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GENERAL SCIENCE
Grade 8

Student text book

Authors፡-

Beyene Degefu (MA)

Yosef Denbu (MSc)
Getahun Mekonen (BEd.)
Editors ፡-

Aysha Jemal (MSc.)

Takele Tamene (MSc.)
Melaku Mengste (BSc.)
Evaluators፡-

Martha Abdissa (MA)

Ermiyas Abas (MSc.)
Eskinder Adem (BSc.)

Designers ፡-

Chernet Fekadu (BSc.)

Kaleab Haile (BSc.)

Coordinator: -
Mergia Adere (MSc.)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thanks Dire Dawa Administration, the Ministry of Education
and GEQIP-E for their financial support for the preparation and publication of
textbook. Beyond this, we truly appreciate the contribution of Educators,
Program coordinators and leaders.
Dire Dawa Administration Education Bureau.
1st Edition 2015
Published by____________

All right reserves

Reproduction, Distribution, storage and Reuse of this material may not be
reproduced without the prior written permission of the copy right owner or a
license permitting restricted copying in Ethiopia by FDRE Negarit Gazeta
Proclamation No. 410/2004.

We have done our best to respect the copy right of the image. We apologize
for any inconvenience this may have caused you, and we would like to express
our sincere condolence to you in the following publication.

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 CONTENTS

CONTENTS .................................................................................................... II
UNIT 1 ...............................................................................................................1
1. BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION .....................................1
1.1. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS ....................................................................1
1.1.1. Indigenous methods of measurement .............................................2
1.1.2. Definition of Physical Quantity .....................................................2
1.1.3. Measurement of Physical Quantities ..............................................4
1.2. MEASURING VOLUMES OF REGULAR SHAPED SOLID BODIES ...................7
1.2.1. Prefixes...........................................................................................9
1.2.2. Accuracy and precision ................................................................11
1.3. DOING SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION ........................................................11
1.3.1. Scientific method .........................................................................12
1.3.2. Ethics in scientific investigation ..................................................14
SUMMARY .....................................................................................................18
REVIEW QUESTIONS ON UNIT 1 ......................................................................19
UNIT 2 .............................................................................................................21
2. THE COMPOSITION OF MATTER ......................................................21
2.1. EARLY THINKING ABOUT THE COMPOSITION OF MATTER ........................21
2.2. INSIDE OF AN ATOM ...............................................................................23
2.2.1. Parts of an Atom ..........................................................................24
2.2.2. Sub Atomic Particles ....................................................................25
2.2.3. Atomic number and mass number................................................27
2.2.4. Determination of the electrons, protons and neutrons .................28
2.3. MOLECULES ...........................................................................................30
2.3.1 Molecules of Elements .................................................................30
2.3.2 Molecules of Compounds ............................................................32
SUMMARY .....................................................................................................34
REVIEW EXERCISE ON UNIT 2 ........................................................................35
UNIT 3 .............................................................................................................37
3. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS..................................................37
3.1. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ......................................................................39
3.1.1. Hydro Carbon and its source ........................................................39
3.1.2. Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes .......................................................40
3.1.3. Nomenclature (Naming) of Hydrocarbons...................................42
3.1.4. Uses of some common organic compounds .................................44
3.2. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS ...................................................................45
3.2.1. Oxides ..........................................................................................46

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 3.2.2. Acids and bases ............................................................................50
3.2.3. Naming and writing formula of acids and Bases .........................51
3.2.4. Acid and base indicator ................................................................51
3.2.5. Investigating properties of acids and bases ..................................52
3.2.6. Investigating using local indicators ..............................................59
3.2.7. Precautions in working with acids and bases ...............................60
3.3. NEUTRALIZATION REACTION AND SALTS..........................................61
3.3.1. Neutralization ...............................................................................61
3.3.2. Salts ..............................................................................................63
3.3.3. Naming and writing formula of salts ...........................................63
3.3.4. Uses of some common salts .........................................................65
SUMMARY .....................................................................................................66
REVIEW EXERCISE ON UNIT 3 ........................................................................67
UNIT 4 .............................................................................................................70
4. HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH ......................................70
4.1. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM ................................................................70
4.1.1. Components of the Integumentary System. .................................71
4.1.2. Functions of the Skin ...................................................................74
4.1.3. Major Skin Diseases .....................................................................75
4.2. MUSCULAR SYSTEM ..........................................................................79
4.2.1. Components of muscular system .................................................79
4.2.2. Functions of the Muscular System ...............................................81
4.2.3. Major muscle disorders (Muscle dystrophy ) ..............................82
4.3. SKELETAL SYSTEM ...........................................................................84
4.3.1. Structural components of the skeletal system ..............................85
4.3.2. Functions of the skeletal system ..................................................91
4.3.3. Major diseases of the skeletal system ..........................................91
4.4. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ...................................................................94
4.4.1. Structural Components of the Digestive System .........................94
4.4.2. Functions of the Digestive system ...............................................98
4.4.3. Major Diseases of the Digestive system ......................................98
4.5. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ....................................................................101
4.5.1. Structural components of the Respiratory system ......................101
4.5.2. Functions of the respiratory system ...........................................105
4.5.3. Major Diseases of the Respiratory System ................................106
4.6. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ...................................................................110
4.6.1. Components of Circulatory system ............................................110
4.6.2. Major diseases of the Circulatory system ..................................117
4.7. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM .................................................................119
4.7.1. The major structural components of the human reproductive
system.. ...................................................................................................119
4.7.2. The Primary and Secondary Sexual Characteristics ..................122
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 4.7.3. The main functions of the human reproductive system .............123
4.7.4. The Main Diseases or Disorders Associated with The Human
Reproductive System. ............................................................................124
SUMMARY ...................................................................................................127
REVIEW QUESTIONS ON UNIT 4 ....................................................................129

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 UNIT 1

1. BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Learning Outcomes:
After completing this unit, learners will be able to:
 Identify the basic and derived units of measurements;
 Explain how to measure physical quantities;
 Describe the components of a scientific investigation;
 Demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with others in
performing fair testing.

Introduction
In grade 7 you learnt about general science and defined science. And you
understood that ‘Science is about taking measurement and making
observations, and using them to come to conclusion. It deals with the
knowledge of the world around us.’ In this unit, you will continue to learn
what a physical quantity is, and about indigenous, scientific measurements and
investigation.

1.1. Scientific Measurements

After completing this section you will be able to:
 Identify the basic and derived units of measurements;
 Explain the concept of how to measure physical quantities.

Activity1.1
In-group, discuss the following:
1. List traditional measuring devices of length, mass and time which was used in
your village.
2. Measure one side of your classroom by using indigenous and modern measuring
device and identify which device is convenient.

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 General Science Grade 8 Student text Book

Fortunately, we live in a world that allows us to make measurements.

Measurement is the comparison of any physical quantity with its standard unit.
And it is the basis of all scientific studies and experimentation. Measurement
tools make our lives better and safer, and they enhance the quality and
quantity of life. It plays an important role in our daily life. Measurements
consist of two parts:
i. The unit.
ii. The number indicating how many units there are in the quantity being
measured.

1.1.1. Indigenous methods of measurement

In ancient times, people in Dire Dawa used to measure physical quantities
such as time, mass, length, etc by traditional method. They say 'Nigat (Waberi,
ganama subi)' or ' Mishet' as the sun rises or sets respectively. They say '
Ekule- ken (duhur)' as the sun comes over head in the sky to measure time.
Before modern measurements are introduced, people living in Dire Dawa
measures lengths by using 'cubits', 'spans', and 'foot'.

a. Span b. Cubit c. foot step

Fig. 1.1: Traditional length measuring units
We still find these traditional units of length and time in Dire Dawa. But they
are not reliable. They do not give exact information.

1.1.2. Definition of Physical Quantity

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Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured, and in terms of which,

Activity1.2
In pair; do the following
1. Define physical quantity.
2. Discuss the difference between fundamental and derived quantity.

laws of physics are described. Physical quantities are classified into two. They
are fundamental and derived quantities.
i. Fundamental or basic quantities are those quantities which can be
measured directly. They are not expressed in terms of any other physical
quantities.
Table1.1: Fundamental or Basic physical quantity and its unit

Basic quantity Basic units

Name Symbol Name(SI) Symbol
Time t Second s
Length ℓ Meter m
Mass m Kilogram Kg
electric current I Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K
amount of substance n Mole Mol
luminous intensity 𝐈𝐕 (J) Candela Cd
ii. Derived quantities are quantities that can be expressed in terms of other
fundamental or basic quantities. And the units of measurement of all other
quantities, which can be obtained by a suitable multiplication or division
of powers of fundamental units, are called derived units.

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Table 1.2: Derived physical quantities and units.

Name symbol SI unit
Area A (m2) square meter
Volume V (m3) cubic meter
Density 𝝆 (kg/m3) Kilogram per cubic meter
Acceleration a (m/s2) meter per second square
Force F (N ) Newton

Density is represented by a Greek letter ‘ρ’ read as ‘roe’.

1.1.3. Measurement of Physical Quantities

Activity 1.3

By forming group, discuss on the following questions:

1. Is it possible living a day without measurement? Why?
Discuss the importance of scientific measurement. Present what the group
agreed for the whole class.

Modern society developed accurate measures among the physical quantities

for which humans have time, distance, speed, weight, volume, temperature,
pressure, force, energy, etc. Measurement encompasses every aspect of human
life.
Measurements play an important role in daily life because they are useful to
do basic tasks, such as taking a child's temperature with a thermometer, make
time estimations, measure out sugars and find weights. In general, as we have
discussed above a normal day would be impossible without measurement.

Measuring length
Activity1.4

In pair, discus on the following questions:

1) First estimate and then measure the mass of your textbook, which one is
accurate? Why?
2) What is System of international (SI) unit?

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When you measure the height and width of your classroom, you measure
length. Length is one of the fundamental (basic) physical quantities that
describe the distance between two points.
The symbol for length is "ℓ". Sometimes, we can also use other symbols such
as base ‘b’, height ’h’ and distance’s’.
When we measure length of an object, we are comparing it with a standard
length that scientists have agreed to The SI unit of length is meter (m). There
are also other non- SI units of length. These are centimeter (cm), millimeter
(mm) and kilometer (km).

a) Ruler b) Tape Measure

Figure 1.2: Length measuring instruments
Relationship between meter and other non- SI units
1 meter (1 m) = 100 centimeters (100 cm)
1 centimeter (1 cm) = 10 millimeters (10 mm)
1 kilometer (1 km) = 1,000 meters (1,000 m)

Measuring Mass
So far, you learnt how to measure length. Length is fundamental physical
quantity in physics. The other important physical quantity you need to study is
mass. Mass is a fundamental physical quantity. It is defined as the amount of
matter contained in a body. There are two ways of measuring the mass of a
body. Mass is measured using an instrument called a beam balance. A beam
balance consists of uniform beam having two pans suspended from each of its
ends.

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a) Locally made beam balance b) Beam balance

Figure 1.3: Mass measuring Instruments
Relationship between units of mass
1 ton = 1000 kilogram (1000kg)
1 kuntal = 100 kilogram (100kg)
1 kilogram (1 kg) = 1000 gram (1000 g)
1 gram (1 g) = 1000 milligram (1000 mg)

Measuring Time
Time is a fundamental physical quantity. It describes the duration between the
beginning and end of an event. The SI unit of time is second (s). The symbol
for time is 't'.

a) Watch b) Digital watch

Figure 1.4: Time measuring devices
To measure very small or large intervals of time, there are other non- SI units
of time. These are minute (min), hour (hr), day, etc.

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Relationship between units of time

1hour (1hr) = 60 minute (60 min)
1hour (1hr) = 3600 seconds (3600sec)
1minute (1min) = 60 seconds (60 sec)

Measuring volume
You will learn how to measure the volume of regular shaped bodies, liquids,
and irregular shaped bodies.
The volume of the body is defined as the space occupied by the body. The
larger the volume the more the space it occupies. The SI unit of volume is
cubic meter (m3).
The volume of an object can also be expressed in cubic decimeter (dm3),
cubic centimeter (cm3), cubic millimeter (mm3), litter (L) and so on.
Relationship between units of volume
1m3 = 1,000,000cm3
1dm3 = 1,000cm3
1cm3 = 1,000mm3
1 liter = 1dm3
Bodies are found in solid, liquid or gas forms. Moreover, solid bodies are
either regular or irregular in shape.

1.2. Measuring Volumes of Regular Shaped Solid Bodies

Activity 1.5
Discuss with your friends and write short notes on how to measure the
volume of:
1. A match box.
2. Any liquid.
3. Any irregularly shaped stone.
Solids have definite shape and volume. The shape of a solid can be
regular or irregular.

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Measuring volume of regular - shape solid are performed by simple

mathematical relations with the enclosing curves to be measure the length,
width and height of the body. Then its volume is calculated using the product
of the three sides.

Rectangular block cylinder

Fig.1.5. Regular- shaped solids
The volume of a rectangular block of length ‛ℓ’, width ‛w‛, and height ‛h’ is
given by
V=ℓ×w×h
The volume of a cylinder of base radius r and height h is given by
V = 𝜋r2h
Where- 𝜋r2 is the base area.

Measuring volume of liquid

Liquids have no definite shape they take the shapes of their containers
The common unit for measuring the volume of liquid is liter (L)
The volume of a liquid can be measured by graduated measuring cylinder.

Beaker Graduated cylinder

Figure 1.6: Volume measuring device
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Measuring the volume of irregular shaped body

The following steps are used to find the volume of irregular shaped bodies
1. Pour some amount of water into a container and record its volume and let
it be 𝑉1.
2. Put an irregular shaped solid in to the container and record the new volume
of water and let it be 𝑉2.
3. Find the difference between the volume 𝑉1 and 𝑉2
i.e ∆V = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 this volume difference is the volume of the solid
body.
Scientific Notation
When you measure length, time, volume, etc., you may get very small or big
values. Do you notice the space you are taking to write such big or small
numbers? To write very small numbers, you need to put as many zeros as
possible before a numeral. Using such numbers repeatedly in operations will
finish the pages of your notebook very soon. Therefore, a simple method of
writing small and large numbers is scientific notation. The scientific notation
is a way of writing very large and very small numbers using a power of 10.
In the scientific notation, only one non-zero number (digit) remains to the left
(in front) of the decimal point. To compensate for the places the decimal point
is shifted. To do this, you use power often. Suppose the mass of the earth is
about 1.98 × 100, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg. This is fully written as:
m = 1.98× 1024 kg
m = 1.98 ×1027 g

1.2.1. Prefixes
You have learnt that there is only one unit for basic or derived quantities.
Scientists have felt that the powers of ten in the scientific notion are not
suitable for writing. Therefore, they have given symbols for some of the
powers of ten.

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Prefixes involve power of ten, which are multiples, and sub multiplies. The
symbols for the powers of ten are called prefixes. The word ‟prefix’’ means
something put in front of unit.
You will not use all prefixes, but prefixes listed below should be learnt. The
case of the prefix symbol is very important. Where a letter features twice in
the table, it is written in uppercase for exponents bigger than one and in lower
case for exponents less than one.
Table 1.3: prefixes for some common multiples and submultiples.
prefix Symbol Exponent prefix Symbol Exponent
Tera T 1012 pico p 10-12
Giga G 109 nano n 10-9
Mega M 106 micro 𝝁 10-6
Kilo K 103 mili m 10-3
Hector H 102 centi c 10-2
Deca Da 101 deci d 10-1

Here are some examples of the use of prefixes:

40,000 m can be written as 40 km (kilo meter)
g is the same as 1×10−3 g and can be written as 1 mg (milligram)
2.5×106 N can be written as 2.5 MN (mega Newton)
250,000 A can be written as 250 kA (kilo ampere) or 0.250 MA (mega
ampere)
0.000,000,075 s can be written as 75 nsec (nanoseconds)
3 × 10−7mol can be rewritten as 0.3 × 10−6mol, which is the same as
0.3 µmol (micro mol)
Exercise 1.1
I. Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate word.
1. ------------------- is the comparison of any physical quantity with its

standard unit.
2. ------------------- are quantities that can be measured directly.

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3. Kilogram (kg) is the SI unit of -------------------.

II. Problems
1. First estimate and then measure the following quantities using measuring
instrument and compare with the estimated values.
a) Width of the blackboard.
b) Thickness of your physics textbook.
2. Express the following times in seconds: -
c) 3 hours b) 80 minutes c) ¼ day
3. Categorize length, mass, time, temperature, volume, area, density, force
under the basic and derived physical quantities.
4. The space occupied by a certain body is ____.
5. A device that uses to measure mass is ____.
6. What do we mean by a ‘scientific notation’?
7. Write the following by using scientific notation.
A.1, 000,000
B. 120,000 m.
8. Write the following using prefixes
a) 400,000,000 cm 4 c) 20,000,000,000,000 m
b) 0.000,000,000,000,7 cm d) 0.000,000,5 g

1.2.2. Accuracy and precision

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known
value. In using the acceleration due to gravity as an example: Accepted value
for acceleration due to gravity = 9.80665 m/s2. If you took three readings, you
might get 9.76, 9.87 and 9.82. The most accurate reading is the third one; it is
closest to accepted value.
Precision is the quality of being exact and the degree to which repeated
Measurements under the same conditions give the same value.

1.3. Doing Scientific Investigation

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After completing this section you will be able to:

 Describe the component of scientific investigation;
 Describe the basic procedures of a scientific investigation;
 Explain the ethical issues that need to be respected in scientific
investigations;
 Conduct, with guidance, simple investigations using the inquiry approach;
 Demonstrate the ability to work effectively and respectfully with others in
performing scientific investigation;
 Conduct, with guidance, simple investigations (activities) using local
materials and procedures.

One of the most important developments in the history of science was the

Activity 1.5
Discuss in group and perform the following:
1. Write how to give solution for problems you face in your everyday
life and list the steps you follow to solve the problems.
scientific method, the procedure scientists use to acquire knowledge in any
field of science. Science is all about observing and experimenting. We need a
framework to add relevance to observations and experiments.
Scientific investigation is the way in which we use a systematic approach to
answer questions about the world around us. It is what people like you and me
use to develop better models and explanations for the world around us. And it
is a quest to find the answer to a question using the scientific method.

1.3.1. Scientific method

Scientific method is a systematic process that involves using measurable
observations to formulate, test or modify a hypothesis. And the scientific
method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations
and answer questions.

