Foundry Engineering II

(Lab Manual)

Prepared by:
Dr.-Ing. Muhammad Atif Makhdoom
Assistant Professor

Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering

Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of the Punjab Lahore
 Contents

Lab No. Description Page

1 Restructuring of Foundry shop floor on the basis of scientific 1
principles.
2 Melting of aluminium using available scrap and to perform 7
modification and degassing operation.
3 Melting of aluminium alloy “LM4” using master alloys and to 10
perform metallography.
4 Melting of aluminium alloy “LM13” using minimum quantity 15
of master alloys and maximum quantity of LM6 and LM21
and also to perform metallography.
5 Melting of aluminium alloy “LM4” with the maximum use of 18
LM21, LM8 and minimum utilization of master alloys. Also
perform metallography
6 To illustrate the effect of silicon percentage on the fluidity of 21
aluminium-silicon alloy.
7 To illustrate the effect of riser on solidification shrinkage in 26
aluminium casting on a plate type casting.
8 To illustrate the effect of riser on solidification shrinkage in 39
aluminium casting of variable section thicknesses.
9 Prepare a heat of aluminium alloy and study the effect of 42
modification on microstructure.
10 Prepare a heat of Copper-Zinc alloy and perform degassing 46
operations.
11 Prepare a heat of Copper-Tin alloy and perform degassing 51
operations.
12 Prepare a heat of Grey Cast iron using induction furnace. 54

13 Prepare a heat of AISI 1030 using end cut of rolling mills in 55

induction furnace.

a
Experiment No. 01
Restructuring of Foundry shop floor on the basis of scientific principles.

Objective
The basic objective of this experiment is to apply “time and motion study” along with “value stream
mapping technique” on existing foundry shop floor for the purpose of restructuring and value addition.

Theory
• Time and motion study:
Management of work existed for a long time before the industrial revolution. However, over
time there have been significant improvements in managing work. Among the people that
revolutionized management in the late 1800s and early 1900s are Frederick Taylor, Frank
Gilbreth, and Lilian Gilbreth. Managerial practices and understanding that have stood the test
of time emerged in the 20th century. Best practices evident in workplaces are a product of those
who refused to settle on mediocre ways of doing business.
A time and motion study is the analysis of the exact motions required by a person to complete
a task, as well as the time required to do so. Once this information has been collected, the analyst
devises a more efficient approach by stripping away certain actions and replacing others. Time
and motion studies are most commonly applied to highly repetitive tasks, in order to achieve
higher levels of labor productivity. These studies are especially necessary in situations where a
business is trying to drive down its costs to become the low-cost, high-volume producer in an
industry. This approach is not cost-effective for tasks that are not repeated on a regular basis,
since the offsetting efficiency improvements do not pay for the cost of the study.
How to Conduct a Time and Motion Study
The first step in performing a time and motion study is to break down a task into a set of work
elements, in order to gain a deeper understanding of how the task functions. Then establish the
actual time required to complete each of the work elements, which is an average of the time
required over several cycles of each work element. Then determine if an allowance must be
added to the average time requirement for breaks and shift changeovers; if so, add the
allowance to the average calculated time to arrive at the standard time for each work element.

• Value Stream Mapping:

The value stream mapping (VSM) is defined as a lean tool that employs a flowchart
documenting every step in the process. Many lean practitioners see VSM as a fundamental tool
to identify waste, reduce process cycle times, and implement process improvement.
VSM is a workplace efficiency tool designed to combine material processing steps with
information flow, along with other important related data. VSM is an essential lean tool for an
organization wanting to plan, implement, and improve while on its lean journey. VSM helps
users create a solid implementation plan that will maximize their available resources and help
ensure that materials and time are used efficiently. purpose of value stream mapping is
to maximize value and minimize waste in a number of different ways including: Facilitating
clear communication and collaboration. Encouraging continuous improvement of a process.
Enabling culture change within an organization.

1
Streamline motion mean without any hurdle. In this technique foundry is constructed in such a way
that everything must be in a proper order.Things that are required at first e.g. sand, its testing etc. must
be at placed first and whichare required at end like cutting machine etc., must be placed at the end.
There should beno randomness or disorder during process. It is also called as circular flow.

