Data Graphics

Presentation of Statistical Data:

The raw data, which have been collected, are usually very large in quantity. Therefore we have
to organize and summarize the collected data in a form that is easy to understand. This is called
presentation of Statistical data.

Different Methods of presentation of Statistical Data:

1. Classification
2. Tabulation
3. Diagrams
4. Graphs

1. Classification:
Classification is the process of arranging the data into homogenous groups or classes
according to their resemblances and affinities.

For Example: In the process of sorting letters in a post office. The letters are classified to the
cities and further arranged according to sectors/streets.

Types of Classification:
i. One Way Classification:

When data are classified by one variable, it is called one-way or simple Classification.

For example: Population of any location may be classified as rich, on the basis of their
average income.

ii. Two Way Classification:

When data are classified by two variables at the same time, it is called two- way
classification.

For example: We may classify the peoples on the basis of education and income group.

iii. Manifold Classification:

When data are classified by many variables, it is called manifold classification.

For Example: We may classify the peoples on the basis of gender, education, income etc.
Data may also be classified according to quantitative, qualitative, temporal (chronological)
and geographical characteristic.

2. Tabulation:
The systematic arrangement of data in the form of rows and columns for the purpose of
comparison and analysis is known as tabulation.

Types of Tabulation:
I. Simple Tabulation:

When data are presented relating to a single characteristic, it is called simple or one-way
Tabulation.

For example: A table showing the scores of Pakistani batsmen in a cricket match against
Australia:

Batsmen Scores
Fakhar Zaman 44
Babar Azam 122
Shadab Khan 27
Hassan Ali 05

II. Double Tabulation:

When data are tabulated according to two characteristic at a time, it is called double or two-
way tabulation.

For Example: A table showing the population of 5 divisions of Punjab by gender (male and
female) in census report of 1981.

Division Male Female

Bahawalpur 24 23
Rawalpindi 23 21
Gujranwala 39 37
Lahore 44 43
Multan 39 36

III. Complex Tabulation:

When data are tabulated according to a number of characteristics at a time, it is called

complex tabulation.
 For Example: A table showing population of Pakistan in each province classified by ages,
religion and gender etc.

Main Parts of construction and labeling of graphs:

1) Title
2) Box-head/ Column Caption
3) Stub/ Row Caption
4) Body
5) Prefatory Note
6) Foot-Note
7) Source Note

—–THE TITLE—-
—-Prefatory Notes—-

—-Box Head—-

—-Row Captions—- ——Column Captions—–

—Stub Entries— —–The Body—–

Foot Notes…
Source Notes…

1) Title

The title is the main heading written in capitals shown at the top of the table. It must explain the
contents of the table and throw light on the table, as whole different parts of the heading can be
separated by commas. There are no full stops in the little.
2) Box Head (column captions)

The vertical heading and subheading of the column are called columns captions. The spaces
where these column headings are written is called the box head. Only the first letter of the box
head is in capital letters and the remaining words must be written in lowercase.

3) Stub (row captions)

The horizontal headings and sub heading of the row are called row captions and the space where
these rows headings are written is called the stub.

4) Body

This is the main part of the table which contains the numerical information classified with
respect to row and column captions.

5) Prefatory Notes

A statement given below the title and enclosed in brackets usually describes the units of
measurement and is called the prefatory notes.

6) Foot Notes

These appear immediately below the body of the table providing additional explanation.

7) Source Notes

The source notes are given at the end of the table indicating the source the information has been
taken from. It includes the information about compiling agency, publication, etc.

General Rules of Tabulation

• A table should be simple and attractive. There should be no need of further explanation
(details).
• Proper and clear headings for columns and rows are necessary.
• Suitable approximation may be adopted and figures may be rounded off.
• The unit of measurement should be well defined.
• If the observations are large in numbers they can be broken into two or three tables.
• Thick lines should be used to separate the data under big classes and thin lines to separate
the sub classes of data.

Frequency Distribution:
A frequency distribution is a tabular arrangement of data that shows the distribution of
observations among different classes.
Class Limits:
The class limits are defined as the values of the variables, which explain the classes, the smaller
value is called lower class limit and the larger value is called as upper class limit.

Ages No. of Patients

20 – 24 1
25 – 29 4
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11
40 – 44 15

Class Boundaries:
The class boundaries are the exact values, which break up one class from another class. The
smaller value of the class boundaries is called as lower class boundary and the larger value as
upper class boundary. The upper class boundary of a class matches with the lower class
boundary of the next class. They are halfway points that separate the classes.

Ages No. of Patients

19.5 – 24.5 1
24.5 – 29.5 4
29.5 – 34.5 8
34.5 – 39.5 11
39.5 – 44.5 15

Class Marks or Mid Points:

A class mark is average value of the lower and upper class limits or class boundaries. It is also
called as Midpoint.
𝐋𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐋𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭+𝐔𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐋𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭
Mid Point =
𝟐

𝐋𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐂.𝐁+𝐔𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐂.𝐁

= 𝟐

The midpoint of 19.5 – 24.5 = 22

Class Interval or Class Width:
The difference between the upper and lower class boundaries is called class interval or class
width. It may also obtain by finding the difference between two successive class marks or class
limits. It is denoted by h or i. The interval of class boundaries 19.5 – 24.5 is 5.

