Growth of the Discipline of Political Science
Political science, as a discipline, has evolved over centuries, reflecting the changing
nature of human societies, political systems, and intellectual thought. This chapter
traces the growth of political science from its ancient roots to its contemporary form,
highlighting key developments and transformations. The chapter is divided into four
sections: Ancient & Medieval Period, Renaissance & Early Modern Period, Modern
Political Science & Institutionalization, and Behavioral Revolution & Contemporary
Political Science.
1. Ancient & Medieval Period
The origins of political science can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where
thinkers began to systematically analyze the nature of political authority, governance,
and the state. In ancient Greece, philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle laid the
foundational stones of political thought. Plato's *Republic* explored the concept of
justice and the ideal state, advocating for a philosopher-king to rule. Aristotle, in his
*Politics*, analyzed various forms of government and emphasized the importance of the
polis (city-state) as the highest form of human association. His empirical approach to
studying constitutions and political systems marked an early attempt to systematize
political knowledge.
In ancient Rome, thinkers like Cicero contributed to the development of political thought
by emphasizing the rule of law and the concept of a mixed constitution. The Roman
Republic's political practices and legal systems also provided practical examples of
governance that influenced later political theorists.
During the medieval period, political thought was heavily influenced by religious
doctrines. Thinkers like St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas sought to reconcile
classical political philosophy with Christian theology. Augustine's *City of God*
contrasted the earthly city with the heavenly city, emphasizing the transient nature of
political authority. Aquinas, in his *Summa Theologica*, argued for a natural law that
underpinned human laws and political institutions, blending Aristotelian philosophy with
Christian teachings.
Ancient Political Thought: Foundations of the Discipline
The origins of Political Science can be traced back to ancient civilizations, particularly in
Greece and Rome. Political inquiry in this period was largely philosophical and
normative, focusing on the ideal state, justice, and governance.
Greek Contributions: The systematic study of politics began with the works of Plato
(427–347 BCE) and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). Plato’s Republic presented an ideal
political system based on justice and philosopher-kings, while Aristotle’s Politics
categorized different forms of government and introduced an empirical approach by
studying existing political structures. Aristotle is often regarded as the first political
scientist due to his classification of political systems and emphasis on comparative
analysis.
Roman Contributions: Thinkers like Cicero (106–43 BCE) emphasized the importance
of law and mixed government, influencing later republican and constitutional theories.
The Roman legal system laid the foundation for political institutions and governance
structures that shaped later Western political thought.
Medieval Political Thought: Influence of Religion and Feudalism
With the decline of the Roman Empire, political thought in the medieval period became
dominated by religious and theological perspectives. Political power was intertwined
with divine authority, and governance was often justified through religious doctrines.
Christian Political Thought: Thinkers like Augustine (354–430 CE) in The City of God
distinguished between the divine and earthly realms, arguing that political authority
should serve moral and spiritual purposes. Later, Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)
synthesized Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy, advocating for natural law
as the basis of governance.
Islamic Political Thought: Muslim scholars like Al-Farabi, Al-Mawardi, and Ibn
Khaldun contributed significantly to political philosophy. Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah
introduced sociological and historical methods to analyze political change.
Feudalism and Monarchism: Medieval Europe was characterized by feudalism, where
power was decentralized among lords and vassals. The Divine Right of Kings emerged
as a justification for absolute monarchy, reinforcing hierarchical governance structures.
2. Renaissance & Early Modern Period
The Renaissance and early modern period marked a significant shift in political thought,
characterized by a revival of classical ideas and the emergence of new political
theories. This era saw the rise of humanism, which emphasized the importance of
human reason and individualism. Niccolò Machiavelli, often considered the father of
modern political science, broke away from medieval theological frameworks in his work
*The Prince*. Machiavelli's pragmatic approach to politics, focusing on power and
statecraft, laid the groundwork for a more realistic and secular understanding of political
behavior.
The Reformation and the subsequent religious wars in Europe also spurred new political
thinking. Thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
developed social contract theories to explain the origins and legitimacy of political
authority. Hobbes, in *Leviathan*, argued for a strong central authority to prevent the
chaos of the state of nature. Locke, in *Two Treatises of Government*, emphasized
natural rights and the consent of the governed, influencing later democratic thought.
Rousseau, in *The Social Contract*, introduced the concept of the general will,
advocating for a form of direct democracy.
The Enlightenment further advanced political science by promoting reason, scientific
inquiry, and the idea of progress. Thinkers like Montesquieu and Voltaire analyzed
political systems and advocated for the separation of powers and the rule of law.
Montesquieu's *The Spirit of the Laws* provided a comparative analysis of different
forms of government and influenced the development of constitutional theory.
Renaissance Humanism and the Revival of Secular Politics
The Renaissance (14th–17th century) marked a shift from theological dominance to
secular political analysis. The rediscovery of classical texts and humanist principles led
to a more pragmatic approach to governance.
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527): Often regarded as the first modern political thinker,
Machiavelli’s The Prince separated politics from morality, emphasizing power dynamics,
statecraft, and realpolitik. His work laid the foundation for political realism and the study
of power as an independent entity.
Jean Bodin (1530–1596): In Six Books of the Republic, Bodin developed the concept
of sovereignty, arguing for a strong central authority to ensure stability and order.
The Rise of Social Contract Theories
The 17th and 18th centuries saw the emergence of social contract theorists who laid the
groundwork for modern democratic governance.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): In Leviathan, Hobbes argued that humans are naturally
self-interested and require a strong sovereign to prevent chaos. His work justified
absolute monarchy based on a rational contract.
John Locke (1632–1704): In Two Treatises of Government, Locke advocated for
natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and popular sovereignty, influencing liberal
democracy.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778): In The Social Contract, Rousseau introduced
the idea of the "general will," emphasizing direct democracy and collective
decision-making.
The Enlightenment and Political Economy
The Enlightenment (18th century) emphasized reason, individual rights, and
constitutional government. Thinkers like Montesquieu (separation of powers) and Adam
Smith (economic liberalism) contributed to political theory and economic governance.
3. Modern Political Science & Institutionalization
The 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the formal institutionalization of political
science as an academic discipline. This period was marked by the establishment of
political science departments in universities and the development of systematic
methodologies for studying politics. The influence of positivism, which emphasized
empirical observation and scientific methods, played a crucial role in shaping modern
political science.
In the United States, the founding of the American Political Science Association (APSA)
in 1903 marked a significant milestone in the discipline's institutionalization. Scholars
like Woodrow Wilson, who later became the U.S. President, contributed to the study of
public administration and comparative politics. The focus during this period was on
understanding political institutions, constitutions, and legal frameworks.
In Europe, the study of political science was also gaining traction. The works of Max
Weber and Karl Marx provided critical insights into the nature of power, authority, and
social change. Weber's analysis of bureaucracy and the state, as well as his concept of
the "ideal type," influenced the study of political institutions. Marx's critique of capitalism
and his theory of historical materialism offered a radical perspective on the relationship
between politics and economics.
The interwar period saw the rise of totalitarian regimes, which prompted political
scientists to study the causes and consequences of authoritarianism. The works of
Hannah Arendt, Carl Friedrich, and others analyzed the nature of totalitarianism and the
conditions that lead to the collapse of democratic institutions.
Emergence of Political Science as a Discipline
By the 19th century, Political Science started developing as a distinct academic field,
influenced by industrialization, democratic revolutions, and social changes.
● Positivism and Empirical Methods: Thinkers like Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
promoted the scientific study of society, advocating for empirical research in
politics.
● Karl Marx (1818–1883): Marx’s theory of historical materialism emphasized the
role of economic structures in shaping political institutions, laying the foundation
for political economy and critical theory.
● John Stuart Mill (1806–1873): A proponent of liberal democracy, Mill’s work on
representative government and individual liberty influenced democratic
governance.
Institutionalization of Political Science
The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the formal institutionalization of
Political Science as an academic discipline.
● University Departments: The first Political Science department was established at
Columbia University in 1880.
● Professional Associations: The American Political Science Association (APSA)
was founded in 1903 to advance political research.
● Comparative Politics and Constitutional Studies: Scholars began systematically
studying political institutions, electoral systems, and governance structures
across different countries.
4. Behavioral Revolution & Contemporary Political Science
The mid-20th century witnessed the "behavioral revolution" in political science, which
shifted the focus from the study of formal institutions to the analysis of political behavior
and processes. This revolution was characterized by the adoption of quantitative
methods, statistical analysis, and the use of empirical data to test hypotheses. Scholars
like David Easton, Gabriel Almond, and Sidney Verba emphasized the importance of
studying political attitudes, voting behavior, and public opinion.
The behavioral approach sought to make political science more scientific by developing
general theories that could explain political phenomena across different contexts.
Easton's systems theory, for example, conceptualized politics as a system of inputs,
outputs, and feedback loops. Almond and Verba's work on political culture explored the
role of civic attitudes and values in sustaining democratic governance.
In the latter half of the 20th century, political science continued to diversify and expand.
The rise of new subfields, such as international relations, comparative politics, and
public policy, reflected the growing complexity of political issues in a globalized world.
The end of the Cold War and the spread of democratization in the 1990s further
stimulated research on transitions to democracy, civil society, and governance.
Contemporary political science is characterized by its interdisciplinary nature, drawing
insights from economics, sociology, psychology, and other fields. The advent of new
technologies and the availability of big data have also transformed the way political
scientists conduct research. Topics such as globalization, climate change, and identity
politics have become central to the discipline, reflecting the evolving challenges of the
21st century.
Behavioral Revolution (1950s–1970s)
The mid-20th century saw a methodological shift in Political Science, emphasizing
empirical research, statistical analysis, and behavioral approaches.
Key Features of the Behavioral Revolution:
● Focus on individual political behavior rather than just institutions.
● Use of surveys, experiments, and quantitative methods.
● Interdisciplinary approach, integrating psychology, sociology, and economics.
Major Contributors:
● Robert Dahl: Developed pluralist theory and democratic studies.
● David Easton: Introduced the systems theory of politics, analyzing inputs
(demands) and outputs (policies) in political systems.
Post-Behavioralism and Contemporary Political Science
By the late 20th century, scholars criticized the overly scientific approach of
behaviorism, advocating for a balance between empirical research and normative
concerns.
● Post-Behavioralism: Scholars like David Easton emphasized the relevance of
Political Science in addressing real-world problems.
● Public Policy and Governance Studies: Political Science expanded into areas like
public administration, international relations, and global governance.
● Rise of Critical Theories: Feminist political theory, postcolonial studies, and
environmental politics challenged traditional political paradigms.
Political Science in the 21st Century
Modern Political Science integrates diverse methodologies, from big data analysis to
ethnographic research. Key trends include:
Comparative Politics and Globalization: Studying political systems in an interconnected
world.
Artificial Intelligence and Political Analysis: Using machine learning to predict electoral
outcomes and policy trends.
Democratic Backsliding and Populism: Analyzing challenges to democratic governance.
In conclusion, the growth of political science as a discipline reflects the dynamic
interplay between intellectual thought, historical events, and societal changes. From its
ancient roots to its contemporary form, political science has continually adapted to
address the pressing political questions of each era, contributing to our understanding
of power, governance, and human behavior.