Equipment required:
1. Measuring tape
2. Stopwatch

Procedure:
• First of all, the steps of manufacturing any product in a foundry is listed down and sequence
of all the activities is established in a chronological order as below:
Steps of making casting:
1. Raw material collection.
2. Mixing of sand and necessary raw materials.
3. Sand testing activity.
4. Collection of Mold, Pattern, and core boxes and bringing them to molding platform.
5. Mold making.
6. Bringing the mold to pouring platform.
7. Collection of metal scrap and raw materials and bringing them to furnace.
8. Melting and pouring activity.
9. Leave for some time let the metal solidifies.
10. Fettling activity.
11. Disposal of waste sand and waste metal parts / gating components at their proper
locations.
• Layout of existing foundry shop floor is constructed on paper.
• According to the activity as listed above for making a cast object in a foundry, distances
between different working stations/equipment/machines along with the corresponding travel
times are measured with the help of measuring tape and stopwatch respectively.
• The same has been tabulated to evaluate the total time and distance to accomplish the casting
activity as shown in table 1.

2
Table 1: Time and Motion calculation for existing shopfloor (readings are not real)

Activity Distance Time

From To (feet) (sec)
Door Safety instruments 3 3
Safety instruments Raw material collection 25 15
Raw material Sand mixer + 6 + 14 4+
(sand + scrap) furnace (for scrap) 10
furnace Mixer 14 10
Mixer Working table 6 4
Working table Testing 9 6
equipment’s
Testing Working table 9 6
equipment’s
Working table Pattern + castingtools 14 10
Pattern + tools Working table tomake a mold 14 10
From table Pouring platform 13 8
Pouring platform Furnace 6 4
furnace Pouring platform 6 4
Pouring platform Working table 13 8
Table Cutting machine 9 5
Machine Cast component 8 6
Machine Sand (waste) 13 10
Machine Scrap 13 10
Machine Sand back for mold + waste sand 23 12

Total distance traveled = 218 ft.

Total time = 145 sec (2.41 minutes)

3
Figure 1: Existing Foundry Shop Floor Design

4
 • Now the brain storming activity is being done among the group mates and revised and
upgraded proposed shop floor design is again constructed on paper.
• According to the activity as listed above for making a cast object in a foundry, distances
between different working stations/equipment/machines along with the corresponding travel
times are again measured with the help of measuring tape and stopwatch respectively by
visualizing the things in the proposed design.
• The same has been tabulated to evaluate the total time and distance to accomplish the casting
activity as shown inn table 2.

Table 2: Time and Motion calculation for existing shopfloor (readings are not real)

Activity Distance Time

From To (feet) (sec)
Door Safety instruments 3 3
Safety instruments Raw material collection 8 5
(sand + additives)
Raw material (sand + additive) Sand mixer 4 3
Mixer Testing equipment 6 4
Testing equipment Working table 6 4
Working table Pattern + castingTools 10 8
Pattern + tools Working table tomake a mold 10 8
From table Pouring platform 5 3
Scrap Furnace 5 3
Furnace Testing 5 3
Testing Furnace 5 3
Furnace Pouring platform 8 6
Pouring platform Machining 6 3
Machine Product 5 3
Machine Scrap 14 8
Machine Sand back for mold + waste sand 6 + 15 3+8

Total Distance travelled =121ft.

Total time = 78 sec (1.3 min)

5
 Figure 2: Modified Foundry Shop Floor Design

Note: It is just an example.

6
Experiment No. 02
Melting of aluminium using available scrap and to perform modification and degassing
operations.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.
Materials/Chemicals
Aluminium scrap, AlTiB grain refiner, tablet degasser and coverall flux etc.

Theory
Dissolution of Hydrogen
Molten aluminium readily picks hydrogen from the atmosphere or from moisture-containing
refractory, the solubility of hydrogen in solid aluminium is very low, so that as the alloy freezes by
hydrogen gas is expelled, causing micro or macro porosity in the casting.
Hydrogen has a high solubility in liquid aluminium which increases with melt temperature as shown
in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Solubility of Hydrogen in Aluminium (John R. Brown)

The hydrogen in the molten metal comes from a number of sources but mostly from water:
• Water vapor in the atmosphere.
• Water vapor from burner fuels.
• Damp refractories and crucibles linings.

7
 • Damp fluxes.
• Oily or dirty scrap charges.
• Dirty or damp foundry tools.

To reduce hydrogen pick-up, refractories, crucibles, tools and oily scrap should be thoroughly
preheated to remove water.
To achieve high integrity castings, aluminium alloy melts must be degassed before casting.

Degassing of Aluminium Alloys

The maximum concentration of dissolved hydrogen possible in aluminium alloys can be as high as 0.6
ml H2 /100g. The degassing process involves the bubbling dry, inert gases through the melt to reduce
the hydrogen level to around 0.1 ml/ 100g.
In tablet degassing the tablet of Hexachloroethane is plunged into the melt by means of a perforated
bell plunger.