Class Frequency:
The number of values falling in a specified class is called class frequency or frequency. It is
denoted by f.

Ages No. of Patients

19.5 – 24.5 1
24.5 – 29.5 4
29.5 – 34.5 8
34.5 – 39.5 11
39.5 – 44.5 15
∑f = 39

Relative Frequency:
The frequency of a class divided by the total frequency of all the classes is called the relative
frequency. i.e
𝒇
Relative Frequency =
∑𝒇

Ages No. of Patients 𝒇

r.f=
(f) ∑𝒇
19.5 – 24.5 1 1/39
24.5 – 29.5 4 4/39
29.5 – 34.5 8 8/39
34.5 – 39.5 11 11/39
39.5 – 44.5 15 15/39
∑f = 39 1

The total of relative frequency is unity. A table showing relative frequency is called relative
frequency distribution.

Percentage Relative Frequency:

If 100 multiply relative frequencies we obtain percentage relative frequency. A table showing
percentage relative frequencies is called percentage distribution.
 Ages No. of Patients 𝒇 Percentage
r.f=
(f) ∑𝒇 Relative
Frequency
19.5 – 24.5 1 1/39 1/39*100
24.5 – 29.5 4 4/39 4/39*100
29.5 – 34.5 8 8/39 8/39*100
34.5 – 39.5 11 11/39 11/39*100
39.5 – 44.5 15 15/39 15/39*100
∑f = 39 1

Cumulative Frequency:
The total frequency of all the classes less than the upper class boundary of a given class is called
as the cumulative frequency of that class.

Ages No. of Patients c.f

19.5 – 24.5 1 1
24.5 – 29.5 4 1+4 = 5
29.5 – 34.5 8 5+8 = 13
34.5 – 39.5 11 13+1 = 24
39.5 – 44.5 15 24+15=39
∑f = 39

4. Graphical Representation:
The visual display of statistical data in the form of points, lines, areas and other geometrical
forms and symbols is called graphical representation. Such visual representation can be divided
into main groups i.e graphs and diagrams.

Graph is a visual representation of frequency distribution usually shown on graph paper.

Diagram is any other one, two or three dimensional form of visual representation.

Graphs of Frequency Distribution:

There are various types of graphs of frequency distribution some important types of graphs are
given below.

a) Frequency Histogram
b) Frequency polygon
c) Frequency Curve
d) Cumulative Frequency Polygon or Ogive

a) Frequency Histogram:

It is a graphical presentation of frequency distribution. Variable characters of the

different groups are indicated on the horizontal line (x-axis) called abscissa while
frequency, i.e. number of observations is marked on the vertical line (y-axis) called
ordinate. Frequency of each group will form a column or rectangle. Such a diagram is
called “histogram” and is made use of in presenting any quantitative data.

b) Frequency Polygon:

A frequency polygon is a many sided closed figure that represents a frequency

distribution. It is constructed by plotting the mid points and segments. The frequency
polygon is also obtained by histogram by joining mid points of each rectangles by
means of straight lines.
c) Frequency Curve:

When the number of observations is very large and group intervals reduced, the
frequency polygon tends to lose its angulations giving place to a smooth curve known
as frequency curve. When a frequency polygon is smoothed it approaches a
continuous curve, called as frequency curve.
 d) Cumulative Frequency Polygon or Ogive:

To draw cumulative frequency polygon or ogive we take upper C.B along X-axis and
cumulative frequencies along Y-axis. Then these points are joined by line segments to
obtain an Ogive.

Charts:
A chart is a device used for representing a simple statistical data in a simple, clear and
effective manner.

• Pie Chart
• Pictogram
• Bar Charts
• Scatter Plot/ Scatter Diagram
• Semi-log Plot/ Semilogarithmic Plot

Use of Graphs/ Charts

Medical diagrams, graphs and charts are used to visually display the relationship between
facts or figures. They make data easier to understand and only key information is
presented, which often has been collected from large amounts of medical or scientific
data. Bar graphs are frequently used in medical field. Also called a bar chart.

Bar charts are good for comparisons, while line charts work better for trends. Scatter plot
charts are good for relationships and distributions, but pie charts should be used only for
simple compositions never for comparisons or distributions. If you have categorical
data, use bar charts or histograms if your data is discrete, or line/ area charts if it is
continuous. If you want to show the relationship between values in your dataset, use a
scatter plot or line charts.

Ungrouped Data:

The fresh data (raw data) that have been collected for the first time and that have not
undergone any statistical treatment are called ungrouped data.

Grouped Data:

When the ungrouped data are arranged according to classes or groups with their
respective frequencies are called grouped data.