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The scientific method is not limited to the laboratory but is a way of everyday
life. It helps to investigate solution for problems, a crime, diagnosis of a
disease, etc. the application of the scientific method plays a major role in
science.
Scientists use different scientific methods to solve problems and they all share
the following common steps.

1. Asking question:
Scientific experiments are carried out based on a specific problem or question.
First, such a problem has to be identified before proceeding to the next steps.
A scientist’s natural reaction is to ask question about it. What will happen?
Why is it so? How does it take place? etc.

2. Formulating a hypothesis:
Hypothesis could be defined as a suggested explanation of certain observed
phenomena/ problem. Scientific hypothesis need to be tested since they are
assumptions of tentative explanations.
3. Gathering evidence
Hypothesis testing often involves gathering evidences. The usual way of
testing hypothesis is by performing a carefully planned gathering of evidence.
4. Recording, Analysis and Interpretation of data
Results are recorded carefully, systematically and usually organized in the
form of data. Tables, charts or graphs in addition to verbal explanations. The
stage of interpretation after analysis is essential to state what the results show.
Hence, interpretation needs a careful logical and critical examination of the
results obtained after analysis.

5. Drawing conclusions
Conclusions or generalizations require careful and objective analysis of the
data gathered.

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6. Communication
Communication is an important component of the scientific method. The
knowledge generated in a field of science has to reach the scientific
community. The proper channels of communication for scientists and
researchers are scientific journals, conference proceedings, bulletins and other
publication series. Communication through reporting also avoids repetition of
the same work.
During guided investigations, the procedure of the tasks were given to the
students explicitly by the teacher, during semi-guided investigations
students find out the procedures by themselves and continue their
investigations according to their own procedures.

1.3.2. Ethics in scientific investigation

Ethics are moral principles that govern a person's behavior. Ethics are the
things that are considered to be right and wrong. Research ethics are based on
three fundamental principles:
1. Respect for Persons
i. People should be treated as autonomous
The term autonomous means that a person can make his or her own decisions
about what to do and what to agree to. In order to treat people as autonomous,
individuals must be provided with complete information about a study and
decide on their own whether to enroll.
2. Maximize benefits for participants and minimize risks for participants.
Researchers are obligated to do their best to minimize possible risks and to
maximize the benefits for participants.
3. Justice
Justice deals with the concept of fairness. Issues related to who benefits from
research and who bears the risks of research provides the framework for

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thinking about the decisions in ways that are fair and equitable. People who
are included in research should not be included merely because they are a
population that is easy to access, available, or perhaps vulnerable and less able
to decline participating.
For example, experimental treatments that are intended for use in the general
population must be studied not only on men, but on enough women to ensure
that they are also safe and effective for women.

Activity 1.6
Form a group and conduct investigation on the following activities. And write
report and present for your class mates.
1. Does a coiled nail act like a magnet?
2. Is air necessary for burning?
3. How do plants store their food in their leaf?

When you are doing activity 1.6 follow Steps of the scientific method
given above.
Do the activity in the class by using necessary materials? Please follow these
steps for your presentation or demonstrating the experiment.
1. Hold a bar magnet up in front of the class. Ask your classmates to identify
the object. Find out what prior knowledge you have about magnets and how
they work. Use the bar magnet to pick up some paper clips, then explain that
the magnetic force of the bar magnet attracts the metal in the paper clips.
Next, hold an iron nail in front of the class. Ask your classmates to identify the
object. Tell your classmates that in this activity, they will learn how to turn the
nail into a magnet that can pick up paper clips.
2. Divide students into teams, and pass out the materials. Each student group
should have a copper wire, a battery, an iron nail, and a bunch of paper clips.
If supplies are available, you may provide with battery holders and alligator

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clips. This will make it easier to assemble the battery and wire circuits.
Instruct your classmates in each group to choose a nail.
Then, have they wrap the copper wire many times around the nail. Tell your
classmates to take care that the wires do not cross; the coils should all be
going the same direction and should not overlap at any point. The coils should
be wound tightly around the nail, with enough wire left over at either end to
reach both ends of the battery. An example of the finished coil is shown
below:

To ensure student safety, you should help each group assemble the battery by
taping one end of the wire to each end of the battery. Be sure to wear the
gardening gloves, and explain to your classmates that it is important to wear
protective gloves when working with the wires and the battery, as the wires
will start to get hot. Each terminal must have one end of the wire attached in
order to complete the electrical circuit. If you are using a battery holder, attach
the wires to each end of the battery holder using the alligator clips. Have
students complete Questions 1-2 in their handouts.
3. Use the newly created electromagnet to pick up paper clips. Once all of the
electromagnets have been assembled, have your classmates use them to pick
up paper clips. Students may need to wait up to a minute for the nail to begin
acting as a magnet.
4. Tell your classmates that the strength of an electromagnet depends on
different variables, such as the length of the nail and the number of coils. Have

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your classmates measure the length of the iron nail with a ruler and count the
number of coils on the nail. They should then count the number of paper clips
they were able to pick up.
5. Experiment with manipulating variables, to see how they affect the strength
of the electromagnet.
Each group may either:
• Use a different size nail but keep the number of coils the same for each nail.
• Change the number of coils on the nail they used in the previous experiment.
Provide students with any additional material they may need to test their
variables, and allow them time to complete their new coils. Using the
gardening gloves, help them attach the wires to the battery to complete the
electromagnet.
1. Discuss the results of the experiment with the class. Have your classmates
analyze their results and, within their groups, discuss the properties of the
battery /wire/ nail setup that maximized the number of paper clips picked
up in each investigation

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Summary
• Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with known,
fixed unit quantity. It consists of two parts:
- The unit.
- The number indication how many units there are in the quantity
being measured
• Fundamental or basic quantities are those quantities, which can be
measured directly. Quantities that can be expressed in terms of
fundamental quantities are called derived quantities.
• Prefixes involve power of ten which are multiples and sub multiplies.
The symbols for the powers of ten are called prefixes.
• Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or
known value.
• Precision is the quality of being exact and the degree to which repeated
measurements under the same conditions give the same value.
• Scientific investigation is the way in which we use a systematic
approach to answer questions about the world around us.
• Scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to
explore observations and answer questions.
• Scientists use common steps such as Observation, asking question,
forming a hypothesis, Experimentation, Recording, Analysis and
Interpretation of data, Drawing conclusions, Evaluation and
Communication.

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Review questions on unit 1

I. Write TRUE for correct statements or FALSE for incorrect ones.
1. Measurement tools make our lives better and safer, and they enhance the
quality and quantity of life.
2. There is space and dot between the prefix and the symbol for the unit.

II. Match the word or words in the column A with correct explanations in
column B
A B
-------1. Mass A. Ampere
-------2. Temperature B. Meter
-------3. Electric current C. Kilogram
-------4. Length D. Second
--------5. Time E. Kelvin

III. Choose the best answer from the given alternative.

1. Quantities which can be measured directly are---------------------.
A. Fundamental quantities C. Derived quantities
B. Basic quantities D. ‘A’ and ‘B’
2. Symbol ‘K’ is the basic unit of------------------.
A. Length B. Temperature C. Mass D. Time
3. Which one of the following is not symbol used for derived physical
Quantities?
A. kg/m3 B. m/s C. m2 D. m
4. Which one is not length-measuring instrument?
A. Ruler B. Tape Measure C. Beam balance D. All
5. ---------- is the quality of being exact and the degree to which repeated
measurements under the same conditions give the same value.
A. Prefix B. Precision C. Accuracy D. All

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6. By using prefixes, how we can write 6,000,000m.

A. 600km B. 6Mm C. 6 μm D. 600mm

IV. Short answer questions

1. List down three derived physical quantities.
2. Write the two parts of measurement.
3. List the traditional methods used to measure length in Dire Dawa.

V. Solve the following problems

1. If the distance between your class and director’s office measures 50
meters. What is this distance in: a. centimeter b. kilometer?
2. When you go to Addis Ababa by bus, the distance is 468 km. What is the
length between two cities in meter?
3. Write the following in Scientific notation.
A. 0.511 MV C. 250 nm
B. 0.5 µm
4. Write the following using the prefixes
A. 25×10−4 A B. 5.98×104 N C. 0.0075×106 m
5. Write the followings in i) the scientific notation, ii) prefixes
A. 15,000,000,000 kg
B. 0.00000189 m
C. 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,0030 s
D. 6000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 km
6. Show how fundamental or basic quantities are combined to obtain the
following derived physical quantities.
A. Force
B. Area
C. Volume

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 UNIT 2

2. THE COMPOSITION OF MATTER

Main contents
2.1 Early thinking about the composition of matter
2.2 Inside of an atom
2.3 Molecules

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, you will able to:
 Narrate the historical development of the atomic nature of substances;
 Appreciate that atoms are the building blocks which make up all
substances;
 Demonstrate understanding of the idea that the identity of a substance is
determined by its atomic structure;
 Differentiate molecules of elements from molecules of compounds;
 Demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this unit: communicating,
asking questions, drawing conclusions, applying concepts.

2.1. Early thinking about the composition of matter

After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Give a short history of the concept of the atom;
 Compare and contrast the continuity and discreteness (discontinuity)
theory of matter;
 Compare earlier conceptions of the structure of matter with their
conceptions.

 What is matter?
 What matter is made of?

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The oldest concept of matter is that all substances are made up of small,
indivisible and indestructible particles. The characteristics or properties of a
particular substance resulted from the different size, shape and arrangement of
these particles.
The ancient Greek philosophers assume that the structure of substance is either
continuous or discrete.
Democritus (460 – 370 B.C) is a Greek philosopher who thought that
substances are made up of tiny indivisible particles. He called these particles
atoms. The word atom has its origin from the Greek word “Atomos” which
means indivisible. Thus, according to Democritus matter is discrete. If a piece
of Aluminum is cut into smaller and smaller pieces one finally reaches a point
where it can no longer be divided.
Experiment 2.1
Your teacher will demonstrate you an experiment using the following
materials.
Scissor, aluminum foil and glass plate

Answer the following question after the demonstration

What do you observe and understand from the demonstration?
Is a sheet of aluminum foil considered as a collection of particles or
entirely one piece?
How do you relate Democritus belief with this experiment?
Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C) believed that all matter was continuous. That is, if
one proceeded on breaking down a substance, it would be impossible to reach
to the last indivisible particle. Both Aristotle and Democritus were unable to
bring experimental evidence to support the ideas forwarded.

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Table 2.1: Comparison between the discrete and continuous theory of

matter

Discreteness of Matter Continuity of Matter

 Democritus’s belief  Aristotle’s belief

 Matter is discrete  Matter is continuous
 There is a limit to which matter is Matter is infinitely divisible
broken
 Believed in the existence of atoms  Rejected the idea of atoms

Activity 2.1
Form groups and debate on one of the following ideas assigned to your group.
Idea 1: Matter is continuous.
Idea 2: Matter is discrete.
Present your reasons to the class.

Exercise 2.1
1. How the term ‘atom’ introduced to the study of chemistry?
2. What do you mean when you say a substance is continuous?
3. What does it mean matter is discrete?
4. Was the idea of Aristotle and Democritus experimentally proved?

2.2. Inside of an Atom

After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Describe the structure of an atom as a nucleus containing protons and
neutrons, surrounded by electrons in shells (energy levels);
 State the relative charge and approximate relative mass of a proton, a
neutron and an electron;
 Draw hydrogen atoms, including the location of the protons and electrons,
with respect to the nucleus;

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 Differentiate between mass number and atomic number;

 Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom.

Activity 2.2
What is atom?
What do you think about the structure of atom looks like?
Is atom divisible?

Aristotle and Democritus view of matter is philosophical, not scientifically

proved.

2.2.1. Parts of an Atom

In modern view, matter is made up of tiny, divisible and indestructible particle
called atom. Atom is divisible in to smaller particles called sub atomic
particles. An atom has two regions:
1. The atomic nucleus (central part of an atom) and
2. The electronic shells (energy levels) which is found outside the nucleus.

Figure 2.1: Diagrammatic representation of the atom.

The nucleus of an atom contains neutrons and protons. Electrons revolve in
shells around the nucleus like planets move around the sun. Each electron is
located at a certain distance from the nucleus. Almost all the mass of an atom
is concentrated in the nucleus. Hence, the nucleus is a heavy part of an atom.
However, the nucleus occupies a very small space as compared to the volume
occupied by the electrons. In an atom, there is empty space in between the
nucleus and the electron.

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2.2.2. Sub Atomic Particles

Activity 2.3
Discuss the following questions and present your opinion to the class.
1. Watermelon contains a number of seeds and soft matter. Describe how the
seeds are arranged to make the fruit.
2. Draw Hydrogen atom and indicate the position of electron and proton with
respect to the nucleus.
3. An atom of helium contains two protons, two electrons and two neutrons.
Indicate the possible ways of arrangement of these particles in the helium
atom.

An atom made up of tiny particles that cannot be seen by our naked eyes even
with a powerful microscope. These tiny particles called sub atomic particles.
An atom contains three fundamentals sub atomic particles: proton, electron
and neutron. An atom has a definite number of protons, electrons and
neutrons. The structure of the atom describes how these particles are arranged
to make an atom.
Electron: - An electron is a tiny negatively charged particle found outside the
nucleus of an atom. The symbol of electron is e-. They are about 2000 times
smaller than a proton.
Proton: - A proton is a tiny positively charged particle found in the nucleus of
an atom. The mass of a proton is about 2000 times greater than an electron. Its
symbol is P+.
Neutron: - A neutron is a tiny neutral particle located in the nucleus of an
atom. Its symbol is n.
Note that: - All neutral atom have the same type of protons, electrons and
neutrons.

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Charge of sub atomic particles:

What is an electrical charge? How many types of charges are known?
There are two types of electrical charges: positive and negative. Protons are
positively charged. Electrons are negatively charged and neutrons are charge
less (zero charge), i.e., they are neutral. The relative charge of a proton is +1.
The electron is assigned a charge of -1. The neutron is assigned zero charge.
Note that: - If an atom has equal number of protons and electrons, it is
electrically neutral.
A sodium atom has 11 protons. How many electrons does it contain?
Actual mass of sub atomic particles:
A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10–24 g, and a neutron has a mass of 1.675 × 10–24
g. Thus, a proton and a neutron have almost the same mass. The mass of an
electron is very small, 9.109 × 10–28 g, its mass is assumed to be negligible or
approximately zero.
Why we use relative mass of atoms instead of actual mass to express the
masses of an atom?
Relative mass: -
Atoms are extremely small and their masses cannot be described using
ordinary mass units, such as grams, milligrams or micrograms. A different
scale is used to describe the mass of atomic particles. We use “relative mass”
to describe their mass. The relative mass of atomic particles is expressed in
atomic mass unit (amu). The mass of a proton is not exactly the same as that
of a neutron. But according to the relative mass scale they are both assigned a
relative mass of 1 amu. The mass of an electron is extremely small as
compared to that of the proton and the neutron. Hence, the relative mass of the
electron is approximately zero amu.
Location of sub atomic particles inside an atom: -
Neutrons and protons are found inside the nucleus of an atom. Electron found
outside the nucleus and arranged with energy levels or shells.

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Note that: - shells are paths the electrons take as they move around the nucleus
Table 2.2: Nature and location of sub-atomic particles
Particle Location Actual Mass(g) Relative Mass Charge
(amu)
proton Nucleus 1.673 × 10–24 1 +1

electron Shell 9.109 × 10–28 0 -1

neutron Nucleus 1.675 × 10–24 1 0

2.2.3. Atomic number and mass number

Atomic number and mass number are commonly given with the symbol of an
element are represented generally as follow:

For example: the atomic symbol of carbon, sodium and Sulphur can be
described below using their symbols, atomic mass and atomic number
12 24 7
6 C, 12 Mg and 3 Li

Can you write the atomic symbol for oxygen atom?

I. ATOMIC NUMBER
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in an atom. Each element has

Activity 2.4
Write the atomic number of the following elements using the periodic table.
a. Sodium b. Oxygen c. Nitrogen
its own unique atomic numbers. It is denoted by ‘Z’.

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II. MASS NUMBER

The mass number of an atom (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in its nucleus. It is designated by ‘A’.
The mass number can be calculated by adding atomic number and the number
of neutrons.
Mass number = atomic number or number of protons + number of neutrons
The number of neutrons can be calculated by subtracting the atomic number
from the mass number

Number of neutron= mass number - atomic number

A = Z + n where A is mass number, Z is atomic number and n is number of

neutron

Example:
What is the mass number of an element its atomic number and number of
neutrons are 11 and 12, respectively?
Solution:
Atomic number (Z) = 11,
Number of Neutron(n) = 12
Mass number(A) = ?
A = Z + n
A = 11 + 12 = 23

2.2.4. Determination of the electrons, protons and neutrons

For electrically neutral atom, atomic number is equal to number of electrons
and number of protons.
For electrically neutral atoms: atomic number = number of proton = number
of electron

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Z = p+ = e‫־‬

Example 1:
How many protons, electrons and neutrons are found in an atom of Mg atomic
number is 12 and mass number of Mg is 24?

Solution:
Atomic number = Number of proton = Number of electron = 12
Number of Neutron = mass number – number of proton =
n = A - p+, where p+ = Z
24 – 12 = 12
Magnesium atom has 12 protons, 12 electrons and 12 neutrons

Example 2:
Determine the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in 𝟐𝟑
𝟏𝟏 𝐍𝐚?

Solution
The number of proton and electron is equal to atomic number of sodium = 11
Z = p+ = e- = 11
The number of neutrons is equal to mass number minus atomic number
n=A–Z
= 23 -11
=12

Exercise 2.2
1. Determine the atomic number, mass number, number of electrons, number
of protons and number of neutrons in
16 27 39
A. 8
𝑂 B. 13
𝐴𝑙 C. 19
𝐾 D. 12
6
C E. 14
7
N

2. What is the number of protons, neutron and electrons of the element whose
atomic number is 13 and mass number is 27? Write its atomic symbol.

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Note that: - In many atoms, the number of neutrons is higher than that of
protons. For example, there are 3 protons and 4 neutrons in lithium atom;
similarly, there are 11 protons and 12 neutrons in sodium atom.

Exercise 2.3
1. The mass number of chlorine is 35 and its atomic number is 17. Give the
number of protons, electrons and neutrons.
2. Use a periodic table to tell the atomic number, number of neutrons,
number of protons and number of electrons of the following elements.
A. Sodium B. Boron C. Calcium D. Potassium
E. chlorine
3. Complete the following table.