Melting Procedure in a Gas Fired Pit Furnace

• First clean the pit furnace crucible and remove all the non-metallic inclusions from inner side
of crucible.
• The dry the crucible by heating it to red hot state.
• Then charge dry aluminium scrap into the furnace crucible and dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8
%) over it.
• When charge becomes partially molten (pasty) add remaining charge into the furnace and
again dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) on the surface of the charge.
• Heat the melt, till the temperature is reached to 700 ºC, then stop heating and remove the slag.
• Then add AlTiB grain refiner (0.1 -- 0.5 %) in the melt.
• Wait until the temperature begins to fall then degas the melt by putting the degasser tablet (0.2
- 0.3%) into the melt bottom by perforated bell plunger and withdraw the plunger when
bubbling activity ceases as shown in the Fig 2.

Fig. 2: Degassing operation.

8
 • When there is no visible reaction of degassing withdraw the plunger.
• Then again apply coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) and allow to stand undisturbed for 5 to 10 minutes.
• Finally, rabble the flux into the surface of the melt, as shown in the Fig. 3, until red glowing
dross is obtained. This will produce powdery metal-free dross which is easy to skim away.
• Skim dross away and cast the melt into sand molds.

Fig. 3: Rabbling of flux.

Pouring Temperatures
The following pouring temperatures are usual for castings of varying section poured into sand molds:
• Light Castings ----------- Less than ½ in section ------------- 710 ºC
• Medium Castings-------- Between ½ - 1 ½ in section------- 690 ºC
• Heavy Castings-----------Over 1 ½ in section ----------------- 670 ºC

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen gas in it.

9
Experiment No. 3
Melting of aluminium alloy “LM4” using master alloys and to perform metallography.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Coverall Flux, Degasser Tablet, Aluminium-Ingot, Tin, Altab-Iron, Aluminium-Copper, Aluminium-
Silicon, Aluminium Magnesium, Aluminium-Nickel and Aluminium-Titanium Master Alloys, etc.
British specification: B.S. 1490 LM 4
Related specifications: ALCOA 319 (U.S.A) ALCAN 117 (Canada), G-AlSi6Cu4 and GD AlSi6Cu3, DIN
1725 (Germany).

Literature Survey
LM 4 alloy possesses good founding characteristics both for sand and gravity die casting. It is also
satisfactory to a limited extent and pressure die casting, although generally higher silicon alloys are
preferred for this method of production. It finds its main application in a wide variety of moderately
stressed engineering components including crank cases, clutch housings, gear boxes, etc. it is also
suitable for making castings which require to be pressure tight.
Fluidity of molten LM 4 alloy is reasonably good which permits the castings of thin sections in a sand
mold. Resistance to hot tearing is also quite good, although inferior to the eutectic aluminium silicon
alloys.
LM 4 is comparatively easy to machine but the use of a cutting fluid is recommended to prevent
intermittent ‘’tearing’’. Corrosion resistance under atmospheric conditions is fair but the alloy is
amenable to anodic surface treatment which affords better protection.

Master alloys and foundry consumables.

Master alloys are the alloys of Al with metals having higher melting point higher than Al. They are
developed so that high melting point metals can be added to the Al at low temperature. There is a
variety of master alloys for aluminium and aluminium alloys, depending on the principal (leading)
element. Master alloys are available in a variety of forms: waffle ingot, notched ingot, slab ingot,
sheared ingot, button, splatter (flake), broken ingot, coiled rod, and cut rod, depending on the leading
element, manufacturing procedure, and the purpose of the master alloy itself. The following common
additions are used for aluminium alloys, and the engineering practice has acquired the following main
addition methods for them:
• Boron is added to precipitate transition metal impurities such as Ti and V and so improve
electrical properties. It is mainly added as a dilute master alloy <1% B). Originally borax
(Na2B4O7), or B2O3 was added to the electrolytic cell, or KBF4 was added to the melting furnace
to tie up transition metal impurities such as vanadium and titanium which adversely affect
electrical conductivity of aluminium.
• Bismuth is added both as the pure metal and as a dilute master alloy to enhance machinability
of the aluminium alloys.

10
 • Chromium prevents grain growth in Al-Mg alloys, inhibits recrystallization in Al-Mg-Si and
Al-Mg-Zn alloys, and corrects for Fe to produce a golden color in anodizing. The main addition
form is the concentrated tablet or briquette, although a significant quantity is also added as
dilute master alloy.
• Copper is added mainly to increase strength, and it is added in many forms (pure metal, master
alloys, concentrated tablets, and powder injection).
• Iron improves the high-temperature strength of some kinds of alloys. Addition forms are
similar to that for copper.
• Magnesium provides high strength with good ductility, together with excellent corrosion
resistance and weldability. For AI-Si alloys, it also improves heat treatment ability. It is mostly
added as the pure metal, although master alloys are also widely used.
• Manganese improves strength and also plays a role in preventing recrystallization. The main
technique of addition is as concentrated tablets or briquettes, powder injection, and, to a lesser
extent, master alloys.
• Lead, like bismuth, is principally used to enhance machinability. The main method of addition
is as the pure metal, although concentrated tablets and master alloys are also used.
• Silicon is used in "foundry alloys" (silumines) as it gives excellent fluidity in casting. It is also
used in extrusion alloys, to which it contributes high mechanical properties. The main method
of addition is as pure metal, but significant amounts are added as master alloys and through
powder injection.
• Strontium is added to modify the eutectic in Al-Si alloys. It is mostly added as a dilute master
alloy.
• Titanium provides an important contribution to grain refinement. It is mainly added as tablets
(including pure metal), but most often through master alloys.
• Zinc is used to improve strength. It is almost exclusively added as the pure metal.
• Zirconium is added to inhibit recrystallization. It is mainly added as a master alloy (up to 15%
Zr), but also as a concentrated tablet.

Chemical Composition
Chemical composition of aluminium silicon copper (LM4) alloy is given in the table 1.

Table 1: Chemical composition of Aluminium Silicon Copper alloys.

Element % B.S 1490 Alcan 117, Canada Germany
LM.4 Alcoa 319, U.S.A.*
G-AlSi6Cu4 **GD AlSi6Cu3
Federal, U.S.A.
DIN 1725 DIN 1725
Copper 2.0-4.0 2-4 3-5 2-4
Magnesium 0.15 0.15 0.1-0.3 0.5
Silicon 4-6 4-6 5-7 5-8
Iron 0.8 0.7 0.8 1
Manganese 0.2-0.7 0.3-0.7 0.3-0.6 0.2-0.6
Nickel 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5
Zinc 0.5 0.2 1.2 0.7
Lead 0.1 (All other elements 0.2 0.3
Tin 0.1 total 0.3 max) 0.1 0.3

11
 Titanium 0.2 0.2 0.15 -
Aluminium Balance Balance Balance Balance
* QQ –A-601a, Grade 18, 319
** Gravity and pressure die casting specification.
All figures quoted are maximum unless otherwise indicated.

Tensile Properties – Heat Treated

Heat treated consists of a high temperature solution treatment followed by a low temperature
precipitation or aging treatment. A very considerable increase in mechanical properties is obtained
from the full treatment (TF) as indicated in the following table 2:

Tale 2 Showing tensile properties of LM 4 alloy.

Property Sand Cast Chill Cast
0.2% Proof stress
N/mm2 200 - 300 200 - 300
Tons/in2 12 2
Tensile Stress
N/mm2 230 280
Tons/in 2 15 18
Elongation % 0-2 1-5
BHN 90 - 120 90 - 120

Heat Treatment Practice

Solution treatment:
Heat castings for 6 -16 hours at a temperature within the range of 505 -520OC (941-968OF),
follow by quenching in hot water or oil.
Precipitation Treatment:
Heat castings after quenching, for further 6 -18 hours at 160OC and allow cooling in air finally.
Heat treatment should be carried out in a forced air circulation furnace or in a molten salt bath to ensure
uniformity of temperature during treatment. Where treatment must be carried out on a batch basis,
castings of widely varying sections thickness should not be charged together ion the furnace since the
heat treatment time necessary to achieve optimum tensile properties will be less for castings of thin
sections. Any bending or straightening of castings that is necessary should be carried out after the
solution treatment when ductility is at a maximum. Casting shows improve machine ability after heat
treatment.

Melting Procedure in Gas Fired Pit Furnace

• First make charge calculation to find out the weights of master alloys and other additions.
• Weigh the required quantities of the aluminium & its master alloys along with flux and
degasser for the asked weight of heat.
• Clean the pit furnace crucible and remove all the non-metallic inclusions from inner side of the
crucible.

12
• The dry the crucible by heating it to red hot state.
• Then charge the dry aluminium ingot into the furnace crucible and dust the coverall flux (0.3 -
0.8 %) over it.
• When the charge becomes partially molten (pasty) add master alloys into the furnace and again
dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) on the surface of the charge. Finally add tin in the melt.
• Heat the melt, till the temperature is reached to 720 ºC, then stop heating and remove the slag.
• Then add AlTiB grain refiner (0.1 - 0.5 %) in the melt.
• Wait until the temperature begins to fall then degas the melt by putting the degasser tablet (0.2
- 0.3%) into the melt bottom by perforated bell plunger and withdraw the plunger when
bubbling activity ceases as shown in the Fig 1.

Fig. 1: Degassing operation.

• When there is no visible reaction of degassing withdraw the plunger.

• Then again apply coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) and allow to stand undisturbed for 5 to 10 minutes.
• Finally, rabble the flux into the surface of the melt, as shown in the Fig. 2, until red glowing
dross is obtained. This will produce powdery metal-free dross which is easy to skim away.

Fig. 2: Rabbling of flux.

15. Skim dross away and cast the melt into sand molds.

13
Pouring Temperatures
The following pouring temperatures are usual for castings of varying section poured into sand molds:
• Light Castings ----------- Less than ½ in section ------------- 710 ºC
• Medium Castings-------- Between ½ - 1 ½ in section------- 690 ºC
• Heavy Castings-----------Over 1 ½ in section ----------------- 670 ºC

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen gas in it.

14
Experiment No. 4
Melting and casting of aluminium alloy “LM13” using minimum quantity of master alloys
and maximum quantity of LM6 and LM21. Also perform metallography.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Coveral Flux, Degasser Tablet, Aluminium-Ingot, Zinc, Altab-Iron, Aluminium-Silicon, Aluminium
Copper, Aluminium Magnesium, Aluminium Manganese, Aluminium Nickel and Aluminium-
Titanium Master Alloys, etc.
Related specifications: Al-Si12Cu (ISO), 48000 (EN AC-), A336 (ASTM)

Chemical Composition
LM13 sand cast and chill cast alloy. It is used for making engine pistons. Chemical composition of LM13
alloy is given in the table 1.

Table 1 showing chemical composition of LM 13 alloy.

Element % B.S 1490
LM 13

Copper 0.7 – 1.5

Magnesium 0.8 – 1.5
Silicon 10 – 13
Iron 1
Manganese 0.5
Nickel 1.5
Zinc 0.5
Lead 0.1
Tin 0.1
Titanium 0.2
Aluminium Balance

Melting Procedure in Gas Fired Pit Furnace

• First make charge calculation to find out the weights of master alloys and other additions.
• Weigh the required quantities of the aluminium & its master alloys along with flux and
degasser for the asked weight of heat.
• Clean the pit furnace crucible and remove all the non-metallic inclusions from inner side of the
crucible.
• The dry the crucible by heating it to red hot state.

15
• Then charge the dry aluminium ingot into the furnace crucible and dust the coverall flux (0.3 -
0.8 %) over it.
• When the charge becomes partially molten (pasty) add master alloys into the furnace and again
dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) on the surface of the charge. Finally add tin in the melt.
• Heat the melt, till the temperature is reached to 720 ºC, then stop heating and remove the slag.
• Then add AlTiB grain refiner (0.1 - 0.5 %) in the melt.
• Wait until the temperature begins to fall then degas the melt by putting the degasser tablet (0.2
- 0.3%) into the melt bottom by perforated bell plunger and withdraw the plunger when
bubbling activity ceases as shown in the Fig 1.

Fig. 1: Degassing operation.

• When there is no visible reaction of degassing withdraw the plunger.

• Then again apply coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) and allow to stand undisturbed for 5 to 10 minutes.
• Finally, rabble the flux into the surface of the melt, as shown in the Fig. 2, until red glowing
dross is obtained. This will produce powdery metal-free dross which is easy to skim away.

Fig. 2: Rabbling of flux.

• Skim dross away and cast the melt into sand molds.

16
Pouring Temperatures
The following pouring temperatures are usual for castings of varying section poured into sand molds:
• Light Castings ----------- Less than ½ in section ------------- 710 ºC
• Medium Castings-------- Between ½ - 1 ½ in section------- 690 ºC
• Heavy Castings-----------Over 1 ½ in section ----------------- 670 ºC

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen gas in it.

17
Experiment No. 5
Melting and casting of aluminium alloy “LM4” with the maximum use of LM21, LM8 and
minimum utilization of master alloys. Also perform metallography.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Coveral Flux, Degasser Tablet, Aluminium-Ingot, Zinc, Altab-Iron, Aluminium-Silicon, Aluminium
Copper, Aluminium Magnesium, Aluminium Manganese, Aluminium Nickel and Aluminium-
Titanium Master Alloys, etc.

Chemical Composition
Chemical composition of LM4 alloy is given in the table 1.

Table 1 showing chemical composition of LM 13 alloy.

Element % B.S 1490 Alcan 117, Canada Germany
LM.4 Alcoa 319, U.S.A.*
G-AlSi6Cu4 **GD AlSi6Cu3
Federal, U.S.A.
DIN 1725 DIN 1725
Copper 2.0-4.0 2-4 3-5 2-4
Magnesium 0.15 0.15 0.1-0.3 0.5
Silicon 4-6 4-6 5-7 5-8
Iron 0.8 0.7 0.8 1
Manganese 0.2-0.7 0.3-0.7 0.3-0.6 0.2-0.6
Nickel 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5
Zinc 0.5 0.2 1.2 0.7
Lead 0.1 (All other elements 0.2 0.3
Tin 0.1 total 0.3 max) 0.1 0.3
Titanium 0.2 0.2 0.15 -
Aluminium Balance Balance Balance Balance
* QQ –A-601a, Grade 18, 319
** Gravity and pressure die casting specification.
All figures quoted are maximum unless otherwise indicated.

Melting Procedure in Gas Fired Pit Furnace

• First make charge calculation to find out the weights of master alloys and other additions.
• Weigh the required quantities of the aluminium & its master alloys along with flux and
degasser for the asked weight of heat.
• Clean the pit furnace crucible and remove all the non-metallic inclusions from inner side of the
crucible.

18
• The dry the crucible by heating it to red hot state.
• Then charge the dry aluminium ingot into the furnace crucible and dust the coverall flux (0.3 -
0.8 %) over it.
• When the charge becomes partially molten (pasty) add master alloys into the furnace and again
dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) on the surface of the charge. Finally add tin in the melt.
• Heat the melt, till the temperature is reached to 720 ºC, then stop heating and remove the slag.
• Then add AlTiB grain refiner (0.1 - 0.5 %) in the melt.
• Wait until the temperature begins to fall then degas the melt by putting the degasser tablet (0.2
- 0.3%) into the melt bottom by perforated bell plunger and withdraw the plunger when
bubbling activity ceases as shown in the Fig 1.

Fig. 1: Degassing operation.

• When there is no visible reaction of degassing withdraw the plunger.

• Then again apply coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) and allow to stand undisturbed for 5 to 10 minutes.
• Finally, rabble the flux into the surface of the melt, as shown in the Fig. 2, until red glowing
dross is obtained. This will produce powdery metal-free dross which is easy to skim away.

Fig. 2: Rabbling of flux.

• Skim dross away and cast the melt into sand molds.

19
Pouring Temperatures
The following pouring temperatures are usual for castings of varying section poured into sand molds:
• Light Castings ----------- Less than ½ in section ------------- 710 ºC
• Medium Castings-------- Between ½ - 1 ½ in section------- 690 ºC
• Heavy Castings-----------Over 1 ½ in section ----------------- 670 ºC

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen gas in it.

20
Experiment No. 6

To illustrate the effect of silicon percentage on the fluidity of aluminium-silicon alloy.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Coveral Flux, Degasser Tablet, Aluminium-Ingot, Zinc, Altab-Iron, Aluminium-Silicon, Aluminium
Copper, Aluminium Magnesium, Aluminium Manganese, Aluminium Nickel and Aluminium-
Titanium Master Alloys, etc.

Literature Survey
Fluidity:
The quality of the melt is one of the important factors that lead to good casting. Hence, the control and
prediction of the melt properties and its characteristics is necessary. The most frequently used tools to
achieve this in aluminum casting plants are Thermal analysis (cooling curve), Reduced Pressure test,
K-mold, Tatur test, Spiral test, Alscan for hydrogen measurement and PoDFA apparatus. One of the
significant properties that influence the casting products is the fluidity of the melt.
The term fluidity is used to indicate the distance a molten metal can flow in a mold of a constant cross-
section area before it solidifies. The fluidity depends on many factors such as Chemical composition,
Solidification range, Viscosity, Heat of fusion, Heat transfer coefficient, Mold and metal mass density,
Specific heat and Surface tension. There are no standard or reliable values for pure metal or alloys.
However, fluidity tests are important for respective cast houses or respective batch of melt for the
optimization of the above-mentioned factors that affect the fluidity. The first fluidity test was conducted
in 1902, and since then many types of equipment for fluidity testing has been developed and modified.
The most popular fluidity test is the Archimedean spiral shaped mold test which measures the length
the metal flows inside a narrow channel as shown in figure 1 and the vacuum Fluidity test where the
metal flows inside a narrow channel when sucked from a crucible by using a vacuum pump as shown
in figure 2. Since the spiral test is compact and portable, it has been extensively used.

Fig 1: Spiral test

21
 Fig 2: Vacuum test

The Archimedean spiral shaped mold setup has three basic sections:
• The narrow channel where the liquid metal flow.
• The entry point through which the liquid metal enters the narrow channel.
• The vent which is provided for the gases to escape.

Archimedean spiral:
The spiral shape that has been used in the Loop is originally known as the Archimedean Spiral. It is
named after the 3rd century BC Greek Mathematician Archimedes. This spiral can be defined as “The
locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with
a constant speed along a line that rotates with constant angular velocity”. This spiral can be represented
by the polar coordinates (r, θ) in the equation (1) where we assume that the curve is traced out exactly
once, that is one loop. Here r is the length of the radius from the center or beginning of the spiral, 𝜃 is
the angular position, f is the constant, and 𝛼, 𝛽 are the maximum and the minimum angle between
which the spiral is drawn.

𝑟 = 𝑓𝜃 𝛼≤𝜃≤𝛽 (1)

Writing the equation (1) in terms of a set of parametric equations we get equation(2) and equation(3)
where x and y are the distance in x and y-direction in cartesian coordinate.

x = 𝑟 cos𝜃 (2)

𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3)

The small change in distance x and y with the change of 𝜃 can be obtained by differentiating the above
equation with respect to θ , we get equation (4) and equation(5).

(4)

(5)
Next, the approximate arc length can be found out by the Pythagoras theorem:

(6)

22
 (7)
where: 𝑑𝑠2 = 𝑟2 + (𝑑𝑟/𝑑 𝜃)2

The arc length formula for the spiral in polar coordinates is then given by adding all the “𝑠”. That is
integrating 𝑑𝑠 we get equation (8) where L is the entire length of the spiral.
𝐿 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 (8)
where

(9)

The arc length for multiple loops n with the loop starting at a distance a from the origin and having
constant distance b between each arm can be obtained by the equation (10).

(10)
where: 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝜃

And 𝜃1, 𝜃2 are the minimum and maximum angle within which the spiral is drawn.

Fig 3: Archimedean spiral represented on a polar graph (left) and 360° turnings of one arm of an
Archimedean spiral (right)

23
Experimentation
• First prepare six numbers of molds of green sand using pattern as shown in figure 1.
• Prepare six heats of aluminium-silicon alloys in which silicon percentage is varied from 2 to
12% with a difference of 2%.
• Now clean the pit furnace crucible and remove all the non-metallic inclusions from inner side
of the crucible.
• The dry the crucible by heating it to red hot state.
• Then charge the dry aluminium ingot into the furnace crucible and dust the coverall flux (0.3 -
0.8 %) over it.
• When the charge becomes partially molten (pasty) add master alloys into the furnace and again
dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) on the surface of the charge. Finally add tin in the melt.
• Heat the melt, till the temperature is reached to 720 ºC, then stop heating and remove the slag.
• Then add AlTiB grain refiner (0.1 - 0.5 %) in the melt.
• Wait until the temperature begins to fall then degas the melt by putting the degasser tablet (0.2
- 0.3%) into the melt bottom by perforated bell plunger and withdraw the plunger when
bubbling activity ceases as shown in the Fig 4.

Fig. 4: Degassing operation.

• When there is no visible reaction of degassing withdraw the plunger.

• Then again apply coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) and allow to stand undisturbed for 5 to 10 minutes.
• Finally, rabble the flux into the surface of the melt, as shown in the Fig. 5, until red glowing
dross is obtained. This will produce powdery metal-free dross which is easy to skim away.

24
 Fig. 5: Rabbling of flux.

• Skim dross away and cast the melt into sand molds.
• After cooling the mold, measure the length of the metal filled the spiral and compare the result
to understand the effect of silicon percentage on the fluidity of aluminium silicon alloys.

Pouring Temperatures
The following pouring temperatures are usual for castings of varying section poured into sand molds:
• Light Castings ----------- Less than ½ in section ------------- 710 ºC
• Medium Castings-------- Between ½ - 1 ½ in section------- 690 ºC
• Heavy Castings-----------Over 1 ½ in section ----------------- 670 ºC

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen gas in it.

25
Experiment No. 7
To illustrate the effect of riser on solidification shrinkage in aluminium casting on a plate
type casting.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Coveral Flux, Degasser Tablet, Aluminium-Ingot, Zinc, Altab-Iron, Aluminium-Silicon, Aluminium
Copper, Aluminium Magnesium, Aluminium Manganese, Aluminium Nickel and Aluminium-
Titanium Master Alloys, etc.

Theoretical Background
Metal casting is one of the direct methods of manufacturing the desired geometry of component.
• Casting process is also known as process of uncertainty. Even in a completely controlled
process, defects in casting are found.
• The cause of defects is often a combination of several factors rather than a single one. When
these various factors are combined, the root cause of a casting defect can actually become a
mystery.
• It is important to correctly identify the defect symptoms prior to assigning the cause to the
problem.
• False remedies not only fail to solve the problem, but they can also confuse the issues and make
it more difficult to cure the defect. The proper classification and identification of a particular
defect is the basic need to correct and control the quality of casting.
Following casting defects are commonly found:
1. Shrinkage
2. Cold Shut
3. Misrun
4. Mismatch
5. Blow holes
6. Pin Holes
7. Fins
8. Drop
9. Swell
10. Metal Penetration
11. Hot Tears
12. Gas Porosity
13. Shrinkage Porosity
14. Scabs
15. Hard Spots
16. Buckles\Rat Tails
17. Inclusions

26
1. SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage cavity is a void on the surface of the casting caused mainly by uncontrolled and haphazard
solidification of the metal. Shrinkage faults are faults caused by improper directional solidifications,
poor gating and risering design and inadequate feeding. Solidification leads to volumetric contraction
which must be compensated by feeding. If this compensation is inadequate either surface shrinkage or
internal shrinkage defects are produced making the casting weaker.

Causes
• Inadequate and improper gating.
• Poor design of casting involving abrupt changes in thickness.
• Too high pouring temperature.
Remedies
• Use the suitable mold design and gating system.
• Carry out proper ramming and maintain optimum pouring temperature and time.
• Taking care of directional solidification.

2. COLD SHUT
When two streams of molten metal approach each other in the mould cavity from opposite directions
but fail to fuse properly, with the result of discontinuity between them, it is called a cold shut.

27
Causes
• Low temperature of molten metal.
• Improper gating system.
• Too thin casting sections.
• Slow and intermitted pouring.
• Improper alloy composition.
• Use of damaged pattern.

Remedies
• Smooth pouring with the help of monorail.
• Properly transport mould during pouring.
• Arrange proper clamping arrangement.
• Providing appropriate pouring temperature.

3. MISRUN
When the molten metal fails to fill the entire mould cavity before the metal starts solidifying, resulting
in an incomplete casting, the defect is known as misrun.

Causes
• Low temperature of molten metal
• Improper gating system

28
 • Too thin casting sections
• Slow and intermitted pouring
• Improper alloy composition
• Use of damaged pattern
Remedies
• Smooth pouring with the help of monorail.
• Properly transport mould during pouring.
• Arrange proper clamping arrangement.
• Providing appropriate pouring temperature.

4. MISMATCH
It is a shift /misalignment between two mating surfaces or the top and bottom parts of the casting at the
mould joint.

Causes
• Worn dowel in patterns made in halves.
• Improper alignment of mould boxes due to worn out/ill-fitting mould boxes.
Remedies
• Properly mold boxes with pins.
• Properly clamp the boxes.

5. BLOW HOLES
Balloon-shaped gas cavities caused by release of mould gases during pouring are known as blow
holes.

29
Causes
• Ramming is too hard.
• Permeability is insufficient.
• Venting is insufficient.
Remedies
• Moisture content of moulding sand should be controlled.
• Sand of appropriate grain size should be used.
• Ramming should not be too hard.
• Moulds should be adequately vented.

6. PIN HOLES
Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting surface.

Causes
• Sand with high moisture content.
• Absorption of hydrogen/carbon monoxide gas in the metal.
• Alloy not being properly degassed.
• Steel is poured from wet ladles.
• Sand containing gas producing ingredients.
Remedies
• Reducing the moisture content of moulding sand.
• Increasing its permeability.
• Employing good melting and fluxing practices.
• Improving a rapid rate of solidification.

7. FINS
Fins are excessive amounts of metal created by solidification into the parting line of the mold.
Causes
• Incorrectly assembled moulds and cores.
• Over flexible bottom boards.

30
 • Loose plates and improper clamping of flasks.
Remedies
• Correct assembly of the moulding cores used for casting.

8. DROP
Drop is an irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface caused by dropping of sand.

Causes
• Low green strength of the moulding sand.
• Low mould hardness.
• Insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope.
Remedies
• