when a current of one ampere (A) flows across an electrical potential difference of one volt (V),
meaning the watt is equivalent to the volt-ampere (the latter unit, however, is used for a different quantity
from the real power of an electrical circuit). Two additional unit conversions for watt can be found using the
above equation and Ohm's law, where ohm (Ω) is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance.

𝟏 𝑾 = 𝟏 𝑱Τ𝒔 = 𝟏 𝑵. 𝒎Τ𝒔 = 𝟏 𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 . 𝒔−𝟑

=𝟏𝑽×𝟏𝑨

= 𝟏 𝑽𝟐 Τ = 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 . 

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 Resistance

Ohm (Ω) is the unit of electrical resistance in the International System of Units (SI). The ohm is defined
as an electrical resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant potential difference of one volt
(V), applied to these points, produces in the conductor a current of one ampere (A), the conductor not being
the seat of any electromotive force. In which the following additional units appear: siemens (S), watt (W),
second (s), farad (F), henry (H), joule (J), coulomb (C), kilogram (kg), meter (m), volt (V), and A = ampere.

𝑽 𝟏 𝑾 𝑽𝟐 𝒔 𝑯 𝑱. 𝒔 𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐 𝑱 𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐
= = = 𝟐= = = = 𝟐 = = = 𝟑 𝟐
𝑨 𝑺 𝑨 𝑾 𝑭 𝒔 𝑪 𝒔. 𝑪𝟐 𝒔. 𝑨𝟐 𝒔 .𝑨

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Example: The unit of electrical potential, the volt (V), is defined as the difference in potential between two
points in a conductor which, when carrying a current of one amp (A), dissipates a power of one watt (W). Can
you express the electrical potential in terms of joules (J) and coulombs (C)?

Solution:

In terms of the derived units (remember that: watts = joules/seconds and also that amperes × seconds =
coulomb):

Alternatively, in terms of the symbols used to denote the units:

Namely, we can conclude that one volt is equivalent to one joule per coulomb.

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 Measuring Angles

The reason angles are mentioned in electrical circuits is

that in analog and alternating current (A.C.) circuits, signals
are based on repetitive waves (usually sinusoidal shape). We
can refer to a point on such a wave in one of two basic ways,
either in terms of the time from the start of the cycle or in
terms of the angle (a cycle starts at 0° and finishes as 360°). In
practice, it is often more convenient to use angles rather than
time; however, the two methods of measurement are
One cycle of a single wave voltage
interchangeable and it’s important to be able to work in either
of these units.

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 In electrical circuits, angles are measured in either degrees or radians (both of which are strictly
dimensionless units). You should know that angular measure in degrees where one complete circular
revolution is equivalent to an angular change of 360°. The alternative method of measuring angles, "the
radian", is defined somewhat differently. It is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc having
length which is equal to the radius of the circle.
Sometimes you need to convert from radians to degrees (or vice
versa). A complete circular revolution is equivalent to a rotation of
360° or 2π radians (π is approximately equal to 3.14). Thus one
radian is equivalent to 360/2π degrees (or approximately 57.3°). Try
to remember the following rules that will help you to convert angles
expressed in degrees to radians and vice versa: Definition of the radian
 From degrees to radians, divide by 57.3.
 From radians to degrees, multiply by 57.3.

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Example: Express a quarter of a cycle revolution in terms of:
a. degrees
b. radians

Solution:

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Example: Express a quarter of a cycle revolution in terms of:
a. degrees
b. radians

Solution:

a. There are 360° in one complete cycle (i.e. one full revolution). Thus there are (360/4)° or 90° in one-
quarter of a cycle.

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Example: Express a quarter of a cycle revolution in terms of:
a. degrees
b. radians

Solution:

a. There are 360° in one complete cycle (i.e. one full revolution). Thus there are (360/4)° or 90° in one-
quarter of a cycle.
b. There are 2π radians in one complete cycle. Hence there are 2π/4 or π/2 radians in one-quarter of a cycle.

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Example: Express a half of a cycle revolution in terms of:
a. degrees
b. radians

Solution:

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Example: Express a half of a cycle revolution in terms of:
a. degrees
b. radians

Solution:

a. There are 360° in one complete cycle (i.e. one full revolution). Thus there are (360/2)° or 180° in half of a
cycle.

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Example: Express a half of a cycle revolution in terms of:
a. degrees
b. radians

Solution:

a. There are 360° in one complete cycle (i.e. one full revolution). Thus there are (360/2)° or 180° in half of a
cycle.
b. There are 2π radians in one complete cycle. Hence there are 2π/2 or π radians in half of a cycle.

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Example: Express an angle of 143.25° in radians.

Solution:

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Example: Express an angle of 143.25° in radians.

Solution: You remember the first rule to convert from degrees to radians, divide by 57.3.
Hence 143.25° is equivalent to 143.25/57.3 = 2.5 radians.

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Example: Express an angle of 3.9 radians in degrees.

Solution:

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Example: Express an angle of 3.9 radians in degrees.

Solution: You remember the second rule to convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 57.3.
Hence 3.9 radians is equivalent to 3.9 × 57.3 = 223.47°.

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 Electrical Units and Symbols

You can see the units and symbols that are commonly
encountered in electrical circuits in the table. It is important to
get to know these units and also be able to recognize their
abbreviations and symbols for this course. You will face-to-
face nearly all of these units later in the following chapters.

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 Multiples and Sub-Multiples

Unfortunately, as you can see in the

table, many of the derived units are either
too large or too small for convenient
everyday use but we can make life a little
easier by using a standard range of
multiples and submultiples.

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Example: An indicator lamp requires a current of 0.125 A. Express this in mA.

Solution:

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Example: An indicator lamp requires a current of 0.125 A. Express this in mA.

Solution:

1𝐴 = 103 𝑚𝐴

You can express the current in mA (rather than in A) by simply moving the decimal point three places to
the right. Hence 0.125 A is the same as 125 mA.

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Example: A medium-wave radio transmitter operates on a frequency of 1.495 𝑘𝐻𝑧. Express its frequency in
𝑀𝐻𝑧.

Solution:

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Example: A medium-wave radio transmitter operates on a frequency of 1.495 𝑘𝐻𝑧. Express its frequency in
𝑀𝐻𝑧.

Solution:

1𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 10−3 𝑀𝐻𝑧

You can express the frequency in 𝑀𝐻𝑧 (rather than in k𝐻𝑧) by simply moving the decimal point three
places to the left. Hence 1.495 𝑘𝐻𝑧 is the same as 0.001495 𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 1.495 × 10−3 𝑀𝐻𝑧.

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Example: Express the value of a 14500 pF in μF.

Solution:

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Example: Express the value of a 14500 pF in μF.

Solution:

1𝑝𝐹 = 10−6 𝜇𝐹

You can express the capacitance in 𝜇𝐹(rather than in 𝑝𝐹) by simply moving the decimal point six places
to the left. Hence 14500 𝑝𝐹 is the same as. 14500 × 10−6 𝜇𝐹 = 0.0145 𝜇𝐹

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 Exponent (Scientific) Notation
Exponent notation (or scientific notation) is useful
when dealing with either very small or very large
quantities.
Exponents are based on powers of ten. To express
a number in exponent notation the number is split into
two parts. The first part is usually a number in the range
of 0.1 to 100 while the second part is a multiplier
expressed as a power of ten.

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Example: A voltage of 21.13 mV appears at the input of an amplifier. Express this voltage in volts using
exponent notation.

Solution:

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Example: A voltage of 21.13 mV appears at the input of an amplifier. Express this voltage in volts using
exponent notation.

Solution: 1𝑚𝑉 = 10−3 𝑉 21.13𝑚𝑉 = 21.13 × 10−3 𝑉

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Example: A current of 3.75 × 10−6 𝐴 flows in a circuit. Express this current in a) 𝜇𝐴 and b) m𝐴 using
exponent notation.

Solution:

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Example: A current of 3.75 × 10−6 𝐴 flows in a circuit. Express this current in a) 𝜇𝐴 and b) m𝐴 using
exponent notation.

Solution:
a) 1𝜇𝐴 = 10−6 𝐴 3.75 × 10−6 𝐴 = 3.75 𝜇𝐴

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Example: A current of 3.75 × 10−6 𝐴 flows in a circuit. Express this current in a) 𝜇𝐴 and b) m𝐴 using
exponent notation.

Solution:
a) 1𝜇𝐴 = 10−6 𝐴 3.75 × 10−6 𝐴 = 3.75 𝜇𝐴
b) 1𝐴 = 103 𝑚𝐴 3.75 × 10−6 𝐴 = 0.00375 𝑚𝐴 = 3.75 × 10−3 𝑚𝐴

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 Multiplication and Division Using Exponents

For example:

11 × 105 × 6 × 103 = 11 × 6 × 10 5+3 = 66 × 108

21 × 108 ÷ 3 × 105 = 21 ÷ 3 × 10 8−5 = 7 × 103

77 × 1019 ÷ 11 × 104 = 77 ÷ 11 × 10 19−4

= 7 × 1015

2 × 102 × 3 × 103 × 4 × 104 = 2 × 3 × 4 × 10 2+3+4 = 24 × 109

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Example: A current of 6 𝑚𝐴 flows in a resistance of 21 𝑘Ω. Determine the voltage dropped across the
resistor.

Solution:

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Example: A current of 6 𝑚𝐴 flows in a resistance of 21 𝑘Ω. Determine the voltage dropped across the
resistor.

Solution: 1 𝑚𝐴 = 10−3 𝐴 6 𝑚𝐴 = 6 × 10−3 𝐴

1 𝑘Ω = 103 Ω 21 𝑘Ω = 21 × 103 Ω

𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 6 × 10−3 𝐴 × 21 × 103  = 126 𝑉

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Example: A current of 45 𝜇𝐴 flows in a circuit. What charge is transferred in a time interval of 20 𝑚𝑠?

Solution:

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Example: A current of 45 𝜇𝐴 flows in a circuit. What charge is transferred in a time interval of 20 𝑚𝑠?

Solution: 1 𝜇𝐴 = 10−6 𝐴 45 𝜇𝐴 = 45 × 10−6 𝐴

1 𝑚𝑠 = 10−3 s 20 𝑚𝑠 = 20 × 10−3 s

Q= 𝐼 × 𝑡 = 45 × 10−6 𝐴 × 20 × 10−3 𝑠 = 900 × 10−9 𝐶

1 𝑛𝐶 = 10−9 C

Thus;

Q= 𝐼 × 𝑡 = 45 × 10−6 𝐴 × 20 × 10−3 𝑠 = 900 × 10−9 𝐶 = 900 𝑛𝐶

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Example: A power of 300 mW is dissipated in a circuit when a voltage of 1500 V is applied. Determine the
current supplied to the circuit.

Solution:

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Example: A power of 300 mW is dissipated in a circuit when a voltage of 1500 V is applied. Determine the
current supplied to the circuit.

Solution: 1 𝑚𝑊 = 10−3 W 300 𝑚𝑊 = 300 × 10−3 W = 0.3 W

0.3 𝑊
𝐼 = 𝑃Τ𝑉 = = 200 × 10−6 𝐴
1500 𝑉

1 𝜇𝐴 = 10−6 A 𝐼 = 200 × 10−6 𝐴 = 200𝜇𝐴

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 Conductors and Insulators
Electric current is the name given to the flow of electrons (or
negative charge carriers). Electrons orbit around the nucleus of atoms
just as the Earth orbits around the sun. Electrons are held in one or more
shells, constrained to their orbital paths by virtue of a force of attraction
towards the nucleus which contains an equal number of protons
(positive charge carriers). Since like charges repel and unlike charges
attract, negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively
charged nucleus. A similar principle can be demonstrated by observing
the attraction between two permanent magnets; the two north poles of
the magnets will repel each other, while the north and south poles will
attract. In the same way, the unlike charges of the negative electron and
the positive proton experience a force of mutual attraction.
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 The outer shell electrons of a conductor can be reasonably easily interchanged between adjacent atoms
within the lattice of atoms of which the substance is composed. This makes it possible for the material to
conduct electricity. Typical examples of "conductors" are metals such as copper, gold, silver, iron, and
aluminum. By contrast, the outer-shell electrons of an insulator are firmly bound to their parent atoms and
virtually no interchange of electrons is possible. Typical examples of "insulators" are wood, paper, plastics,
rubber, and ceramic materials.

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Voltage and Resistance
The ability of an energy source (e.g. a battery) to produce a current
within a conductor may be expressed in terms of electromotive force (E.M.F.).
Whenever an E.M.F. is applied to a circuit a potential difference (p.d.) exists.
Both E.M.F. and p.d. are measured in volts (V). In many practical circuits,
there is only one E.M.F. present (the battery or supply) whereas a p.d. will be
developed across each component present in the circuit.

The conventional flow of current in a circuit is from the point of more positive potential to the point of
greatest negative potential (note that electrons move in the opposite direction!). Direct current (D.C.) results
from the application of a direct E.M.F. (derived from batteries or a D.C. power supply). An essential
characteristic of these supplies is that the applied E.M.F. does not change its polarity (even though its value
might be subject to some fluctuation).

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 For any conductor, the current flowing is directly proportional to the E.M.F. applied. The current
flowing will also be dependent on the physical dimensions (length and cross-sectional area) and the
material of which the conductor is composed. The amount of current that will flow in a conductor when a
given E.M.F. is applied is inversely proportional to its resistance. Resistance, therefore, may be thought of
as an opposition to current flow; the higher the resistance the lower the current that will flow (assuming
that the applied E.M.F. remains constant).

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 Ohm’s Law

Provided that temperature does not vary, the ratio of a

potential difference (p.d.) across the ends of a conductor to the
current flowing in the conductor is constant. This relationship is
known as Ohm’s Law and it leads to the relationship:

𝑽 = 𝑰. 𝑹

where V is the potential difference in volts (𝑉), I is the current in amperes (𝐴), and R is the resistance in
ohms (Ω). The formula may be arranged to make V, I, or R the subject, as can be seen in the figure. The triangle
shown in the figure should help you remember these three important relationships. Furthermore, in calculations
involving Ohm’s Law, it can sometimes be convenient to work in units of 𝑘Ω and 𝑚𝐴 (or 𝑀Ω and 𝜇𝐴) in which
case potential differences will be expressed directly in 𝑉.

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Example: A 25 Ω resistor is connected to a 5 𝑉 battery. What current will flow in the resistor?

Solution:

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Example: A 25 Ω resistor is connected to a 5 𝑉 battery. What current will flow in the resistor?

Solution: 𝑉 = 𝐼. 𝑅

5 𝑉 = 𝐼 × 25  𝐼 = 0.2 𝐴

1 𝑚𝐴 = 10−3 A 𝐼 = 0.2 𝐴 = 200𝑚𝐴

Namely a current of 0.2 𝐴 or 200 𝑚𝐴 will flow in the resistor.

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Example: A current of 125 mA flows in a 30 Ω resistor. What potential difference (p.d.) will be developed
across the resistor?

Solution:

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Example: A current of 125 mA flows in a 30 Ω resistor. What potential difference (p.d.) will be developed
across the resistor?

Solution:
1 𝑚𝐴 = 10−3 A 𝐼 = 125 𝑚𝐴 = 125 × 10−3 𝐴 = 0.125 𝐴
𝑉 = 𝐼. 𝑅

𝑉 = 125 𝑚𝐴 × 30  = 125 × 10−3 𝐴 × 30  = 0.125 𝐴 × 30  = 3.75 𝑉

Namely, these calculations show that a potential difference (p.d.) of 3.75 𝑉 will be developed across the resistor.

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Example: A potential difference (p.d.) of 15 V appears across a resistor in which a current of 1 𝑚𝐴 flows.
What is the value of the resistance?

Solution:

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Example: A potential difference (p.d.) of 15 V appears across a resistor in which a current of 1 𝑚𝐴 flows.
What is the value of the resistance?

Solution:
1 𝑚𝐴 = 10−3 A
𝑉 = 𝐼. 𝑅

15 𝑉 = 1 𝑚𝐴 × 𝑅 = 1 × 10−3 𝐴 × 𝑅 𝑅 = 15 × 103 

1 𝑘Ω = 103 Ω 𝑅 = 15 × 103  = 15 𝑘

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 Resistance and Resistivity

The resistance of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to its length (𝑳) and inversely proportional
to its cross sectional area (𝑨). The resistance is also directly proportional to its resistivity coefficient (𝝆) (or
specific resistance). Resistivity is defined as the resistance measured between the opposite faces of a cube
having sides of 1 𝑐𝑚. The resistance, R, of a conductor is thus given by the following formula:

where 𝑅 is the resistance (), ρ is the resistivity (𝑚), 𝐿 is the length (𝑚) and 𝐴 is the area (𝑚2 ).

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 Electrical Properties of Some Common Metals

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Example: A coil consists of an 8 m length of annealed copper wire having a cross-sectional area of 1 𝑚𝑚2 .
Determine the resistance of the coil.

Solution:

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Example: A coil consists of an 8 m length of annealed copper wire having a cross-sectional area of 1 𝑚𝑚2 .
Determine the resistance of the coil.

Solution:
1 𝑚𝑚 = 10−3 m 𝐴 = 1 𝑚𝑚2 = 10−6 𝑚2

The value of ρ for annealed copper is given in the table on the previous page:

𝜌 = 1.724 × 10−8 𝑚

𝑅 = 𝜌 × 𝐿Τ𝐴

𝑅 = 1.724 × 10−8 𝑚 × 8 𝑚Τ10−6 𝑚2 = 13.792 × 10−2  = 0.13792 

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Example: A wire having a resistivity of 2.14 × 10−7 𝑚, length of 27 𝑚, and cross-sectional area of
3 𝑚𝑚2 carries a current of 9 𝐴. Determine the potential difference (p.d.) between the ends of the wire.

Solution:

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Example: A wire having a resistivity of 2.14 × 10−7 𝑚, length of 27 𝑚, and cross-sectional area of
3 𝑚𝑚2 carries a current of 9 𝐴. Determine the potential difference (p.d.) between the ends of the wire.

Solution:
1 𝑚𝑚 = 10−3 m 𝐴 = 3 𝑚𝑚2 = 3 × 10−6 𝑚2
𝜌 = 2.14 × 10−7 𝑚

𝐿 = 27 𝑚
𝑅 = 𝜌 × 𝐿Τ𝐴

𝑅 = 2.14 × 10−7 𝑚 × 27 𝑚Τ 3 × 10−6 𝑚2 = 19.26 × 10−1  = 1.926 

𝑉 = 𝐼. 𝑅 𝑉 = 9 𝐴 × 1.926  = 17.334 𝑉

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 Energy and Power

‘‘Energy’’ is the ability to do work while ‘‘power’’ is the rate at which work is done. In electrical circuits,
energy is supplied by batteries or generators. It may also be stored in components such as capacitors and
inductors. Electrical energy is converted into various other forms of energy by components such as resistors
(producing heat), loudspeakers (producing sound energy), and light-emitting diodes (LED) (producing light).
The unit of energy is the joule (𝐽). Power is the rate of use of energy and it is measured in watts (𝑊). A power
of 1 W results from energy being used at the rate of 1 J per second. Thus:

𝑷 = 𝑾Τ𝒕

where 𝑃 is the power in watts (𝑊), 𝑊 is the energy in joules (𝐽) and 𝑡 is the time in seconds (𝑠).

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 The power in a circuit is equivalent to the product of voltage and current. Here P is the power in watts (W), I is
the current in amperes (A) and V is the voltage in volts (V). As seen in the triangle figure, the formula may be
arranged between P, I, or V in three forms.
Furthermore; the relationship, 𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝑉, may be combined with that which results from Ohm’s Law (V= 𝐼 × 𝑅)
to produce two further relationships. First, substituting for 𝑉 gives:

𝑷 = 𝑰 × 𝑰 × 𝑹 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
Second, substituting for 𝐼 gives:
𝑷 = 𝑽Τ𝑹 × 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟐 Τ𝑹

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Example: A current of 2.5 𝐴 is drawn from a 4 𝑉 battery. What power is supplied?

Solution:

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Example: A current of 2.5 𝐴 is drawn from a 4 𝑉 battery. What power is supplied?

Solution:
𝑃 =𝐼×𝑉 𝑃 = 2.5 𝐴 × 4 𝑉 = 10 𝑊

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Example: A voltage drop of 5 𝑉 appears across a resistor of 50 Ω. What power is dissipated in the resistor?

Solution:

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Example: A voltage drop of 5 𝑉 appears across a resistor of 50 Ω. What power is dissipated in the resistor?

Solution: 𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝑉 = 𝑉 Τ𝑅 × 𝑉 = 𝑉 2 Τ𝑅

𝑃 = 5 𝑉 2 Τ50  = 0.5 𝑊

1 𝑚𝑊 = 10−3 W 𝑃 = 0.5 𝑊 = 500𝑚𝑊

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Example: A current of 20 𝑚𝐴 flows in a 1 𝑘Ω resistor. What power is dissipated in the resistor?

Solution:

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Example: A current of 20 𝑚𝐴 flows in a 1 𝑘Ω resistor. What power is dissipated in the resistor?

Solution:
1 𝑚𝐴 = 10−3 A 20 𝑚𝐴 = 20 × 10−3 A

1 𝑘 = 103 

𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 𝐼2𝑅

𝑃 = 20 × 10−3 2
× 103  = 0.4 𝑊

1 𝑊 = 103 mW 𝑃 = 0.4 𝑊 = 400 𝑚𝑊

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 76

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 77
 Asst.Prof. Zehra Merve Cinan
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
8th Block, Floor: 2
Office: 2521

[email protected]

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 78