LESSON 8
THE PROPOSITION
The Meaning of Proposition
Bittle (1948:94) gave the simplest definition of proposition. He said that proposition is a
judgment expressed in a sentence. It is a sentence pronouncing the agreement or disagreement
between two ideas. Further, it is also a statement by which anything by its nature is affirmed or
denied. Finally, a proposition is a judgment that expresses either a truth or falsity. (Bauzon,
2009:80)
Proposition and Sentence
Since there are sentences that do not express truth or falsity, then not all sentences are
propositions. A proposition is distinct from a sentence because it carries with it a judgment while
a sentence does not. Statements such as “What is your name?” (interrogative), “Oh, what a
beautiful day!” (exclamatory), “Go home” (imperative), “Please, listen to me” (appeal), and
“Merry Christmas” or “May you have more birthdays to come,” (wishing) are examples of
sentence. They do not express truth or falsity. They are neither true nor false. To the statement
“What is your name?” or “What a beautiful day!” it is without sense to ask if it’s true or false.
Thus, we may say that a proposition is a statement that expresses a judgment, while a
sentence is a statement that expresses a thought or idea but without judgment. All propositions
are sentences (statements), but not all sentences are propositions.
Elements of a Proposition
Every proposition has three elements: the subject, the predicate and the copula or the
verb “to be.” The subject or the predicate may be composed of one term or a combination of two
or more terms and words. It is the copula that indicates whether the proposition is affirmative or
negative. In addition, the proposition has a quantifier that determines its extension or quantity
(Fetizanan and Gajete, 2003:31).
Characteristics of the Logical Proposition
Cruz (2010:73) distinguishes the logical proposition from ordinary grammatical sentence
by stressing that the logical proposition is expressed in the indicative mood, and in the present
tense, and that the subject and the predicate of a logical proposition are linked by a copula or
verb “to be.”
Hence, a logical proposition follows the subject-copula-predicate (S-C-P) pattern. If a
proposition is not in its logical form, it is highly recommended that it should be rendered in the S-
C-P pattern.
Examples:
1. Birds fly.
All birds are flying beings.
2. He likes to drink beer.
He is someone who likes to drink beer.
3. Mr. Kawatan robbed the bank.
Mr. Kawatan is the one who robbed the bank
4. Mekai runs.
Mekai is an individual who is running.
5. It is better to light just one little candle than to be groping in the dark.
To light one little candle is better than to be groping in the dark.
Kinds of Propositions
1. Categorical proposition. This kind of proposition expresses the judgment in absolute
manner. There are two types of categorical proposition: single and multiple.
a) Single categorical proposition is one that consists of one subject and one predicate.
Examples: All drunk drivers are threats to others on the road. A few businessmen are persons
without social conscience.
Note: There are cases that several subjects or predicates are joined to form one
compound subject or predicate. So, these propositions are single. Examples: Money and power
are not requirements for happiness. Pedro and Maria are husband and wife.
b) Multiple categorical proposition is one that consists of two or more propositions united
into one. Here are the kinds of multiple categorical propositions with their examples:
1. Copulative - having several subjects and/or predicates joined by the conjunction
“and”: Logic and history are hard and difficult subjects. Rex and Roy are classmates and
friends. Neither money nor power is necessary for a happy life.
2. Adversative – uses the conjunctions “although,” “yet,” “but,” “however,” or
“nevertheless”: The Lord is just but merciful. Romeo is bright, yet he failed in the test. Although
truth is good, respect for human dignity is better.
3. Causal – uses the conjunctions “because,” “for,” “since,” or “whereas”: Because you
cheated in the exams you should take another test. Since you have been loyal to me, I will
always be grateful.
4. Explicative - with qualifying clause: The ring, which you gave me on my birthday, was
lost. That man whom you were talking with a while ago is our parish priest.
5. Relative - made up of partial ones joined together by particles like as…so, when…
then. Examples: As you dress, so is your character. When we are in trouble, then we know who
our real friends are.
6. Exclusive - uses limited particle like “alone”, “only”: Juan is lazy only. Only God can
make a tree.
7. Exceptive - qualified by exclusion: All of you passed the test, except one.
8. Comparative - example: Pedro is taller than Juan.
9. Reduplicative – repeats word or words to give emphasis, example: Parents, as
parents, love their children. Students, as students, should study.
10. Necessary - Triangles must be three-sided. Human being should be rational. A dead
lion is necessarily not dangerous anymore.
2. Hypothetical proposition expresses a judgment as dependent on another judgment.
Bittle (1948:113) explains that hypothetical proposition does not attribute a predicate to its
subject directly, but asserts the dependence of one judgment on another. Examples:
Conditional : If freedom is to preserve its real meaning, then it must be an equal
freedom for all. If the patient has terminal cancer, he is seriously ill.
Disjunctive : Either science discovers a remedy for every disease, or human
life will never be without tragedy. Either the human soul is not material, or it is
corruptible.
Conjunctive : You cannot serve God and Satan at the same time. This snake cannot
be dead and alive at the same time.