Notation of the Number of Number of Number of

Z A
Elements Protons Electrons Neutron
𝟐𝟒 - - - - -
𝐌𝐠
𝟏𝟐

- - 13 14 - -
- 15 - - - 31
- - - 6 6 -

2.3. Molecules
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 Define molecules;
 Give examples of monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic molecules;
 Differentiate molecules of elements from molecules of compounds.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that can exist
freely in nature. A molecule is formed when two or more atoms of the same or
different elements are combined together chemically.

2.3.1 Molecules of Elements

Molecules of elements can be classified as monoatomic, diatomic and
polyatomic. The smallest particle of hydrogen that takes part in a chemical

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reaction is hydrogen atom. However, the hydrogen atom does not exist freely
in nature. It combines with another hydrogen atom to form a hydrogen
molecule.

i. Mono atomic molecules

Atoms of some elements do not combine with each other and with other
elements. They exist as monoatomic molecules.
Example: - He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn are monoatomic molecules.

Fig 2.2: Schematic representation of molecules of neon gas sealed in a

container
ii. Diatomic molecules
Diatomic molecules are molecules that contain two atoms of the element. The
smallest particle of hydrogen that takes part in a chemical reaction is hydrogen
atom. However, the hydrogen atom does not exist freely in nature. It combines
with another hydrogen atom to form a hydrogen molecule.
Hydrogen atom + Hydrogen atom → Hydrogen molecule
H + H → H2
Example: - O2, F2, Cl2, etc...
Can you list the common diatomic elements?

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Fig 2.3: Representation of hydrogen molecule sealed in a container

iii. Polyatomic molecules
Polyatomic molecules are molecules consisting of three or more atoms
combine chemically. There are very few polyatomic molecules.
Example: - Under certain conditions oxygen exists as O3 (a triatomic
molecule). Phosphorus exists as P4 molecule and Sulphur exists as S8
molecule.

2.3.2 Molecules of Compounds

Molecules of compounds consist of two or more different type of atoms. For
example, one hydrogen atom combines with one chlorine atom to form
hydrogen chloride molecule.

Cl2 + H2  2HCl

Figure 2.4: Schematic representation of water molecules in steam

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Activity 2.5
Form a group and perform the following activity.
Water molecule and ammonia is a binary compound
1. Write their formula.
2. Draw models for elements and their molecules using colored pencil.
3. How does the molecule of water and ammonia differ from the molecule
of elements?

Exercise 2.4
1. Define a molecule.
2. Consider the molecules shown below.
a. Ne d. CH4
b. SO2 e. S8
c. N2
i. What are the constituent elements that make up the molecules?
ii. Classify the molecules as monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic.
iii. Which of these molecules are molecules of elements? Which of them are
molecules of compounds?
3. What is the difference between O and O2?

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Summary
• The oldest concept of matter is that all substances are made up of
small, indivisible and indestructible particles.
• Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C) believed that all matter was continuous.
• The idea that matter consists of discrete indivisible particles called
“atoms” was introduced by Democritus (460-370 BC).
• Atom has two regions: nucleus (central part an atom) and electron shell
(outside the center). Proton and neutron collectively called nucleus.
• Atom is divisible in to small particles called sub atomic particles
(electrons, protons and neutrons).
• Protons are positively charged, neutrons have no charge, and electrons
are negatively charged.
• A proton and a neutron have approximately the same mass; but the
mass of an electron is negligible.
• The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom of the element.
• In an atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons
hence, an atom is electrically neutral.
• The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the number
of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
𝑨
• An atom is represented by the notation, 𝒁
X in which X is the symbol
of an element, Z is the atomic number, and A is the mass number.
• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that
can exist freely in nature.
• Molecules of elements consist of only one type of atoms and exist as
monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic.
• Molecules of compounds consist of two or more different type of
atoms.

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Review exercise on unit 2

Choose the correct answer for the following question
1. The central part of an atom is
A. Neutron C. Proton
B. Electron D. Nucleus
2. The idea that matter consists of discrete indivisible particles called
“atoms” was introduced by
A. Democritus C. Dalton
B. Aristotle D. Henry
3. Which of the following has the smallest mass?
A Electron C Neutron
B Proton D Nucleus
4. The charge and location of electron in an atom, respectively
A. Positive, nucleus C. Negative, in the center
B. Negative, outside the nucleus D. Positive, outside the center
5. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as
A. Atomic number C. Atomic mass
B. Mass number D. Number of Electron
6. What is the number of neutrons in oxygen atom if the atomic number is 8
and the mass number is 16?
A. 16 B. 12 C. 24 D. 8
7. Na Represents;
A. A compound C. A molecule
B. An element D. Mixture
8. The atomic number of Cl is 17 and its mass number is 35. What are the
number of electrons, protons and neutrons respectively?
A 17, 17 and 18 C 18, 17 and 17
B 17, 18, and 17 D 17, 17 and 35

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9. What the symbol 27

13
Al represents?
A. Letter "Al" represents aluminum element
B. The number 27 represents mass number of Al
C. The number 13 represents atomic number of the atom
D. All
10. 3Cl2 contains
A. Six chlorine molecules C. Two chlorine atoms
B. Three chlorine atoms D. Three chlorine molecules

Fill in the blank space in the following questions

11. The concept of the atom was first introduced by ________.
12. ________ and protons have approximately the same mass.
16
13. The symbol 8 O represents oxygen atom. Thus, it has _______protons

________neutrons and _________electrons.

14. Molecules of ________consist of two or more different type of atoms
15. Complete the following based on the information given.
A 2Cl2 contains _______ chlorine atoms
B H2O contains ________ hydrogen and ________oxygen.
C 3H2 contains ______ hydrogen atoms and________ hydrogen molecules

Give short answer for the following questions

16. What are the two main parts of an atom?
17. What are the fundamental sub-atomic particles?
18. What are the subatomic particles contained in the atomic nucleus of an
atom?
19. What is the difference between mass number and atomic number?
20. List common monoatomic molecular elements.

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 UNIT 3

3. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS
Main contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Organic Compounds
3.3 Inorganic Compounds
3.4 Neutralization Reaction and Salts

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the classification of compounds into organic and inorganic;
 Write the formulas and names of the first eight alkanes, alkenes alkynes
and list the uses some important common organic compounds;
 classify oxides into different groups and give examples of each group;
 Develop skills in identifying acidic, basic and neutral solutions;
 Define, and apply the concept of neutralization;
 Explain the safety precautions while working with acids and bases;
 Demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this unit: Observing,
classifying, comparing and contrasting, communicating, asking questions,
designing experiment, drawing conclusion, applying concepts and problem
solving.

Introduction
After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Define organic compounds as carbon containing compounds and give
examples;
 Define inorganic compounds as compounds of elements other than carbon.

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What is compound?
Do you think compounds classify in to different classes?
Before the beginning of the nineteenth century, chemists classified compounds
based on their sources in to two classes; as organic and inorganic. Those
derived from living things (plants and animals) were classified as organic
compounds, while those that came from mineral constituents of the earth or
were found with non-living things are classified as inorganic compounds.

Activity 3.1
Refer from your school library about the historical origin of the term
organic and inorganic and the relationship between organic chemicals and
living things and present your work to the class.

Organic compounds are carbon-containing compounds found in and derived

from plants and animals. They also include those substances synthesized in
laboratories except the oxides of carbon (CO2, CO), carbonates (CO32-),
hydrogen carbonates (HCO3-), cyanides (CN-) and cyanates (OCN).

Note that: All carbon-containing compounds are not organic compounds.

Examples of organic compounds: CH4, CH3COOH, HCOH, C6H6

Exercise 3.1
Which of the following is organic compounds?
a. NaHCO3 f. C2H6
b. HCN g. CO
c. HCOOH h. CO2
d. H2CO3 i. HCl
e. C2H4

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Inorganic compounds are compounds that are non-carbon containing

compounds. Note that inorganic chemistry also includes the study of certain
carbon containing compounds such as carbonates, hydrogen carbonates,
cyanides, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, which are not organic
compounds. The properties of these compounds are more closely related to
those of inorganic substances.

Exercise 3.2
Classify each of the following compounds as organic or inorganic.
a. Common salt (NaCl) f. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
b. Sugar(C6H12O6) g. Iron (II) oxide (FeO)
c. Vinegar (Aceto)(CH3COOH) h. Animal fat
d. Vegetable oil i. Chalk(CaCO3)
e. Water (H2O)

3.1. Organic compounds

After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Define hydrocarbons and mention at least one source of hydrocarbons;
 write the general formula of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
 write the specific chemical formulas of the first eight members of alkanes,
alkenes and alkynes;
 Describe a homologous series and its general characteristics;
 Name the first eight members of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
 Identify some common uses of organic compounds.

3.1.1. Hydro Carbon and its source

Organic compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon are called
hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are naturally occurring chemical compounds that
consist of hydrogen and carbon found in crude oil, natural gas, and coal.
They have been manipulated by humans to be used as an energy source, such
as gasoline and jet fuel.

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Activity 3.2
Search source of hydrocarbons that is found in Ethiopia and present your
result to the class.

3.1.2. Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes

The three major classes of hydrocarbons are alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
They have their own general formula.
Alkane
Alkanes are hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n+2, where n = 1, 2,
3, etc. and stands for the number of carbon atoms in each alkane. For example,
if n is 1, the formula of the alkane becomes C1H2×1+2 = CH4. Similarly, if n is
2, the formula of the alkane becomes C2H2×2+2 = C2H6.

Activity 3.3
1. Write the chemical formula of alkanes that contain four, five, six, seven
and eight carbons.
2. What is the formula of the simplest alkane?

Alkene
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4,
etc. Alkenes have fewer hydrogen atoms than the corresponding alkanes. For
example, if n is 2, the formula of the alkene becomes C2H2×2 = C2H4, whereas
the corresponding alkane has the formula C2H6. Similarly, if n is 3, the
formula of the alkene becomes C3H2×3 = C3H6 and the formula of the
corresponding alkane is C3H8.
Activity 3.4
1. Write the chemical formula of alkenes that contain four, five, six, seven
and eight carbons.
2. What is the simplest form of alkene?

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Alkyne
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n-2, where n = 2, 3,
4,5 etc. for n = 2 the formula of the alkyne becomes C2H2x2-2 = C2H2.

Activity 3.5
1. Write the formula of alkynes with carbon number 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.
2. What is the formula of the simplest alkyne?
Similarly, if n is 4, the formula of the alkyne is C4H2×4-2= C4H6.

Homologous series and its general characteristics

Compounds that differ by a constant group like CH2 are called homologues. A
group of hydrocarbon compounds (alkanes, alkenes and alkynes) whose
consecutive members differ by a CH2 group is known as a homologous series.
Homologous series have the same general formula and have similar chemical
properties but different physical properties like boiling, melting point, density
Examples:
Homologous series of alkane with general formula CnH2n+2
CH4 CH2 C2H6 CH2 C3H8 CH2 C4H10
Homologous series of alkene with general formula CnH2n
C2H4 CH2 C3H6 CH2 C4H8 CH2 C5H10
Homologous series of alkyne with general formula CnH2n-2
C2H2 CH2 C3H4 CH2 C4H6 CH2 C5H8

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Activity 3.6
1. Give the formulas for the alkane homologues immediately coming before
and after C7H16.
2. Give the formulas for the alkene homologues immediately coming before
and after C6H12.
3. Write the formulas for the alkyne homologues immediately coming before
and after C6H10.

Startup Activity
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion with
your group members.
1. How do we give specific name to a hydrocarbon?
2. Are hydrocarbons named based on certain rules or randomly?

3.1.3. Nomenclature (Naming) of Hydrocarbons

Organic chemistry uses a simplified and systematic way of naming organic
compounds. The names of hydrocarbons and most of the organic compounds
are derived from a prefix- and -suffix.
i. prefix- indicating the number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon and
ii. -suffix indicating the type of hydrocarbon (alkane, alkene, alkyne).
We name alkanes, alkenes and alkynes by combining prefixes and suffixes.
Table 3.1 introduces the prefixes that are used to indicate the presence number
of one to eight carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon.
Table 3.1: prefixes used to name carbon number
Number of carbon atoms Prefix
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
7 Hept-
8 Oct-

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The names of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes begin with prefix that indicate the
number of carbon atoms and end with the suffixes ‘-ane’, ‘-ene’ and ‘-yne’,
respectively.
For example, the formula of the alkane containing one carbon atom is CH4.
The prefix is ‘meth-’ and we add the suffix ‘-ane’ to the prefix. Thus, the
name of the compound becomes methane. Similarly, C2H4 contains two
carbon atoms in its molecule, so its prefix is ‘eth-’.

It is an alkene, hence the name ends with ‘-ene’. Thus, C2H4 is named ethene.
C3H4 contains three carbon atoms in its molecule, so its prefix is ‘prop-’. It is

Activity 3.7
Number Formula of Formula of Formula of
of Prefix- alkane and alkene and alkyne and
carbons name name name
1 Meth- CH4 - Methane -- --
2 Eth- C2H4 - Ethene C2H2 - Ethyne
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
7 Hept-
8 Oct-
an alkyne, hence the name ends with ‘-yne’. Thus, C3H4 is named propyne.

Exercise 3.3
1. Write the name of the following hydrocarbons
a) C2H6 d) C8H18
b) C5H10 e) C8H16
c) C6H10 f) C8H14
g) C4H8
2. Write the molecular formula of the following hydrocarbons from their
name

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a) Butane e) Butyne
b) Pentyne f) Octane
c) Hexene g) Pentane
d) Propene h) Ethyne

3.1.4. Uses of some common organic compounds

Methane
Methane is a fuel mainly used as a source of energy for cooking, heating and
generating electricity. Biogas that is used as a domestic fuel mainly consists of
methane.

Propane and butane – bottled gas (buta gas)

Both propane and butane are gaseous alkanes. The mixture of propane and
butane is compressed at a moderate pressure and stored in steel cylinders. It is
marked as bottled gas and commonly known as “butagas”. It is mainly used
for cooking and heating.

Ethene and propene

Ethene and propene are gaseous alkenes. Both ethene and propene are used for
the production of plastics. Ethene is the starting material in the synthesis of
polyethylene plastics. Propene is used for the production of polypropylene
plastics.

Ethyne
Ethyne is the simplest alkyne. One of the main uses of ethyne is to produce
oxyacetylene flame, which is used in the cutting and welding of steel and iron.
Ethanol – in alcoholic drinks
What is the common constituent of ‘Tella’, ‘Tej’, ‘Katikalla’, ‘Wine’, ‘beer’,
etc?
All alcoholic beverages contain ethanol such as Habesha beer, Harer beer, etc.
Nowadays ethanol mixed with petrol is used as a fuel. It is also used in the
production of acetic acid, and in hospitals and clinics for cleaning wounds.
Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid)
When we eat uncooked vegetables such as salad, we usually add ‘acheto’ or
vinegar. Vinegar is used as food flavoring agent. It is also used as a

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disinfectant. For table vinegar, the acetic acid concentration typically ranges
from 4% to 8%, by volume. For use in preserving vegetables (pickling) it
typically ranges up to 18%.

Formalin
The water solution of formaldehyde is referred to as formalin. Formalin
contains 40%, by volume, of formaldehyde. Formalin is used for the
preservation of biological specimens, because it makes proteins hard and
insoluble.

Exercise 3.4
Define the following terms
a. Hydrocarbon
b. Homologous series
c. Alkane
d. Alkene
e. Alkyne

Name the hydrocarbons or an organic compound used for

a. Bottled gas used as fuel.
b. A fuel to produce flame used for cutting and welding metals.
c. A constituent of all alcoholic beverages.
d. Organic chemical used to preserve biological specimens.
e. A chemical used as food flavoring agent.

3.2. Inorganic compounds

After completing this section, you will be able to:
 State that inorganic compounds are classified into oxides, acids, bases and
salts;
 Classify oxides into metallic and nonmetallic;
 Describe the properties of acidic oxides and basic oxides;
 Predict the nature of common oxides;

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 Prepare Sulphur dioxide in the laboratory by burning Sulphur in air and

use moist blue litmus paper to test its acidic nature;
 Prepare magnesium oxide in the laboratory by burning magnesium ribbon
in air and use red litmus paper to test its basicity in water solution;
 Relate acidic properties to the presence of hydrogen ions and basic
properties to the presence of hydroxide ions;
 Name and write formulas for some common acids (HCl, HNO3, H2SO4)
and bases (NaOH, KOH, NH4OH), using the periodic table, a list of ions,
and rules for naming acids;
 Describe how indicators can be used to classify solutions as acidic or
basic;
 investigate properties of bases/alkalis experimentally;
 In group, with guidance, prepare their own indicator by extracting the
color from a vegetable, such as beetroot, or flowers and evaluate the
indicator;
 Investigate household chemicals using locally prepared indicators;
 Describe the safety precautions while working with acids and bases;
 Create a safety booklet dealing with the handling of acids and alkali.
Like organic compounds, Inorganic compounds can be classified into groups
according to their composition and their properties. These include oxides,
acids, bases and salts.

3.2.1. Oxides
Oxides are binary compounds that contain oxygen and any other element
(metal and non-metal). Binary compounds are those consisting of only two
elements. Examples of oxides are water (H2O), iron rust (Fe2O3), carbon
dioxide (CO2) and lime (CaO).

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Exercise 3.5
Decide whether the following compounds are oxides or not:

a. Na2O e. N2O4
b. P4O6 f. KNO3
c. Na2CO3 g. H2O
d. KOH h. H2SO4

Types of oxides
Most oxides are classified as metallic oxides and nonmetallic oxides
Metallic oxides are binary compounds containing only metals and oxygen.
Examples are CaO, Na2O, Al2O3, MgO, etc.
Non-Metallic Oxides are binary compounds containing only non-metals and
oxygen. Examples are SO2, NO2, H2O, CO2, CO etc

Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals. They are also called acid anhydrides
Acid anhydride means acid without water. Non-metallic oxides are not
necessarily acidic oxide. examples of acidic oxides are SO2, P4O6, CO2, etc.
Basic oxides are oxides of metals. They are also called basic anhydrides. All
metallic oxides are not necessarily basic oxides. Some examples of basic
oxides are Na2O, Li2O, CaO, MgO, etc.
Properties of oxides
Some metals form oxides which exhibit basic properties and dissolve in water
to give alkaline solutions.
1. An acidic oxide or acid anhydride reacts with water, to form an acid.
Acidic oxide + Water → Acid
Example:
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Carbon dioxide water carbonic acid
2. Acidic oxides react with bases to form salts and water.
Acidic oxide + Base → Salt + Water

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Example:
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O
3. A basic oxide or basic anhydride reacts with water to produce a base.
Basic oxide + Water → Base
Most non-metals form oxides which exhibit acidic properties and dissolve in
water to give acidic solutions.
Example:
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
4. Basic oxides react with acids to form salts and water
Basic oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Example:
CaO + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O

Exercise 3.6
What products are formed when the following metals react with an excess
oxygen?
a. Lithium d. Phosphorus
b. Magnesium e. Sulphur
c. Carbon
Classify the following oxides as acidic or basic and give one possible reason
to support your statement.
a. Na2O
b. K2O
c. CO2
d. P2O3
e. CaO

Experiment 3:1
Title: Preparation of Sulphur dioxide
Objective: To prepare Sulphur dioxide and test whether it is an acidic oxide or
a basic oxide.

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Materials required: Sulphur, litmus paper (blue and red), gas jar, Bunsen
burner, deflagrating spoon.
Procedure:
1. Put some powdered Sulphur in a deflagrating spoon and ignite it
2. When it starts burning, put it into a gas jar.
3. When the burning stops, add 5 mL of water to the gas jar and shake.
4. Put blue and red litmus paper, one after the other, in the jar.
5. Record your observations.
Observation and Analysis:
a. What is the color of the flame when Sulphur burns in air? What happens to
the color of blue and red litmus papers in step 4?
b. Write the chemical equation for this combustion reaction.
c. Classify the oxide formed by the combustion of Sulphur as acidic or
basic.

Experiment 3:2
Title: Preparation of Magnesium Oxide
Objective: To prepare magnesium oxide and test whether it is an acidic oxide
or a basic oxide.
Materials required: Magnesium ribbon, red and blue litmus papers, Bunsen
burner, tongs, crucible.
Procedure:
1. Cut about 2 cm of magnesium ribbon.
2. Hold the ribbon with a tong and burn it over a flame from the Bunsen
burner. The moment it starts burning, put the burning metal into a crucible
and collect the product.
3. Add a small amount of water to the resulting powder in the crucible and
shake it.
4. Rub the resulting substance between your fingers.
5. Test the solution with red and blue litmus paper.

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6. Record your observations.

Observation and Analysis:
a. What is the color of the flame produced when magnesium burns in air?
b. Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
c. What do you feel when you rub the magnesium oxide solution between
your fingers?
d. What happens to the color of the red and blue litmus papers?
e. Is the resulting solution basic or acidic?
3.2.2. Acids and bases
Acids are a group of substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) when they are
in aqueous solution. Acids have sour taste. The term acid, in fact, comes from
the Latin term “acidus” which means “sour”.
In any chemistry laboratory, we find acids such as hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid, and nitric acid. These acids are called mineral acids.
Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acids are the three common
laboratory acids. You probably use mineral acids in your school laboratory.
Some more examples of acids that we commonly encounter in our lives are
citric acid (from citrus fruits), carbonic acid (for the carbonation of soft
drinks), vinegar or acheto (acetic acid), methanoic acid (formic acid), and
benzoic acid.

Activity 3.8
In your group, list names of some acids you know and use our daily life.
Among your list, select three most acids. Then, tell your classmates what these
acids are and where we get from.

A base is a group of substance that release hydroxide ion (OH-) in water

solution. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis. An alkali is a
substance that releases hydroxide ion (OH–) when dissolved in water and have
bitter test. Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq), calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2(aq),

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and aqueous ammonia NH4OH are common alkalis used in the laboratory,
industry and at home.

3.2.3. Naming and writing formula of acids and Bases

Acids are named based on their anion; the ion attached to the hydrogen. In
simple binary acids, one ion is attached to hydrogen. Names for such acids
consist of the prefix “hydro-”, change the -ide of the anion to -ic and end with
the word acid. For example: HCl (hydrochloric acid), HBr (hydrobromic acid),
To name acids with polyatomic anions; the polyatomic name first followed by
the suffix -ic and end with the name acid. For example: HNO3 (nitric acid),
H2SO4 (sulfuric acid), H3PO4 (phosphoric acid).
Bases are named based on the metal attached to the hydroxide ion. To name
base, first write the name of the metal and next add the word hydroxide.
For example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide), Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide),

Activity 3.9
1 Write the name of the following acids
a. HI b. H2CO3 c. HF
2 Write the name of the following bases
a. Ba(OH)2 b. Al(OH)3 d. KOH
Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide).

3.2.4. Acid and base indicator

The easiest technique to identify an acid from a base or a base from an acid is
by using acid-base indicators. Indicators are dyes extracted from plants that
show the presence of an acid or a base by undergoing specific color changes
when placed in a solution.
We can also define indicator as; Indicators are substances used to identify
whether a given solution is acidic or basic by showing color changes. Litmus,

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methyl orange, phenolphthalein, and universal indicator are common

indicators.
Table 3.2: type of indicators and their color in aqueous solution of acids and
bases
Type of indicators Color of indicator in Color of indicator in
acidic solution basic solution
Litmus paper Red Blue
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink/red
Methyl orange Red Yellow

3.2.5. Investigating properties of acids and bases

Properties of acids
i. Acids change the color of indicators.
The easiest technique to identify an acid from a base or a base from an acid is
by using acid-base indicators. The changing in color of indicator either in
acidic or basic solution is described in table 3.2.
Experiment 3.3
Title: Effect of acid on acid-base indicators
Objective: To investigate the effect of dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute
Sulphuric acid on the colors of litmus paper, phenolphthalein and methyl
orange.
Materials required blue and red litmus papers, phenolphthalein, methyl
orange, test tubes, test tube rack, dilute solutions of hydrochloric acid and
dilute solution of sulphuric acid.
Procedure:
1. Pour about 5 mL of dilute HCl into three test tubes.
2. Hold the first test tube in inclined position and put blue and red litmus
papers turn by turn into it and see if there is any color change.
3. Add few drops of phenolphthalein in the second and few drops of methyl
orange in the third and observe if there is color change.

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4. Repeat the above procedure using dilute H2SO4 solution.

Observation and analysis:
Record your findings in the following table.
Color of indicators in the solution
Types of Litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
solution
Dilute HCl
Dilute H2SO4

Write a laboratory report in groups and submit it to your teacher.

ii. Reaction of Acids with metals
Dilute acids react with active metals like zinc, magnesium, iron and aluminum
to form salts and liberate hydrogen gas.
Active Metal + Dilute Acid  Salt + Hydrogen
Example:
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) (dilute)  CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Experiment 3.4
Title: Reaction of an acid with a metal
Objective: To investigate the reaction of zinc metal with hydrochloric acid.
Materials required: Test tubes, test tube rack, rubber stopper, zinc metal,
dilute HCl, steel wool, lighter or match, wooden splint.
Procedure:
1. Pour about 5 mL of dilute HCl into a test tube.
2. Clean a piece of zinc with the steel wool until it is shiny.
3. Add zinc to the test tube containing dilute HCl, close the test tube with a
rubber stopper and record your observations.
4. Ignite a wooden splint using lighter or match, remove the rubber stopper
and introduce the lighted splint in to the mouth of the test tube.

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Observation and analysis:

1. Why was the piece of zinc cleaned with steel wool?
2. What happens when you drop zinc metal into the test tube containing
dilute HCl?
3. How do you know that a gas is produced in the reaction? What is the color
of the gas?
4. What happens when the lighted splint is held inside the mouth of the test
tube?
5. Write the chemical equation for the reaction between zinc and
hydrochloric acid.
6. Write a laboratory report in groups and present to the rest of the class
iii. Reaction of Acids with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates
Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salts, water and
carbon dioxide gas.
Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Acid + Hydrogen Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Example:
2HCl(aq) (dilute) + CaCO3(s)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O (g) + CO2
2HCl(aq) (dilute) + Ca(HCO3)2(s)  CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O (g) + 2CO2

Experiment 3.5
Title: Reactions of acids with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Objective: To investigate the reactions of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
with dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.
Materials required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric acid, calcium
carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, test tubes, test tube rack, lime water
(calcium hydroxide solution), spatula, rubber stopper.
Procedure:

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1. Using a spatula, add calcium carbonate powder or a lump of calcium

carbonate into the test tube and 5 mL of lime water into the second test
tube.
2. Add 5 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid into a test tube containing calcium
carbonate, cover its mouth with rubber stopper immediately and hold it in
inclined position.
3. Bring the mouth of the test tube containing lime water with your other
hand
holding it in an inclined position closer to that of the test tube which you
covered with rubber stopper.
4. Remove the stopper so that the gas produced can escape into the test tube
containing lime water. Shake the test tube and see if there is any color
change.
5. Repeat the above procedure using sodium hydrogen carbonate and dilute
sulphuric acid.
Observation and analysis:
a. Is there formation of bubbles in step 2?
b. If yes, what does the formation of bubbles indicate?
c. What happens to the lime water used in step 4? Why is that so?
d. Write the equation for the reaction:
1. Between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate.
2. Between sodium hydrogen carbonate and sulphuric acid.
3. That occurs in step 4
Write a laboratory report in groups and present to the rest of the class
IV. Acids neutralize bases.
Acids react with bases to form salts and water.
Acid + Base  Salt + Water
Example:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
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Experiment 3.6
Title: Neutralizing effect of an acid on a base.
Objective: To investigate the neutralizing effects of sulphuric acid on sodium
hydroxide.
Materials required: Dilute sulphuric acid, sodium hydroxide solution, conical
flask, phenolphthalein, burette, stand, clamp, measuring cylinder, blue and red
litmus papers.
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus.
2. Fill the burette with dilute sulphuric acid
3. Measure 20 mL of sodium hydroxide solution, pour it into a conical flask
and add about five drops of phenolphthalein.
4. Open the stop cock of the burette; add sulphuric acid to the sodium
hydroxide solution with your one hand, while shaking the conical flask
with your other hand.
5. When the color begins to disappear, add the acid drop by drop shaking the
flask continuously.
6. When the color disappears, completely, close the stop cock of the burette
immediately and check the solution in the conical flask using blue and red
litmus papers.
Observation and analysis:
a. What color appeared when phenolphthalein is added to the solution in the
conical flask in step 3.
b. Why does the color disappear in step 6?
c. Does the solution obtained in step 6 affect the color of either blue or red
litmus paper?
d. Write the balanced equation for the reaction that takes place in this
experiment.
Write a laboratory report and present your findings to the rest of the class.

Exercise 3.7

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1. Write the color of each of the following indicators in acidic solution.

a. Litmus paper b. Methyl orange c. Phenolphthalein
2. Which ion is a characteristic of all acids in water solution?

Properties of bases
I. Effect of bases on acid-base indicators
Alkalis change the color of indicators. The following practical activity
demonstrates the effect of a base on indicator

Experiment 3.7
Title: The effect of a base on indicators.
Objective: To study the effect of a base on indicators
Materials required: Red and blue litmus papers; phenolphthalein solution,
methyl orange, ammonia solution (NH4OH), test tubes, test tube holder and
test tube rack.
Procedure:
1. Take four clean test tubes
2. Add about 5 mL NH3 solution in each of the test tubes and label the test
tubes as 1, 2, 3, and 4
3. Put red litmus paper, blue litmus paper, 2 drops of phenolphthalein
solution
and 2 drops of methyl orange solution in test tubes 1,2, 3 and 4,
respectively.
4. Observe the color change and record your observation.
Observation and analysis:
a. What were the colors of the ammonia solution, phenolphthalein and
methyl orange before the experiment?
b. What happens to the colors of the red litmus paper, blue litmus paper,
phenolphthalein and methyl orange solutions after the addition of NH3
solution?
c. What do you conclude from this experiment?

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Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the rest of
the class.
II. Bases neutralize acids.
Bases react with acids to form salts and water.
Base + Acid  Salt + Water
Example:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)

Experiment 3.8
Title: Neutralizing effect of a base on an acid.
Objective: To investigate the neutralizing effect of sodium hydroxide on
hydrochloric acid.
Materials required: Sodium hydroxide solution, hydrochloric acid, conical
flask, phenolphthalein, burette, stand, clamp, measuring cylinder, blue and red
litmus papers.
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus.
2. Fill the burette with sodium hydroxide
3. Measure 20 mL of hydrochloric acid solution, pour it into a conical flask
and add about five drops of phenolphthalein.
4. Open the stopcock of the burette, add the sodium hydroxide to acidic
solution with your one hand, while shaking the conical flask with your
other hand.
5. When the color begins to disappear, add the base drop by drop shaking the
flask continuously.
6. When the color becomes intense, close the stop cock of the burette
immediately and check the solution in the conical flask using blue
and red litmus papers.
Observation and analysis:

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a. What color appeared when phenolphthalein is added to the solution

in the conical flask in step 3.
b. Why does the color appear in step 6?
c. Does the solution obtained in step 6 affect the color of blue or red
litmus paper?
d. Write the balanced equation for the reaction that takes place in this
experiment.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the rest
of the class.

3.2.6. Investigating using local indicators

Natural indicator such as litmus can be extracted locally from plants like tea,
beetroot, eggplant, purple cabbage, turmeric, blackberries, etc.

Experiment 3.9
Title: effects of acid and base on local indicators
Objective: to investigate the effects of vinegar, lemon juice and baking soda
on the color of tea and beetroot juice.
Materials required: vinegar, lemon juice, baking soda, tea, beetroot juice and
transparent beaker.
Procedure:
1. Pour about 150 mL of tea in to three beakers.
2. Add 15 ml of vinegar in to the first beaker and see if there is any colour
change.
3. Add 15 ml of lemon juice in the second and 15 ml of baking soda in the
third and observe if there is color change.
4. Repeat the above procedure using beet root juice.
Observation and analysis:
1.
Types of local Types of solution

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indicator vinegar lemon juice baking soda

Tea
Beet root juice

2. What are the characteristics of good indicator?

Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the rest
of the class.

3.2.7. Precautions in working with acids and bases

Concentrated acids are extremely corrosive and poisonous. They can destroy
metals and clothes; produce a chemical burn on skin or inside the body. If
taken internally they can be fatal. So, acids must be handled with care. Strong
bases such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide can attack human
skin, and even damage animal and plant tissues. That is why NaOH and KOH
are named caustic soda and caustic potash respectively. The word “caustic”
refers to a substance that can cause burning. Thus, it is very important to avoid
the contact of bases with any part of our body or clothing. Not only strong
bases but weak bases are also corrosive. For example, concentrated ammonia
solution can cause blindness if splashed into the eye.
The following precautions are helpful while working with acids and
bases:
a. Wear goggles, gloves and a laboratory coat.
b. Do not smell or taste any acids and bases in the laboratory.
c. If a concentrated acid is spilled or splashed on your body, first wash the
affected part with running water and then wash with 10% Na2CO3 solution.
d. If bases come in to contact with your skin, wash the affected part with
plenty of water and then wash the affected part with a very dilute solution
(about 1%) of a weak acid such as acetic acid.

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e. If concentrated acid or a base is spilled on to cloth, immediately wash it

with running water.
f. If an acid or a base enters your eye, wash with water repeatedly and then
consult a doctor.
g. If corrosive acids are swallowed, administer weak bases such as Mg(OH)2
or Al(OH)3. If a base is swallowed by accident, drink 1-2% acetic acid or
lemon juice immediately.
h. If bases are spilled on your working table wipe the spillages immediately.
i. Use bellows to pipette acids or bases instead of sucking using yours lips.
j. To dilute a concentrated acid, pour the concentrated acid in to water and
not water in to the acid.

Exercise 3.8
1. What measures should you take if
a. An acid enters your eyes.
b. You accidentally drink a base.
c. You swallow corrosive acid accidentally.
d. Acid or base spilled on your cloth.

3.3. Neutralization Reaction and Salts

After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Identify some everyday uses of neutralization;
 Define and give examples of salts;
 Name and write formulas for some common salts using the periodic table,
a list of ions, and rules for naming salts.

3.3.1. Neutralization
What is meant by neutralization reaction? What products are obtained from
this reaction?
Neutralization reactions are the reactions of acids and bases that form salts and
water. Neutralization is a process of forming a salt by the reaction of acid and

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base. Neutralization takes place in our daily life at home, in health and in
agriculture

Activity 3.10
Form a group of five students and search at library or from other reference
book about important uses of neutralization in our daily life (at home, in
health and in agriculture). Report your work to your teacher by blue print or
by digital display. Then select group representative in your group and present
your work to the class by the representative.

Neutralization at home:
Neutralization is an important chemical reaction in preventing tooth decay.
Decaying food particles in our teeth produces acid and cause tooth decay.
Using toothpaste during brushing help to neutralize the acid and preventing
tooth decay since toothpaste is alkaline. Shampoos are mild alkaline which
causes small scales on each hair which make your hair unmanageable. To
solve the problem, you used hair conditioner. Hair conditioner are mild acid.
When used, the acidity in the hair conditioner will neutralize the alkaline in
the shampoo.

Neutralization in health:
Antiacids contains bases such as aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3 and
magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
For example; during indigestion, taking milk of magnesia (magnesium
hydroxide) give us relief as it neutralizes the effect of excess acid produced
inside the stomach.
Vinegar is used to cure wasp stings that are alkaline in nature. Another
example of this is, the effect of ant sting which is caused by formic acid can be
neutralize by rubbing moist baking soda (basic in nature).

Neutralization in agriculture:

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In agriculture, if plants do not grow well, it is estimated that soil is either too
acidic or too basic. Then the acidic soil is treated with base like powdered
lime, CaO, limestone, CaCO3 or ashes of burnt wood. If the soil is too basic,
organic matter (compost) is added to it to become neutralize.
Organic matter releases acids neutralize the soil. To ensure that plants can
grow well, the soil is treated with either acids or bases depending on its basic
or acidic nature.
Different crops require different nutrients in different proportions and as a
consequence, each crop grows best in soil within a particular pH range.
For example: pH range for growing different crops is:
 Potatoes 5.5 – 6.5  Beans 6.0 – 7.5
 Oats 5.5 – 7.0
Soil naturally becomes more acidic due to organic acids and decay produced
from dead leaves, animal wastes and other organic materials. These lower the
pH of the soil.

3.3.2. Salts
What is salt?
The term ‘salt’ does not refer only to the table salt which we use to make our
food. The word ‘salt’ applies to a large group of compounds. These
compounds are either naturally occurring or manmade. A large percentage of
minerals exist in the earth’s crust as salts. These salts are widely used for
various purposes. They are used as raw materials in chemical industries, as
fertilizers, as building materials, etc.
Salts are group of chemicals that are obtained by the reactions of acids and
bases. These reactions are called neutralization reactions. Sodium chloride
(NaCl), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
Diammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 and potassium nitrate (KNO3) are
examples of salts.

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3.3.3. Naming and writing formula of salts

The name of a salt is derived from the name of the base and the acid from
which it is obtained. As an illustrative example, see the following chemical
equation:
Calcium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride + water
Base + Acid → salt + water
Ca(OH)2 + HCl  CaCl2 + H2O
The name of the salt calcium bromide is obtained by taking the word
‘calcium’ from the name of the base and ‘bromide’ from the name of the acid
by dropping the word ‘hydro’ and changing the ending ‘-ic acid’ to ‘-ide’.

Activity 3.11
Complete the following word equations and name the salt formed by the
reaction.
a. Barium hydroxide + Sulphuric acid 
b. Calcium hydroxide + Nitric acid 
c. Potassium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid 
d. Sodium hydroxide + Hydroiodic acid 
The group names of salts are related to the names of the acids from which they
are derived. Table 3.3 shows the names of some acids and group names of the
salts derived from them.

Table 3.3 Names of some acids and group names of their salts
Name of the acid Group name Example of salt
of salt
Carbonic acid, H2CO3 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
Carbonates Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)
Hydrobromic acid, HBr Bromides Sodium Bromide (NaBr)
Potassium Bromide (KBr)
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4 Phosphates Magnesium phosphate (Mg3(PO4)2)
Calcium phosphate (Ca3PO4)
Hydroiodic acid, HI Iodides Potassium Iodide (KI)
Lithium Iodide (LiI)
Hydrosulphuric acid, H2S Sulphides Calcium Sulphide (CaS)

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Magnesium Sulphide (MgS)

It is also possible to suggest the acid and base combinations that yield a given
salt from the name of the salt.
For Example: Magnesium chloride is the name of the salt formed by the
reaction of magnesium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. The salt sodium
sulphate, Na2SO4, contains sodium ion (Na+), a positive ion derived from
NaOH and the sulphate ion, SO42–, a negative ion derived from H2SO4. Thus, a
salt is defined as a compound consisting of the positive ion of a base and the
negative ion of an acid. The positive ion in the salt that can be a metal ion or
ammonium ion.
Activity 3.12
1. From the following given salts.
a. Sodium nitrate f. Copper (II) sulphate
b. Calcium chloride g. Sodium sulphate
c. Barium chloride h. Potassium nitrate
d. Potassium sulphate i. Lithium chloride
e. Ammonium nitrate j. Magnesium chloride
I. Write the formula of each salt
II. Identify the positive and the negative ions that are derived in each of the
above salts.
III. Name the parent base and the parent acid that made the salt

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3.3.4. Uses of some common salts

Salts are used as raw materials to manufacture building materials, medicines,
to make food, etc.

Activity 3.13
In this activity you are expected to perform the following tasks in groups by
reading different chemistry reference books.
1. Prepare a table as shown below and fill in with required information.
Name of the salt Formula Name of acid Important
of the salt and base that uses
form the salt
Sodium Chloride
Sodium
bicarbonate
(hydrogen
carbonate)
Calcium
carbonate
Potassium
nitrate
Diammonium
phosphate (DAP)
2. Prepare five minutes’ presentation on the uses of the salts listed above.

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Summary
• Organic compounds are carbon-containing compounds except the
oxides of carbon, carbonates, and hydrogen carbonates.
• Organic compounds classified as hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon
derivatives.
• Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen.
• Hydrocarbons are classified as alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
• Alkanes are hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2 where n
is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
• Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n where n is
the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
• Alkynes are hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n-2 where n
is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
• Homologous series is a series of -CH2 in alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
• Homologous series have the same general formula and have similar
chemical properties but different physical properties like boiling point,
melting point, density.
• Inorganic compounds are classified as oxides, acids, bases, and salts.
• Oxides are binary inorganic compounds formed when oxygen
combines with other elements.
• Oxides are classified as metallic oxides, nonmetallic oxides, acidic and
basic oxides depending on their properties.
• Acids are compounds that release hydrogen ions in water solution.
• Bases are compounds that neutralize acids.
• An alkali is a substance that releases hydroxide ions in aqueous
solution.
• Neutralization is forming salt and water by the reaction of acid and
base.

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• Salts are compounds that contain positive ions derived from bases and
negative ions derived from acids.
• Salts are used as raw materials to manufacture building materials,
medicines, to make food, etc.

Review exercise on unit 3

Part I Write True if the statement is true and false if the statement is wrong.
1. CH4 is the molecular formula of the simplest alkene.
2. The molecular formula of six-carbon alkyne is C6H10.
3. All carbon-containing compounds are organic compounds.
4. Metallic oxides are basic oxides.
5. Acids are substance that releases hydroxide ion in water.
6. Base reacts with acid produces salt and water.
7. All acids are poisonous.
8. The color of litmus paper in basic solution is red
9. To dilute concentrated acids, pour water in to the concentrated acid.

Part II Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives for each of the
following questions.
10. Which one of the following is not organic compound?
A. Sugar (C6H12O6)
B. Vinegar (Aceto) (CH3COOH)
C. Vegetable oil
D. Water (H2O)
11. Which one of the following formula represents an alkyne containing seven
carbon atoms?
A. C7H14 C. C7H10
B. C7H12 D. C7H16
12. Which of the following hydrocarbons does not belong to the homologous
series of alkanes?
A. C3H8 C. C6H10

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B. C8H18 D. C5H12
13. Which one of the following compounds can be used for preserving
biological specimens?
A. Formalin B. Vinegar C. Ethanol D. Ethyne

14. The characteristic property of an acid is due to the presence of:

A. Hydroxide ion C. Peroxide
B. Oxide ion D. Hydrogen ion
15. The name of alkane with seven carbon atom is
A. Heptane B. Heptene C. Heptyne D. Heptone
16. Which of the following salts is used as a baking powder?
A.(NH4)2HPO4 B. NaHCO3 C. CaCO3 D. KNO3
17. Which solution changes the color of phenolphthalein in to colorless?
A. NaOH B. HCl C. Mg(OH)2 D. H2O
18. One of the following compounds is not oxides?
A. Na2O C. Na2CO3
B. P4O6 D. N2O4
19. The hydrocarbon used as a fuel in an oxyacetylene torch is:
A. C2H2 B. C2H4 C. C4H10 D. CH4
20. Which material is used to treat acidic soil?
A. CaO B. CaCO3 C. ashes of burnt wood D. all
21. Which action should be taken immediately after concentrated sulphuric
acid spilled on the skin?
A. It should be rinsed off with large quantities or running water
B. It should be neutralized with solid CaCO3
C. It should be neutralized with concentrated NaOH
D. The affected area should be wrapped tightly.

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Part III Give short answers for each of the following questions.
22. Give the name of:
A. An alkane containing 4 carbon atoms.
B. An alkene containing 7 carbon atoms.
C. An alkyne containing 2 carbon atoms.
23. Deduce the molecular formula of:
A. Butane B. Propene C. Hexyne
24. Write the names and formulas of the acids and bases required to prepare
each of the following salts.
A. Potassium nitrate
B. Sodium sulphate
C. Calcium bromide
D. Copper (II) Chloride
E. Sodium nitrate
F. Ammonium nitrate
25. Write the name and the formula of a salt used in:
A. Our diet.
B. Making construction materials.
C. Making gun powder

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 UNIT 4

4. HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH

Introduction
In grade seven you have learnt about cells, tissues, and organs and how they
are organized to form organ systems. In this unit you will learn about the
components, functions and disorders of the integumentary system, muscular
system, skeletal system, digestive system, respiratory system and reproductive
system human.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will be able to:
 List down the major organs that constitute the human body systems
covered in this unit;
 Explain the main functions of the major human body systems covered in
this unit;
 List down the main diseases or disorders associated with the major human
body systems covered in this unit;
 Discuss the effects of diseases of the major human body systems covered
in this unit.

4.1. Integumentary System

After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Distinguish the major structural components of human integumentary
system;
 Describe the main functions of human integumentary system;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders and effects of human
integumentary system.
Activities. 4.1
1. What is the integumentary system?
2. Why the integumentary system is considered a system?

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The integumentary system is a system that covers and protects the entire
human body. It is the largest organ system in the human body. The skin
protects our inner organs and needs daily care and protection to maintain its
health. This section deals with the structure and functions of the human
integumentary system, as well as the major skin diseases.

4.1.1. Components of the Integumentary System.

Activity 4. 2.
List down the components of the integumentary system.

The human integumentary system is a system composed of skin and its

accessory structures. The accessory structure includes hair, nails, sensory
receptors, and several types of glands. Some of the accessory structures are
found within the dermis and projected through the epidermis to the skin
surface (Figure 4.1).

Figure.4.1: The structures of the integumentary system

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The Skin
The skin has three layers. These layers are the epidermis, dermis, and
subcutaneous layers.
The Epidermis
The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin. It is composed of stratified
squamous epithelium. It contains four types of cells,
keratinocytes, cell that produces keratin and are the most predominant type of
cell found in the epidermis.
Melanocytes, cell found in the stratum basale of the epidermis that produces
the pigment melanin.
Langerhans, specialized dendritic cell found in the stratum spinosum that
functions as a macrophage and
Merkel cells are receptor cell in the stratum basale of the epidermis that
responds to the sense of touch. In most regions of the body, the epidermis is
thick and has four sub-layers, which include stratum basal, stratum spinosum,
stratum granulosum, and stratum lucidum.
The Dermis
The second layer of the skin is the dermis. It is composed of connective tissue
containing collagen and elastic fibers. It contains three types of cells,
fibroblasts, macrophages, and adipocytes. The dermis is very thick in some
parts of the body and very thin in other parts of the body the eyelids, penis,
Blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles are embedded in the dermis
(Figure 4.1).

The Subcutaneous Layer

The body stores fat in the subcutaneous layer. Other components include
collagen-rich connective tissue and a network of blood vessels and nerves.

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Accessory Structures
Hair
Hair is keratinized cells that grow from a tube in the skin called a hair follicle.
It occurs almost everywhere on the body except the palms, soles of your feet,
between your fingers and toes, eyelids, lips, and nipples. Each terminal hair
has two parts, the hair shaft, and the hair root.
Hair Shaft
The hair shaft is formed from the old and dead cells that are pushed out as new
cells grow from the root. As the shaft is dead material it does not hurt when
your hair is cut.
The Hair Root
The root is the part of the hair in the skin. It extends from the epidermal
surface into the dermis but in the scalp, it can extend into the subcutaneous
layer. In many places, the top layer of your skin is folded inwards forming a
sheath or sac. This is called a hair follicle. It surrounds the hair root, a hair
grows from the follicle ( Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2: Hair and its structure.

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Glands of the Integumentary System

There are four types of glands in the integumentary system: sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, ceruminous glands, and mammary glands.
Sweat Glands
Sweat glands are coiled, tubular glands are distributed over the entire skin
surface, epidermis except for the nipples and parts of the external genitalia.
Some sweat glands are largely confined to the axillary and genital areas and
lie deeper in the dermis. Sweat glands commonly secrets sweat that contains
99%water, with some salts, trace amounts of metabolic wastes ( urea, uric
acid, and ammonia). The exact composition depends on diet.
The Sebaceous Glands
Sebaceous glands are simple branched alveolar glands that are found all over
the body except in the thick skin of the palms and soles. They are quite large
on the face, neck, and upper chest. These glands secrete an oily substance
called sebum. Hormones, especially androgens, stimulate the secretion of
sebum. Sebaceous glands are relatively inactive during childhood but are
activated in both sexes during puberty when androgen production begins to
rise.

4.1.2. Functions of the Skin

Activity 4.3.
1. What are the functions of the integumentary system?
2. How does your integumentary system keeps you healthy?
The integumentary system is the outermost organ system of the body. You
have probably noticed that many of its functions are related to this location.
The skin protects the body against pathogens and chemicals, minimizes loss or
entry of water, blocks the harmful effects of sunlight, and produces vitamin D.
Regulation of Body Temperature
In response to high environmental temperature or strenuous exercise, The
evaporation of sweat from the skin surface helps lower an increased body
temperature to the normal.

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In response to low environmental temperature, the production of sweat is

decreased, this helps to conserve heat. Changes in the flow of blood to the
skin also help regulate body temperature.
Protection
The skin covers the body and provides a mechanical barrier that protects
underlying tissues from shocks, physical abrasion, bacterial invasion,
dehydration, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Hair and nails also have
protective functions.
Hair on the scalp provides insulation from a cold for the head. Nails protect
the tips of fingers and toes from mechanical injury. Fingernails give the
fingers a greater ability to pick up small objects.
Sensation
The skin contains abundant nerve endings and receptors that detect stimuli
related to temperature, touch, pressure, and pain and send the information to
the nervous system. Therefore, it serves as a sense organ.
Excretion
Sweat removing heat and some water from the body. Sweat is also the means
of transportation for the excretion of a small number of salts and several
organic compounds by integumentary glands.
Storage of nutrients
Lipids are stored in adiposities in the dermis and adipose tissue in the
subcutaneous layer. These are made available to the body when there is
depletion which may be due to starvation.

4.1.3. Major Skin Diseases

Activity 4.4.
What do you know about skin diseases?
Acne is a skin disease that involves the oil glands found at the base of hair
follicles. These glands come to life during puberty due to both male and
female hormones produced at that time. Because of these hormones, this is the
time acne usually occurs.

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Acne occurs when the oil glands at the base of hair follicles get blocked and
oil accumulates under the skin. Acne isn’t medically dangerous, but it can be
frustrating and embarrassing, especially for the young.
Cold sores are caused by the herpes simplex virus, to which most people are
exposed as children. An active lesion, usually at the edge of the lip (but may
be anywhere on the skin), is painful and discharges. If not destroyed by the
immune system, the virus “hides out” and becomes dormant in the nerves of
the face. Another lesion, weeks or months later, may be triggered by stress or
another illness.
Blister is a fluid-filled swelling occurring within or just under the skin,
usually as a result of heat injury or unaccustomed friction. A blister usually
forms due to damage to the outer layer of the skin. Fluid collects under the
damaged layer, cushioning the tissue underneath protects it from further
damage and allows it to heal. Blisters are usually caused by injury to the skin
from a variety of sources, including heat, friction in certain dressings.
Hives is an outbreak of pale red bumps or welts on the skin that appear
suddenly. The swelling that often comes with hives is called angioedema. It is
allergic reactions, chemicals in certain foods, insect stings, sunlight, and
medications that can cause hives.
Actinic keratosis is areas of sun-damaged skin found predominantly on sun-
exposed parts of the body. It is sunlight-induced thickened skin. Particularly
the forearms, backs of the hands, face, ears, bald scalp, and the lower legs.
Some actinic keratosis can turn into squamous cell skin cancer.
Rosacea is a chronic inflammatory skin condition that usually affects the
face. People may mistake rosacea for acne, eczema, an allergic skin reaction.
The main symptoms of rosacea are facial flushing, skin thickening, and
pimples. Skin thickening: the skin may get thicker from excess skin tissue.

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Carbuncles most carbuncles are caused by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria,

which inhabit the skin surface. These bacteria can cause infection by entering
the skin through a hair follicle, small scrape, or puncture, although sometimes
there is no obvious point of entry. Filled with pus a mixture of old and white
blood cells, bacteria, and dead skin cells carbuncles must drain before they can
heal. Carbuncles are more likely than boils to leave scars. An active boil or
carbuncle is contagious: the infection can spread to other parts of the person's
body or other people through skin-to-skin contact or the sharing of personal
items. So it's important to practice appropriate self-care measures, like keeping
the area clean and covered, until the carbuncle drains and heals.
Latex allergy is a reaction to natural rubber latex, a substance that comes
from the sap of the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). Many products are made
with natural rubber latex, including rubber examination gloves and balloons.
Reactions to latex range from mild to severe and can even be fatal. People
with latex allergies can have an allergic reaction when they inhale (breathe in)
latex particles or come into physical contact with latex.
Skin irritation: Itching, inflammation, redness, and swelling appear after skin
contact with latex. For example, you may have itchy lips after blowing up a
balloon. Rash: An itchy rash appears where the latex touched your skin. In
addition hives; wheezing; coughing; shortness of breath; sneezing; nasal
congestion; runny nose; conjunctivitis (red, itchy, watery eyes).
Eczema: a symptom of atopic dermatitis. This may be an allergic reaction,
and is more common in children than adults; the rash is itchy and may blister
or ooze. Eczema may be related to foods such as fish, eggs, or milk products,
or to inhaled allergens such as dust, pollens, or animal dander. Prevention
depends upon determining what the child is allergic to and eliminating or at
least limiting exposure.

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Warts are harmless skin growths caused by a virus. It makes epidermal cells
divide abnormally, producing a growth on the skin that is often raised and has
a rough or pitted surface. Warts are probably most common on the hands, but
they may be anywhere on the skin. Plantar warts on the sole may become quite
painful because of the constant pressure of standing and walking.
Chickenpox is a very contagious infection caused by the varicella-zoster
virus. It mainly affects children, but adults can get it, too. The sign of
chickenpox is a super-itchy skin rash with red blisters. Over several days, the
blisters pop and start to leak. Then they crust and scab over before finally
healing. is generally mild, especially in children. But in severe cases, the
blisters can spread to your nose, mouth, eyes, and even genitals (Figure4.3).

Figure 4.3: Major skin diseases.

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Exercise 4.1.
Choose the correct answer
1.Skin disease caused by the herpes simplex virus is
A. Chickenpox B. Eczema C. Carbuncles D. Cold sores
2. The glands of the integumentary system that activated during puberty in
both sex is
A. Sweat Glands B. Sebaceous Glands
C. Mammary Glands D. Ceruminous glands.
3. which of the following layer of skin consists of epithelial cells
A. Dermis B. Epidermis C. subcutaneous layer D. A and C
4. Stratified epithelial tissue can be described as
A. thin sheet of cells B. Covered in cilia
C. Layers of stacked epithelial cells D. long string of tissue
5. The Integumentary System protects the human body from
A. Friction B. Hot and Cold temperature C. Bacteria D. All of
these

4.2. Muscular System

After completing this section you will be able to:
 Distinguish the major structural components of human muscular system;
 Describe the main functions of human muscular system;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders and effects of human
muscular system.
The muscular system is a system that consists of tissue specialized for
contraction. When muscle tissues contract, they shorten and bring about some
type of movement.

4.2.1. Components of muscular system

Activities 4. 5
Identify or name as many muscles as possible that form the muscular system?

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The muscular system is a system that allows movements of the parts of a

body, the whole body, or fluids such as blood in the blood vessels. It is
composed of the skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, the smooth
muscle tissues that make up individual muscle organs, such as the biceps,
triceps (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4: Structures of the muscular system

Types of muscles
There are three types of muscles in the body of the human. These are skeletal
muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles.
Skeletal Muscle is attached to the skeleton and causes movement of the
skeleton. It connected to bones by tendons. It has striated tubular
multinucleated fibers. It is under voluntary control because you are
consciously aware of the muscles and can control their contractions that can
result movement. It also provides posture of the body.
Smooth Muscle is found in hollow organs such as the walls of the digestive
tract, the bladder, and the blood vessels. It is spindle-shaped, non-striated
uninucleated fiber. The involuntary contractions of the smooth muscle in the
intestinal walls and stomach move food through the digestive tract.

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Cardiac Muscle is found only in the heart. It helps the heart to push blood
into arteries going to the lungs and other body tissues. It is branched, and
striated uninucleated fiber. Cardiac muscle forms the involuntary contractile
walls of the heart. Used to pump blood from the heart to different parts of the
body.

Figure 4.5: The three type of muscles

4.2.2. Functions of the Muscular System

Activity 4.6
1. How does the muscle on your upper arms relax and contract result in
movement?
2. What are the general functions of the muscular system?
The grace and coordination involved in dancing result from the interaction of
many of the organ systems, but the one you think of first is probably the
muscular system. All muscle cells are specialized for contraction. When these
cells contract, they shorten and pull a bone to produce movement. Each

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muscle is made of thousands of individual muscle cells, which also may be

called muscle fibers that contribute to the functions of muscles.
The muscle contractions required for movement also produce heat, which
contributes to the maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Movement body: for the movement of the whole body, movement of
the tongue during speaking, movement of air during breathing,
swallowing.
Maintenance of posture.
Pump blood throughout the body, movement of blood.
Removal of wastes.
Stabilize joints, allows us to maintain body position.
Protection and support
Package internal organs and hold them in place
Circular sphincters control the passage of material in the digestive
system
Heat production: Much of the heat released by a muscle is used to
maintain normal body temperature.

4.2.3. Major muscle disorders (Muscle dystrophy )

Activity 4.7
What are some of the diseases of the muscular system?

Muscular dystrophy is really a group of genetic diseases in which muscle

tissue is replaced by fibrous connective tissue or by fat. Neither of these
tissues is capable of contraction, and the result is progressive loss of muscle
function.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy:
The most common form muscular dystrophy is Duchenne’s muscular
dystrophy, in which the loss of muscle function affects not only skeletal
muscle but also cardiac muscle. The muscles decrease in size and grow
weaker over time. In most cases, the arms, legs, and spine become

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progressively deformed, and there may be some cognitive impairment. Severe

breathing and heart problems mark the later stages of the disease. Death
usually occurs before the age of 20 due to heart failure and at present there is
no cure.
Becker muscular dystrophy: Similar symptoms to Duchenne but with a later
onset and slower progression. Those with Becker can usually walk into their
30s and live further into adulthood.
Myotonic (Steinert’s disease): The myotonic form is the most common
adult-onset form. It is characterized by an inability to relax a muscle once it
has contracted. The muscles of the face and neck are often affected first.
Symptoms also include cataracts and sleepiness. This symptom is usually
worse in cold temperatures. The disease causes muscle weakness and also
affects the central nervous system, heart, gastrointestinal tract, eyes, and
hormone-producing glands.
Facioscapulohumeral (FSHD): Facioscapulohumeral refers to the muscles
that move the face, shoulder blade, and upper arm bone. Onset can be at
almost any age but is most commonly seen during the teenage years. The
muscular weakness often begins in the face and shoulders. People with FSHD
may sleep with their eyes slightly open and have trouble fully closing their
eyelids. When an individual with FSHD raises their arms, their shoulder
blades protrude like wings ( Figure 4.6).

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Figure 4.6: A Facioscapulohumeral B. Muscular dystrophy

Exercise 4.2
Choose the correct Answer
1. A progressive loss of muscle mass and consequent loss of strength is
A. Facioscapulohumeral C. Myotonic (Steinert’s disease)
B. Muscular dystrophy D. None of the above
2. Function of muscles include
A. Maintenance of posture B. Pump blood throughout the body
C. Removal of wastes D. All of the above
3. Which of the following muscle is a voluntary muscle
A. Cardiac muscle B. Skeletal muscle C. Smooth muscle D. A and C
4. Muscles attached to bones by
A. Ligament B. Cartilages C. Tendons D. All of the above
5. Muscles that form the wall of the digestive tract, bladder and blood vessels -
A. Smooth cell B. Cardiac muscle C. Skeleton muscles D. All

4.3. Skeletal System

After completing this section you will be able to:
 Distinguish the major structural components of human skeletal system;
 Describe the main functions of human skeletal system;

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 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders and effects of human
skeletal system.
In this section, you will learn about the skeletal system which serves many
important functions. It provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition
to supporting, protecting, allowing bodily movement, and storing minerals.

4.3.1. Structural components of the skeletal system

Activities 4.8
1. List down the components of the skeletal system
2. Which stage of development (childhood or adult stage) that we tend to have
a less total number of bones, and reason out why?
3. Why joints are important at articulations of two or more bones?
The skeletal system consists of bones and other structures that make up the
joints of the skeleton. The types of tissue present are bone tissue, cartilage,
and fibrous connective tissue, which forms the ligaments that connect bone to
bone. It is a system that supports our flesh or soft tissue giving us an exact
posture as well as protection.
Skeleton is the bony framework upon which the rest of the body is built.
There are 206 bones in adults. There are two types of skeletons (Figure 4.7)

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Figure 4.7: Structures of the human skeletal system

Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton is located at the central axis of the body. In an adult, it
consists of 80 bones, which include the skull, the vertebral column, and the
thoracic cage.
The vertebral column consists of 24 bones; each called a vertebra, plus the
sacrum and coccyx.

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The thoracic cage includes the 12 pairs of ribs, and the sternum, the flattened
bone of the anterior chest.
The Skull: The skull is the bony framework of the head. It consists of 8
cranial and 14 facial bones.
The Appendicular Skeleton/bones of extremities
The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs,
plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton. There are 126 bones
in the appendicular skeleton of an adult. Includes the longest bones in the
body.
The Upper Extremities/bones of upper limbs
The upper extremity consists of three parts: arm, forearm, and hand.
Hands: each hand consists 27 bones of three parts (the wrist, palm, and five
fingers).
The Lower Extremities/Bones of the Lower Arm
The lower extremity is composed of the bones of the thigh, leg, foot, and
patella.
Feet: each foot contains 26 bones of (the ankle, instep, and five toes).

Legs hands
Types of bones
Bone is a combination of several kinds of tissue and contains blood vessels
and nerves. Bones are living organs. They are made up of living cells. These
are cells surrounded by hard and dead mineral substances with an outermost

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layer of thin membrane. The membranes are supplied with nerve and blood
vessels to nourish the bone. Bones are the strongest materials in the body but
only represent about 14 percent of a body’s weight. The bones of the skeleton
vary in shape and size and structure.
Based on their structures bones can be grouped into:
Long bones: are compact bones with hollows or cavities filled with yellow
bone marrow. Bone marrow makes new red blood cells for the body. Not all
bones contain marrow. Their ends contain spongy bones covered with
cartilage for cushion. They are designed for strength. Upper and lower limb
bones are the best examples of long bones.
Short bones: are compact bones with chambers or partitions but without
marrow. Bones of fingers and toes are some examples.
Flat bones: are compact bones that have no cavity or hollow. Examples are
bones of ribs, sternum, and scapula.
Irregular bones: the vertebrae and facial bones ( Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.8: Types of bone

Joints
The place where two bones meet is called a joint. The functions of joint
include.

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Keeping bones far apart to avoid friction. Holding the bones in place as they
move or rotate.
Types of joints
There are two major types of joints these includes. fixed (immovable) joints
and movable joints.
Immovable joint allows no movement, the bones are fixed in place and do
not move at all. The skull has many of these joints. Although it looks like one
solid piece of bone, it is made up of bones fused with fixed joints. a slightly
movable joint, such as the symphysis joint between adjacent vertebrae.
Movable joints allow a person to twist and bend allow movement in different
directions. Some moving joints allow us to move a lot and others only allow
us to move a little.
Type of movable joints:
A hinge joint is like a hinge on a door, allowing movement back and forth in
a single direction. Elbows and knees have hinge joints, as do fingers and toes.
A ball and socket joint is made of the round end of one bone (the “ball”)
fitting into a cup-shaped socket in another. Such joints allow movement in all
planes (in every direction). Shoulders and hips have these joints.
Gliding joints allow sliding surface movements between adjacent bones.It is
slightly movable joint.
Vertebrae bend our neck and waist by gliding movements.
Pivot joints allow twisting movements. For instance, when someone is saying
‘yes’ or ‘no’ using his/her head. Another occurs when a person twists a
screwdriver. You can turn your head and look up and down because of this
joint (Figure 4.9).

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Figure 4.9: Types of movable joint

Ligament
Bones are held together at the joints by stretchy bands of tissue called
ligaments. It connects bone to bone, gives your joints support, and limits their
movement. They are found around your knees, ankles, elbows, shoulders, and
other joints. Stretching or tearing around these ligaments can make your joints
unstable. The most common ligament injuries come from playing sports. You
can also injure them in accidents or from general wear and tear.
Cartilage
Between the bones of a joint, there is a firm, rubbery tissue called cartilage. It
supports and cushions the bones, acting like the body’s natural shock absorber.
It also gives shape to bone-less parts of our body like our ears and noses. They
connect bone to bone, give your joints support, and limit their movement.

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4.3.2. Functions of the skeletal system

Activity 4.9
What are some of the major functions of the Skeletal system?
Imagine for a moment that people did not have skeletons. What comes to
mind? Probably that each of us would be a little heap on the floor, much like a
jellyfish out of water. Such an image is accurate and reflects the most obvious
function of the skeleton: to support the body.
Provides a framework that supports the body; the muscles that are attached to
bones move the skeleton. Without our skeleton, we would look more like a
slug.
Protects some internal organs from mechanical injury; the rib cage protects the
heart and lungs.
Contains and protects the red bone marrow, the primary hemopoietic (blood-
forming) tissue. Blood Cell Production (red marrow) an average of 2.6 million
red blood cells is produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those
worn out and destroyed by the liver. it makes new blood cells to maintain a
healthy blood stream.
Provides a storage site for excess calcium. Calcium may be removed from the
bone to maintain a normal blood calcium level, which is essential for blood
clotting and the proper functioning of muscles and nerves. The bone marrow
found within bones stores fat and houses the blood-cell-producing tissue of the
body.

4.3.3. Major diseases of the skeletal system

Activity 4.10
What are the major disease of the skeletal system?
Osteoporosis is characterized by excessive loss of calcium from bones without
sufficient replacement. Research has suggested that a certain gene for bone
build-up in youth is an important factor; less buildup would mean earlier bone

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thinning. Contributing environmental factors include smoking, insufficient

dietary intake of calcium, inactivity and lack of the sex hormones.
Osteoporosis is most common among elderly women, because estrogen
secretion decreases sharply at menopause (in older men, testosterone is still
secreted in significant amounts). Factors such as bed rest or inability to get
even minimal exercise will make calcium loss even more rapid. (Figure 4.10 )

Figure 4.10: Osteoporosis

Osteoarthritis is a natural consequence of getting older. In joints that have
borne weight for many years, the articular cartilage is gradually worn away.
Some people call it degenerative joint disease or “wear and tear”
arthritis. The once smooth joint surface becomes rough, and the affected joint
is stiff and painful. As you might guess, the large, weight-bearing joints are
most often subjected to this form of arthritis. If we live long enough, most of
us can expect some osteoarthritis in knees, hips, or ankles. (Figure 4.11).

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Figure 4.11: Osteoarthritis

Bone Fracture
A fracture means that a bone has been broken. There are different types of
fractures classified as to extent of the damage.
Simple (closed) the broken parts are still in normal anatomic position;
surrounding tissue damage is minimal (skin is not pierced).
Compound (open) the broken end of a bone has been moved, and it pierces
the skin; there may be extensive damage to surrounding blood vessels, nerves,
and muscles (Figure 4:12).

Figure 4.12: Types of bone Fracture

Exercise 4.3
Choose the Best Answer
1. Skeletal disorder caused by damage or breakdown of joint cartilage between
bones is
A. Bone fracture B. Osteoarthritis C. Osteoporosis D. All of the
above
2. Which of the following is not a function of the skeleton?

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A. Support of soft tissue B. Hemostasis

C. Production of red blood cells D. reproduction
3. Joints that allow movement in all planes are called
A. Pivot joints B. Gliding joints C. Ball and socket D. Hinge joint
4. Which one is an appendicular skeleton
A. Skull B. The vertebral column
C. The thoracic cage D. Bone of the limbs
5. which one is short bone structure
A. Ribs B. vertebra C. Bones of fingers D. Bones of the limb

4.4. The Digestive System

After completing this section you will be able to:
 Distinguish the major structural components of human digestive system;
 Describe the main functions of human digestive system;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders and effects of human
digestive system.
Food is vital to life because it is our only source of energy. However, most of
the food we eat consists of molecules that are too large to be used by body
cells directly. Therefore, the digestive system helps in converting large
molecules into smaller ones to be taken by the body.

4.4.1. Structural Components of the Digestive System

Activities 4.11
1. Why digestion is important?
2. What are the components of the digestive system?
The digestive system is a tube with two openings and many specialized
organs. It extends from the mouth to the anus and is also called the alimentary
tract (Figure 4.13). It is a system that plays a role in the digestion of the food
that we eat. The digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, and large intestine.
The accessory digestive organs include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands,

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liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. All of these components of the digestive

system are involved in indigestion. Digestion is the process of the breakdown
of large food molecules into smaller pieces that can be absorbed by the wall of
the digestive system.
There are two types of digestive systems. These are mechanical digestion and
chemical digestion. In mechanical digestion break down large molecules of
foods into smaller ones with the help of teeth and the muscular wall of the
stomach. In chemical digestion break down foods into smaller pieces by the
actions of enzymes. The food digested moves into the walls of the digestive
system by the process called absorption.

Figure 4.13: The human digestive system

The Mouth
The mouth is the first part of the digestive system. The mouth is used for
ingesting and digesting food. It consists of teeth, salivary glands, and a
muscular organ, tongue.
The Teeth
The function of the teeth is chewing. This is the process that mechanically
breaks food into smaller pieces and mixes it with saliva. An individual
develops two sets of teeth: deciduous and permanent. The deciduous teeth
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begin to erupt through the gums at about 6 months of age, and the set of 20
teeth is usually complete by the age of 2 years. These teeth are gradually lost
throughout childhood and replaced by permanent teeth, the first of which are
molars that emerge around the age of 6 years. A complete set of permanent
teeth consists of 32 teeth; the kinds of teeth are incisors, canines, premolars,
and molars (Figure 4.14 ).

Figure 4.14: kinds of teeth

Salivary Glands
Salivary glands are glands that release a secretion called saliva. Saliva is used
to lubricates, dissolves, and begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrate.
Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube, that lies at the back of the trachea. The
esophagus secretes mucus and transports food into the stomach.
Stomach
The stomach is a muscular bag found between the esophagus and small
intestine. It produces gastric juice, contains an enzyme involved in the
chemical digestion of proteins and hydrochloric acid, that, kills most of the
bacteria that are taken in with our food.
Pancreas
The pancreas is closely associated with the small intestine. produce pancreatic
juice contains enzymes that can digest carbohydrates, fats, proteins.
Liver and Gallbladder
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This is the heaviest gland of the body. It is found in the lower side of the
diaphragm. The gall bladder is attached to the surface of the liver. The liver
plays a key role in carbohydrate metabolism by maintaining the normal
concentration of blood glucose. The liver's role in digestion is secreting bile.
Bile is stored in the gallbladder. It is used to emulsify fat and neutralize the
acidity of food from the stomach in the small intestine.
Small Intestine
The small intestine has three parts duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Duodenum
is the first part of the small intestine that receives food from the stomach and
bile from the liver and three types of enzymes from the pancreas. The rest of
the small intestine is long and produces carbohydrate, lipid, and protein
digestive enzymes throughout the small intestine enzymes speed up the
breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules (Table.4.1). Absorption
of most digested food (end product of digestion) takes place in the ileum of
the small intestine. The small intestine is the main site for digestion and
absorption of nutrients. The surface area of the intestine is well suitable for
these functions.
Table 4.1: The Main Types of Enzymes Found in the Human Digestive
System
What are the
Where it is found in the What does it
Type of enzyme breakdown
gut action?
products?
Carbohydrate, Salivary glands,
Starch,
e.g. amylase, pancreas, Glucose
maltose
maltase small intestine
Protease, e.g. Stomach, pancreas and
Protein Amino acids
pepsin, trypsin small intestine
Pancreas and small Lipids (fats Fatty acids and
Lipase intestine and oils) glycerol

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Large Intestine
The first part is a small pouch called the cecum. The second portion, the
ascending colon, the transverse colon; forming the descending colon; sigmoid
colon. The sigmoid colon empties into the rectum, which serves as a
temporary storage area for indigestible or unobservable food residue. The
large intestine ends in the rectum, anal canal, and anus.

4.4.2. Functions of the Digestive system

Activities 4.12
What are the main functions of digestive systems?
The function of the digestive system is to change these complex organic
nutrient molecules into simple organic and inorganic molecules that can then
be absorbed into the blood or lymph to be transported to cells.
Digestion converts ingested nutrients including proteins, fats, carbohydrates,
vitamins, minerals, and water are reduced into molecules small enough to pass
through the lining of the gut and so they can enter the bloodstream. The
digestive system breaks down foods we consume so the body can use them for
energy, growth, and cell repair Proteins break down to amino acids Fats break
down to fatty acids and glycerol Carbohydrates break down to simple sugars.
Movement of Food
Food moves through the digestive system due to a process called peristalsis.
Peristalsis is the movement of muscles in the alimentary canal that move foods
from one part to another.
Absorption
The digested nutrients pass from the gut into the blood by absorption so the
circulatory system can pass them on to the rest of the body to use or store. The
blood carries simple sugars, amino acids, glycerol, and some vitamins and
salts to the liver. The liver stores, processes, and delivers these nutrients to the
body when needed to get energy.

4.4.3. Major Diseases of the Digestive system

Activity 4.13

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What are the major disease of the digestive system?

There are different disorders of human digestive system, which may be caused
by disease causing organisms and other factors. Some of the disorders
include:
Constipation
In constipation, food residues remain in the colon for too long, too much water
is reabsorbed, and the feces become dry, hard, and difficult to eliminate.
Constipation is uncomfortable, and it is a common cause of enlarged rectal
blood vessels known as hemorrhoids. Constipation is often due to a lack of
fiber in the diet.
Hemorrhoids are an inflammation of the blood vessels at the end of your
digestive tract that can be painful and itchy. Causes include chronic
constipation, diarrhea, straining during bowel movements, and a lack of fiber
in your diet. Treat hemorrhoids by eating more fiber, drinking more water, and
exercising. Over-the-counter creams and suppositories may provide temporary
relief of hemorrhoid symptoms, sometimes needed to remove hemorrhoids
surgically.
Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) peptic ulcer is an erosion in a segment of the
digestive system mucosa, typically in the stomach (gastric ulcer) or the first
few centimeters of the duodenum (duodenal ulcer). Nearly all ulcers are
caused by Helicobacter pylori infection or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drug use. Cigarette smoking is a risk factor for the development of ulcers and
their complications. Symptoms typically include burning epigastric pain that is
often relieved by food bright red blood in the toilet bowl like a sign of
hemorrhoids.
Gastritis is an inflammation or irritation of the lining of the stomach. Gastritis
has many causes, including as a result of an infection with the same bacteria
that causes most stomach ulcers.
Gastritis can be:

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A brief and sudden illness (acute gastritis) an example of acute gastritis is a

stomach upset that may follow the use of alcohol or certain medications such
as aspirin or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
A longer-lasting condition (chronic gastritis), a special condition, perhaps
as part of another medical illness such as Helicobacter pylori or H. pylori, a
type of bacteria that infects the stomach.
Symptoms of gastritis are indigestion (burning pain in the upper abdomen or
"pit" of the stomach), nausea or vomiting, pain in the upper abdomen.
Diarrhea is one of the most common health complaints. Diarrhea is loose,
watery, and possibly more frequent bowel movements are a common problem.
It may be present alone or be associated with other symptoms, such as nausea,
vomiting, abdominal pain, or weight loss. It can be caused by, protozoa and
helminths, viruses, and bacteria that can affect the digestive system intestinal
mucosa.

Exercise 4.4
Choose the Best Answer
1. The first part of the small intestine is called:
A. Duodenum B. Jejunum C. Ileum D. Rectum
2 An erosion in a segment of the digestive system mucosa in the stomach and
the duodenum:
A. Hemorrhoids B. Constipation C. Diarrhea D. Peptic Ulcer
Disease
3. An enzyme that can digest protein is:
A. Pepsin B. Maltase C. Amylase D. Lactase
4. The breakdown of large molecules of foods into smaller ones with the Help
of teeth and the muscular wall of the stomach is:
A. chemical digestion B. Mechanical digestion
C. Enzymatic digestion D. A and C
5. Which one are the accessory digestive organs?

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A. Stomach B. Liver C. Small intestine D. Large intestine

6. Which of the following is NOT a digestive function?
A. Filtration B. Absorption C. Mechanical Processing D.
Ingestion
7. The functions occurring within the oral cavity include:
A. material Analysis before swallowing and digestion B. Lubrication.
C. Mechanical processing of food. D. All of the above
8. There are ________ primary teeth and __________ permanent teeth
A. 20, 32 B. 32,20 C. 30, 20 D. 20,11

4.5. Respiratory System

After completing this section you will be able to:
 Distinguish the major structural components of human respiratory system;
 Describe the main functions of human respiratory system;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders and effects of human
respiratory system.

4.5.1. Structural components of the Respiratory system

Activity 4.14
What are the components of the respiratory system?

The respiratory system is a system that plays a role in the breathing in

(inhalation) of fresh air (with plenty of oxygen) and breathing out (exhalation)
of waste air (with plenty of carbon dioxide). Human respiratory system
involves two important processes, inhalation & exhalation called breathing.
Inhalation- the process of taking air into the lung. Exhalation- the process of
expelling or removing air out of the lung. The respiratory system is composed
of spaces and passageways that conduct air into the lungs. These spaces
include the nasal cavities; the pharynx, the larynx; the trachea; and the lungs
themselves, with their conducting tubes and air sacs (Figure4.15).
Nasal Cavities
Air makes its initial entrance into the body through the openings in the nose
called the nostrils. Nostrils have two nasal cavities separated from each other

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by a partition, the nasal septum. The septum and the walls of the nasal cavities
are constructed of bone covered with mucous membrane that can produce
mucus and hair (ciliated) epithelium that provides moisture, warmth to the air,
and trap dust and another particle to enter into the other parts of the system.

The Pharynx
The pharynx (throat) is a funnel-shaped tube lies at the back of the nasal and
oral cavities, superior to the larynx (voice box). It is a passageway for food
moving from the oral cavity to the esophagus and for air passing between the
nasal cavity and the larynx.

The Larynx (Voice box)

It is a short passage way that connects the pharynx with the trachea. It lies in
the midline of the neck anterior to the esophagus. It has a framework of
cartilage that protrudes in the front of the neck; Cartilage is a firm yet flexible
tissue that prevents collapse of the larynx. The larynx is considerably larger in
the male than in the female. The upper end of the larynx is called the glottis,
and the little leaf-shaped cartilage that covers the larynx during swallowing is
called epiglottis.
Trachea
The trachea or windpipe is a tubular passageway for air. It is located anterior
to the esophagus; It divides into right and left bronchi. The trachea divides
into a right bronchus, which goes into the right lung, and a left bronchus,
which goes into the left lung. The further branching of the bronchial tubes is
often called the bronchial tree. Extensive branches become smaller and
smaller; these smaller branches are the bronchioles. The smallest bronchioles
terminate in clusters of alveoli, the air sacs of the lungs.

Alveoli
The functional units of the lungs are the air sacs called alveoli. Actual site of
gas exchange takes place in the alveoli (Figure 4.15). Bronchial tree

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Figure 4.15: The Respiratory System

The lungs
The lungs are located inside the rib cage above the diaphragm, between the
thoracic (chest) and abdominal cavities. Each bronchus enters the lung and
immediately subdivides. The bronchi subdivide, again and again, the smallest
of which are called bronchioles. At the end of each of the smallest terminal
bronchioles, there is a cluster of air sacs. These sacs are known as alveoli.
Each alveolus is a single-cell layer of epithelium. In the lungs, blood passes
through the capillaries around the alveoli. The gas exchange takes place in the
alveoli.
Inspiration and expiration
In gas exchange, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse based on their difference
in concentration. When molecules of either gas are more concentrated outside
the body, they tend to move into the body, and vice versa.
Atmospheric pressure due to the weight of the air is the force that moves air
into the lungs, Air pressure is exerted on all surfaces in contact with the air,
and because people breathe air, the inside surfaces of their lungs are also

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subjected to pressure. In other words, when the respiratory muscles are at rest,
the pressures on the inside of the lungs and alveoli and the outside of the
thoracic wall are about the same.
If the pressure inside the lungs and alveoli decreases, outside air will then be
pushed into the airways by atmospheric pressure. This is what happens during
normal inspiration, and it involves the action of muscle fibers within the
dome-shaped diaphragm. If the pressure inside the lungs and alveoli is high,
inside air will then be pushed to the atmospheric pressure. This is what
happens during normal expiration, and it involves the action of muscle fibers
within the dome-shaped diaphragm (Figure4.16).

(A) Inspiration (B)Expiration

Figure 4.16: Breathing movement.
4.1Practical activities
Title: Build a lung model
Material Required:
 Empty water bottle (plastic)
 Balloon
 Duct tape
 Scissors

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Procedure
1. Poke hole in the bottom of the empty bottle and use scissors to carefully
cut small nickel sized hole in the bottom.
2. Cut the neck off one of the balloon and stretch the balloon over the entire
bottom of the bottle secure with duct tape.
3. Unscrew the pull top and pop up the opening so the cap is in the open
position.
4. Slid the second balloon over the popped out part of the cap and the rest the
cap and on the top of the bottle upside dawn with the balloon hanging of
the bottle.
5. To operate your lung model gently pull dawn on the middle of the balloon
that covering the bottom of the bottle and observation

Report your result to your teacher based up on the following questions

1 Make sketch of lung model and label the parts of the model that represent
the diaphragm, chest cavity, lung and air way .
2 Explain why air enters in to the model of lung when you pull dawn on the
balloon that cavers the bottom of the bottle.
3. Explain how breathing work in the human respiratory system.

4.5.2. Functions of the respiratory system

Activities 4.15
What are the function of the respiratory system?

All living cells in the body rely on respiration to supply them with oxygen and
dispose of carbon dioxide wastes. The main functions of the respiratory
system are to obtain oxygen from the external environment and supply it to the
cells and remove from the body the carbon dioxide produced by cellular
metabolism.
The functions of the respiratory system include gas exchange, acid-base
balance, pulmonary defense, and metabolism.

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Helps for high distribution of oxygen content and a relatively low carbon
dioxide content, to be distributed to the tissues of the body by the left side of
the heart. During expiration, gas with a high concentration of carbon dioxide
is expelled from the body.

4.5.3. Major Diseases of the Respiratory System

Activities 4.16
What are some of the diseases of the respiratory system?
Respiratory disease, is any of the diseases and disorders of the airways and the
lungs that affect human respiration.
Asthma is a chronic disorder of the lungs in which inflamed airways are prone
to constrict, causing an occurrence of wheezing, chest tightness, coughing, and
breathlessness that range in severity from mild to life threatening (Figure
4.17).Although an initial occurrence can occur at any age, approximately half
of all cases occur in persons younger than age 10.

Figure 4. 17: Asthma

When asthma develops in childhood, it is often associated with an inherited
susceptibility to allergens substances, such as pollen, dust mites, or animal
dander that may induce an allergic reaction. In adults, asthma may develop in
response to allergens, but viral infections, aspirin, weather conditions, and
exercise may cause it as well. In addition, stress may aggravate symptoms.

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Sinusitis is the inflammation of mucous membranes in the nasal sinuses. The

paranasal sinuses are hollow, air-filled spaces in skull bones around the nasal
cavities. They produce mucus that normally drains into the nasal cavities.
Airborne allergens and viral or bacterial infections can inflame the mucous
membranes.. The inflammation blocks the sinus openings and prevents the
mucus from draining. Common symptoms include facial pain, headache,
fever(Figure 4.18).

Figure 4.18: Sinusitis

Influenza is an acute viral infection of the upper or lower respiratory tract
that is marked by fever, chills, and a generalized feeling of weakness and pain
in the muscles, together with varying degrees of soreness in the head and
abdomen. Particles gain entrance to the body, they selectively attack and
destroy the ciliated epithelial cells that line the upper respiratory tract,
bronchial tubes, and trachea. The incubation period of the disease is one to
two days, after which the onset of symptoms is abrupt, with sudden and
distinct chills, fatigue, and muscle aches.

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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive respiratory

Figure 4. 19: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

disease characterized by the combination of signs and symptoms of
emphysema and bronchitis (Figure 4. 19). Sources of toxic particles that can
cause COPD includes tobacco smoke, air pollution, and the burning of
certain fuels in poorly ventilated areas. Characteristics are realized
physiologically as difficulty in exhaling (called flow limitation), which causes
increased lung volume and manifests as breathlessness. Other early symptoms
of the condition include a “smoker’s cough” and daily sputum production.
Bronchitis
Infectious bronchitis is an inflammation of all or part of the bronchial tree (the
bronchi), through which air passes into the lungs. The most obvious symptoms
are a sensation of chest congestion and a mucus-producing cough. Under
certain circumstances organisms do enter the airways and initiate a sudden and
rapid attack, resulting usually in a relatively brief disease called acute
infectious bronchitis. It is most frequently caused by viruses responsible for
upper respiratory infections. Therefore, it is often part of the common cold and
is a common result of influenza, whooping cough, and measles. Acute
bronchitis can also be caused by bacteria, particularly in people who have
underlying chronic lung disease(Figure 4. 20).

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Figure 4. 20: Bronchitis

Exercise 4.5
Choose the Best Answer
1 The actual site of gas exchange in the lung is called
A. Trachea B. Bronchi. C. Sinuses D. Alveoli
2. Respiratory diseases which can be caused by tobacco smoke, air pollution,
and the burning of certain fuels in poorly ventilated areas is
A. Influenza B. Asthma C. Sinusitis D. Chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease
3. Which of the following event occurs during the expiration?
A. Volume of the chest increases B. the ribcage moves outward
C The diaphragm moves upward D. the volume of the lung increase
4. Respiration is involved
A. In metabolism in the cell. B. Transportation of digested food
C. Removal of solid waste D. All are correct answers
5. The little leaf-shaped cartilage that covers the larynx during swallowing is
called
A. Glottis B. Epiglottis C. Windpipe D. Pharynx
6. Which of the following are respiratory diseases?
A. Asthma B. blood pressure C. smallpox D.. All
7. which one is the common symptom of sinusitis

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A Facial pain B. headache C. fever D. All

4.6. Circulatory System

Every organism must exchange materials and energy with their environments.
In larger animals including humans, a circulatory system facilitates the
exchange of materials between the cell and their environment.
After completing this section you will be able to:
 Distinguish the major structural components of human circulatory system;
 Describe the main functions of human circulatory system;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders and effects of human
circulatory system.

4.6.1. Components of Circulatory system

Activities 4.17
What are the components of the circulatory system?
The cardiovascular system is a system that plays a role in the distribution of
essential materials such as food and oxygen to various body parts. It also
carries away wastes and cell products. The components of the circulatory
system include blood, blood vessels, and heart (Figure 4.21).

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Figure 4.21: the structure of a circulatory system

The blood
Blood transports nutrients, wastes that must be carried from one place to
another within the body. Blood is composed of a solid portion and a liquid
portion. The fluid portion is called plasma, consists of water plus substance.
The solid portion of the blood is blood cells.
Types of Blood Cells
Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. They are shaped like biconcave
discs-flattened discs with depressed centers. There are about 4 to 6 million
RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood. Each RBC has 200 million molecules of
hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen. They are red. Formed from the red
bone marrow of the long bone. Smaller in number than white blood cells.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) Their number fluctuates from 500 to (4800-
10,800). They are formed from the yellow bone marrow in the lymph nodes,
thymus, and spleen. Bigger in size than RBCs. They are colorless because
there is no hemoglobin. They protect us from disease caused by
microorganisms.

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Platelets are membrane-bound fragments of cells that form when larger cells
in the bone marrow break apart. Platelets do not contain nuclei. Platelets
prevent excessive blood loss after an injury. (Figure 4.22)

Figure.4.22: Types of blood cells

The heart
The heart pumps blood throughout the body. It has very strong muscles that
contract and relax throughout a person’s lifetime. The muscle on the heart is
called the cardiac muscle. It is located between the right and left lungs.
Heart Chambers
The heart is divided into four chambers. There are two auricles, upper
chambers, and two ventricles, lower chambers. These chambers are divided
into right and left sides by walls called the septum. The auricles are the
receiving chambers of the heart. The ventricles are the pumping chambers.
(Figure 4.23)
Four valves act as preventive gates to control the direction of blood flow.
The tricuspid valve is between the right auricle and the right ventricle. As the
right auricle contracts, the tricuspid valve opens to allow blood to flow into
the right ventricle. Then it closes to prevent blood from flowing back into the
right atrium.

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The pulmonary valve (semilunar valve, SV)is between the right ventricle
and the pulmonary artery. As the right ventricle contracts, the pulmonary
valve opens to allow blood to flow into the pulmonary arteries. Then it closes
to prevent blood from flowing back into the right ventricle.
The mitral valve is valve found between the left atrium and left ventricle.
It has two cusps and is also known as the bicuspid valve. As the left atrium
contracts, the mitral valve opens to allow blood to flow into the left ventricle.
Then it closes to prevent blood from flowing back into the left atrium.
The aortic valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta ( Figure 4.23). As
the left ventricle contracts, the aortic valve opens to allow blood to flow into
the aorta. Then it closes to prevent blood from flowing back into the left
ventricle.

Figure 4.23: The cross-section of the heart

Circulation
Humans use a double circulatory system.

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Double circulatory systems: Since blood passes twice through the heart, it is
termed double circulation. Double circulation pathways are found in birds and
mammals. For example in human: Heart Lungs Heart Body Heart.
Blood from superior and inferior vena cava right atrium lungs left
ventricle aorta organs and major body regions superior/ inferior vena
cava right atrium (Figure 4.24) In a double circulatory system, blood flows
from the heart through two different circuits one passes through the lungs and
the other passes throughout the rest of the body.

Figure 4.24: Double circulation system

Blood vessels

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The blood vessels carry blood throughout the different parts of the body.
Supplying the oxygen and nutrients necessary for our bodies to function
properly.
There are 3 major types of blood vessels:
The Arteries
An artery is a blood vessel that transports blood away from the heart. It has
thick walls that give it support when blood enters under pressure. The biggest
artery is the aorta. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.

Capillaries
Capillaries are a network of tiny blood vessels. It has a thin wall and is
composed of a single layer of cells. This thin layer is allowing for the
diffusion of the oxygen and nutrients from the blood into the body tissues,
Remove carbon dioxide and waste products diffuse out of the body tissues;
The Veins
Veins are blood vessels that return blood to the heart. The wall of a vein is
thinner than that of an artery. Because the blood leaving the capillaries is
usually under low pressure. Have valves to prevent backflow of blood. The
largest vein is the vena cave and the smallest vein is venules, Venules are the
smallest veins that drain blood from the capillaries and then join to form a
vein ( Figure 4.25).

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Figure 4.25: The structure of artery vein and capillaries

The main function of the circulatory system

Activity 4:18
What are the main functions of the circulatory system?
Carrier of gases, nutrients, and waste products. Oxygen enters the
blood in the lungs and is transported to cells. Carbon dioxide, produced
by cells, is transported in the blood to the lungs, from which it is
expelled. Ingested nutrients, ions, and water are carried by the blood
from the digestive tract to cells, and the waste products of the cells are
moved to the kidneys for elimination.
Clot formation. Clotting proteins help stem blood loss when a blood
vessel is injured.

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Transport of processed molecules. Most substances are produced in

one part of the body and transported in the blood to another part.
White blood cells protect against disease.
Maintenance of body temperature. Warm blood is transported from the
inside to the surface of the body, where heat is released from the blood.

4.6.2. Major diseases of the Circulatory system

Activity 4.19
What is the major disease of the circulatory system?

High blood pressure

Blood pressure is the force the blood exerts against the walls of the blood
vessels. Filtration in capillaries depends upon blood pressure; filtration brings
nutrients to tissues. Blood pressure is one of the “vital signs” often measured,
and indeed a normal blood pressure is essential to life. When a systemic blood
pressure reading is taken, two numbers are obtained: systolic and diastolic, as
in 120/80 mmHg. Systolic pressure is always the higher of the two and
represents the blood pressure when the left ventricle is contracting. The lower
number is the diastolic pressure, when the left ventricle is relaxed and does not
exert force.
High blood pressure, is also called hypertension, is blood pressure that is
higher than normal. The higher your blood pressure levels, the more risk you
have for other health problems, such as heart disease, heart attack, and stroke.
Heart attack
A heart attack happens when a part of the heart muscle does not get enough
blood. Coronary artery disease is the main cause of heart attack. A less
common cause is a severe spasm, or sudden contraction, of a coronary artery
that can stop blood flow to the heart muscle. Shortness of breath. Unexplained
tiredness and nausea or vomiting.
Heart failure

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The term “heart failure” describes the heart that is not functioning properly. It
does not mean that the heart has stopped functioning but that is not working as
well as it should. The cause may be.
Over circulation failure: this is due to the structural defect of the heart. Such
as abnormal heart valves, low blood. Symptoms of heart failure includes
breathing trouble, poor feeding, poor growth, excessive sweating and low
blood pressure.
Stroke
Strokes happen when something slows or blocks blood flow to your brain.
Your brain cannot get the oxygen and nutrients it needs, and brain cells start to
die. When blood cannot get to the part of your brain that controls a certain
function, your body does not work, as it should. A stroke can happen because
of a blocked artery or a leaking or burst blood vessel. It needs immediate
treatment to limit brain damage and other complications. Trouble speaking
and understanding what others are saying. You may experience confusion, slur
your words or have difficulty understanding speech, Paralysis of arm or leg,
trouble walking.

Exercise 4.6
Choose the Best Answer
1. Blood moving from the left auricle to the left ventricle passes through
which of the following valves?
A. Bicuspid valve C. Bicuspid valve
B. Aortic semilunar valve D. Pulmonary semilunar valve
2. Which of the following is not a function of blood?
A. Regulation of body temperature C. Defense of the body
B. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide D. Manufacture of hormones
3. The type of blood cell that transports oxygen is
A. White blood cell B. Red blood cell C. Platelets D. Capillary

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4. Which one of the blood vessels has the thickest wall?

A. Arteries B. Capillaries .C Veins D. Venues
5. Which of the following is true of white blood cells?
A. Are formed in the red bone marrow C. Carry oxygen and carbon
dioxide
B. Involved in blood Clotting D. Can fight disease and infection
6. Coronary artery disease is the main cause of --------
A. Heart Attack B. Hypertension C. Heart Failure D. None of them

4.7. Reproductive System

Reproduction is one of the basic characteristics of living things in which living
things perpetuate their species. In mammals including humans and birds,
reproduction is sexual and the mode of fertilization is internal. In this section,
you will learn about the human reproductive system.
After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Distinguish the major structural components of human reproductive
system;
 Distinguish between the primary and secondary sexual characteristics;
 Describe the main functions of human reproductive system;
 Identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with human
reproductive system.

4.7.1. The major structural components of the human reproductive

system
Activity 4. 20
What are the main components of the human reproductive system?
Reproduction in mammals and birds is sexual and the mode of fertilization is
internal, So in humans, the male gamete and the female gamete unite inside
the female reproductive system. Then the embryo is retained in the female
reproductive system where it developed in a protected environment. Therefore

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the human reproductive system is concerned about the male reproductive

system and the female reproductive system.
The structure of the male reproductive system
The male reproductive system is composed of the testes, Scrotum, Penis
(Figure 4:26)

Figure 4.26: The male reproductive system

Testes (Testicles) are located within a pouch called the scrotum. The primary
functions of testes are sperm synthesis and testosterone production. Each testis
is oval-shaped consists of seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced.
Scrotum is the loose sac-like skin bag that hangs below the penis.
Epididymis is the site of sperm maturation and storage.
Vas deferens is a muscular tube that carries sperm superiorly from the
epididymis into the abdominal cavity to the ejaculatory duct.
Penis is the male external sexual organ located on the upper part of the
scrotum. It contains an external opening of the urethra. Consists of erectile
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tissues with blood vessels. The function of the penis is to deliver semen into
the vagina during sexual intercourse, and for the excretion of urine.
The urethra extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the
penis.

Different glands that provide nutrients and motility to the sperm cells
Seminal Vesicles are the first accessory glands to add secretions to sperm.
Located at the base of the bladder, their ducts join with the paired Vas
deferens to form the ejaculatory ducts. Semen is a mixture of sperm and
fluid, gland secretions
Prostate Gland encircles the proximal portion of the urethra as it leaves the
urinary bladder.
Cowper’s Glands are a pair of pea-sized exocrine glands located inferior to
the prostate and anterior to the anus.
The structure of the Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system is composed of ovaries, fallopian tube, uterus,
and vagina (Figure 4. 27).

Figure 4. 27: The female reproductive system

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The ovaries
The ovary produces female gametes called ova and estrogen and
progesterone. The ova in the ovary are produced from ovarian follicles. These
organs are secured to the lateral walls of the pelvis.
Fallopian tubes. The fallopian tubes, also called oviducts, connect the
ovaries to the uterus. It is the site of fertilization.
Uterus: The uterus has a thick muscular wall. The uterus supports and
nourishes the developing embryo and fetus during gestation. Contractions of
the smooth muscle in the uterus aid in forcing the baby through the vagina
during labor.
Cervix: The cervix is the lower base the uterus. It forms a canal that opens to
the vagina.
Vagina: is a muscular opening that extends from the exterior of the body to
the uterine cervix receives the penis during sexual intercourse. The vagina is
situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum.
Vulva: Vulva is the collective term for the external female genitalia.
Clitoris: The spongy erectile tissue within the clitoris is filled with blood
during arousal.

4.7.2. The Primary and Secondary Sexual Characteristics

The Primary Sexual Characteristics in Male and Female
Humans and all other mammals are born with sex already determined. The
primary sexual characteristics in male individuals are the penis, testes, and
scrotum. The primary sexual characteristics in females are the vagina, ovaries,
and uterus. These are the body reproductive structures that distinguish, males
from females.
Secondary Sexual Characteristics in Male and Female
Secondary sexual characteristics in males are stimulated by a hormone
called testosterone. The male secondary sexual characteristics include
 Growth of the reproductive organs (testes, penis)
 Deepening of voice.

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 Pubic hair, body hair, and facial hair begin to grow.

 Widening of the shoulders and the chest.
 the whole body grows, get taller.
 Muscles get stronger.
 Sperm production begins.
Secondary sexual characteristics in females are stimulated by the female
sex hormone called estrogen. These includes:
 Growth of the reproductive organs( uterus, vagina, ovary) and other
reproductive organs
 Growth of the mammary ducts and fat deposition in the breasts
 Broadening of the pelvic bone
 Fat deposits on the hips, buttocks, and thighs develop
 The whole body undergoes growth and gets taller.
 Pubic hair and hair around the genitalia.
 The breasts develop.
 Production of ova and menstruation begins.

4.7.3. The main functions of the human reproductive system

The main function of the human reproductive system is producing gametes
(egg and sperm). The purpose of the male and female reproductive systems is
to continue the human species by the production of offspring. The primary
function of the female reproductive system is to produce the female ova which
are essential for reproduction and hormones, and development of the embryo
during pregnancy.
The concept of menstruation and the menstrual cycle
The female reproductive system is more complex than the male reproductive
system. This is because there is a monthly cycle of events, called the
menstrual cycle. Ovulation is part of this human female’s menstrual cycle. The
menstrual cycle occurs between two successive ovulations. It consists of two
coordinated events. These includes

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1. The release of the egg from the ovary by ovulation every month.
2. Progress in uterus wall to receive the zygote.
If the egg is fertilized the uterus wall thickening continues. If the egg is not
fertilized within 24 hours of its production (ovulation), it will die. This event
is followed by the disintegration of the thickened lining of the uterus. In about
12 to16 days of ovulation, the dead egg together with the uterus lining some
quantity of blood passed out of the body through the vagina. This process of
discharge of blood from the female reproductive organ is called menstruation.
or women there is a definite end to reproductive capability; this is called the
menopause and usually occurs between the ages of 45 and 55.Estrogen
secretion decreases; ovulation and menstrual cycles become irregular and
finally cease. (Figure 4.28)

Figure 4.28: Various events in the menstrual cycle

4.7.4. The Main Diseases or Disorders Associated with The Human

Reproductive System.
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are diseases transmitted by sexual
intercourse. Most of them are caused by bacteria or viruses. Gonorrhea,
syphilis, chancroid, and HIV /AIDS are some of the STDS in humans.

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Gonorrhea is an infection that is caused by the bacterium Neisseria

gonorrhoeae. Any sexually active person can be infected with gonorrhea, but
most often it is found in younger people (ages 15–30), and particularly in
people who have many sex partners. Gonorrhea is spread through sexual
contact, whether this is vaginal, anal, or oral sex. The infection can also be
passed from mother to child during birth. From the time someone is infected
with gonorrhea, they can spread the disease to any sexual partners they may
have and will continue to do so until properly treated.
Syphilis is caused by a spirochete bacterium, Treponema pallidum that is
transmitted during sexual intercourse or through direct contact with an open
syphilis sore.
The bacterium can also be transmitted from a mother to her fetus, often
causing damage to the heart, eyes, and nervous system of the baby if not
treated early. Once inside the body, the disease progresses in four distinct
stages.
The first, or primary stage, is characterized by the appearance of a small,
painless, often unnoticed sore called a chancre. The chancre resembles a
blister and occurs at the location where the bacterium entered the body about
three weeks following exposure. This stage of the disease is highly infectious,
and an infected person may unwittingly transmit the disease to others. The
second stage of syphilis is marked by a rash, a sore throat, and sores in the
mouth. The bacteria can be transmitted at this stage through kissing or contact
with an open sore. The third stage of syphilis is symptomless. This stage may
last for several years, and at this point, the person is no longer infectious but
the bacteria are still present in the body, attacking the internal organs. At the
final stage of syphilis the sufferer experience heart disease, mental deficiency,
and nerve damage, which may include a loss of motor functions or blindness.

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Chancroid
Chancroid is a bacterial STD that is more commonly seen in men than in
women. It is caused by the bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi. Infection with H.
ducreyi often produces painful sores, usually in the genital area (head of penis,
labia, anus, cervix). Although the disease is not too serious in itself and can be
cured easily using antibiotics, it is a serious problem because the ulcers caused
by chancroid increase the likelihood of becoming infected with HIV/AIDS.
Chancroid is passed on by having sex with an infected person. The first
symptoms of chancroid are sore ulcerations on the genitals, particularly the
penis. They are soft and filled with pus with reddened edges.
The ulcers bleed easily on contact and can burst with pus draining out. They
are painful, particularly for men.
HIV /AIDS
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes the disease
AIDS.or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. AIDS is mainly transmitted
by sexual intercourse. HIV damages the immune system exposes the
individual to different kinds of disease. HIV has no cure or vaccine. Infection
with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate
fluid, or breast milk. These are body fluids in which both free HIV particles
and virus-infected immune cells are present quite in good numbers. The major
routes of transmission include unsafe sex. contaminated needles, breast milk,
and transmission from an infected mother to her baby at birth.

Exercise 4.7.
Choose the Best Answer
1. In human males, both semen and urine normally travel along the:
A. Vas deferens B.Urinary bladder C. Seminal vesicle D. Urethra.
2. Before ejaculation, sperm are stored primarily in
A. The seminiferous tubules C. The epididymis
B. The seminal vesicles D. The ejaculatory ducts.
3. Sperm production occurs in the

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A. Vas deferens B. Seminiferous tubules C. Epididymis D. Seminal

glands
4. Which of the following is the female secondary sexual characteristic.
A. Penis B. Production of eggs C. Vagina D. Ovary
5. Which one of the following is true about primary sexual characteristics
A. Have sexual function starting from birth.
B. Can be replaced by secondary sexual characteristics.
C. Are characters in which individuals are born with and stay until death.
D. A and B are possible answers.

Summary
• The accessory structure includes hair, nails, sensory receptors, and
several types of glands types of glands
• The skin has two layers. These are the epidermis and dermis.
• There are four types of glands in the integumentary system: sweat
glands, sebaceous glands, ceruminous glands, and mammary glands
• Functions of the Skin Regulation of body temperature, Protection,
Sensation. Excretion, Storage of nutrients
• Three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and
smooth muscle.
• The muscular system is a system that allows movements of the parts of
a body, the whole body, or fluids such as blood in the blood vessels.
• Muscular dystrophy refers to a group of disorders that involve a
progressive loss of muscle mass and consequent loss of strength
• Skeleton is the bony framework upon which the rest of the body is
built. There are 206 bones in adults.
• There are two types of skeletons. The axial skeleton is located at the
central axis of the body. In an adult, it consists of 80 bones, which
include the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.

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• The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of the upper and lower
limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton. There
are 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton of an adult.
• Based on their structures bones can be grouped into: Long bones, Short
bones, and Flat bones.
• The place where two bones meet is called a joint. There are two major
types of joints these includes. fixed (immovable) joints and movable
joints.
• An immovable joint allows no movement, the bones are fixed in place
and do not move at all.
• Movable joints allow a person to twist and bend allow movement in
different directions.
• Type of movable joints there are A hinge joint, A ball and socket,
Gliding, Pivot joints.
• Bones are held together at the joints by stretchy bands of tissue called
ligament
• Between the bones of a joint, there is a firm, rubbery tissue called
cartilage
• Major diseases of the Skeletal system are the following Osteoporosis
and Bone fracture.
• digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, and large intestine
• Major diseases of the Digestive system are Constipation, Hemorrhoids,
Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD), Gastritis Diarrhea.
• The respiratory system is a system that plays a role in the breathing in
(inhalation) of fresh air (with plenty of oxygen) and breathing out
(exhalation) of waste air (with plenty of carbon dioxide).
• Circulatory system facilitates the exchange of materials between the
cell and their environment.

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• The components of the circulatory system include blood, blood

vessels, heart.
• Major diseases of the Circulatory system include Heart attack, High
blood Heart failure and Stroke.
• Reproduction is one of the basic characteristics of living things in
which living things perpetuate their species.
• The male reproductive system is composed of the testes, Scrotum,
Penis
• The female reproductive system is composed of ovaries, fallopian tube,
uterus, and vagina.
• The main diseases or disorders associated with the human reproductive
system are Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Chancroid, HIV /AIDS

Review questions on unit 4

PART I Choose the correct Answer
1. Blood contains cells functional in clotting called
A. Phagocytes B. Erythrocytes C. Leukocytes D. Platelets
2. Cardiac muscle tissue is found in the
A. Heart B. Urinary Bladder C. Bicep D. Lining of the gut
3. The skeletal system is composed of
A. Bones B. Cartilage C. Joints D. All of the above
4 Besides support and protection, the skeleton serves other important
functions, including
A. Reproduction B. Locomotion C. Respiration D. Circulation
5. Vertebrae of the vertebral column is an example of
A. Flat bone B. Irregular bone C. Long bone D. Short bone
6. Which one is not the function of the skin
A. Regulates body temperature B. Contains sensory receptors
C. Excretes some waste materials D. Provides movement
7. Sebaceous glands

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A. Produce a watery solution called sweat

B. Produce a waxy secretion called cerumen
C. Accelerate aging
D. Are associated with endocrine glands
8. Gaseous exchange occurs between the capillaries and the
A. Trachea B. Alveolar sacs C. Primary bronchi D. Terminal bronchioles
9. Identify the correct sequence of the movement of food through the body:
A. Mouth →Pharynx →Esophagus →Stomach →Small intestine→ Large
intestine
B. Mouth →Esophagus →Pharynx →Stomach →Small intestine →Large
intestine
C. Mouth →Pharynx →Esophagus →Stomach →Large intestine →Small
intestine
D. Mouth →Pharynx →Stomach →Esophagus →Small intestine →Large
intestine
10. The function of saliva is:
A. to facilitate swallowing
B. to initiate the digestion of certain carbohydrates
C. to moisten and lubricate the mouth and lips
D. A and C
11. The organ in which most digestion occurs is the
A. Mouth B. Stomach C. Large intestine D. Small intestine
12. The superior vena cava enters the heart by way of the
A.. Pulmonary vein B. Right ventricle C. Left atrium D. Right atrium
13 The convoluted tube that stores sperm is called the
A. Seminiferous tubule B. Vas deference
C. Prostate gland D. Epididymis
14. Subcutaneous tissue includes adipose tissue or fat. It is also known as the:
A. Dermis B. Papillary Layer C. Hypodermis D. Reticular Layer

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15 Which of the following is not an accessory organ of digestion.

A. pancreas B .Liver C. Esophagus D. Gallbladder
16 The female reproductive organ where fertilization occurs is
A. Uterus B. Oviduct C. Ovary D. Cervix

PART II. FROM " A" COLUMN MATCHING TO" B" COLUMN
‘’A’’ ‘’B’’
17. Taking in of food A. Digestion
18. Elimination of waste B. Ingestion
19. Movement of food from the mouth to stomach C. Peristalsis
20. Means of transporting food into the blood D. Absorption
21. Mechanical/chemical changing of food composition E. Egestion

PART III. Say true if the statement is correct otherwise say False.
22. The respiratory system has no relation with digestive and circulatory
system.
23.. Muscles have no relation with movement.
24 Reproduction helps to perpetuate species.
25. Chemical digestions are the functions of enzymes.
26. Muscles are attached to bones by ligaments.
27. All the food that we eat is absorbed by the digestive system.
28. The monthly release of egg from the ovary is called ovulation.
29. Production of sperm from the testes is primary sexual characteristic in
male.
30. Osteoporosis is disorders of the muscular system.

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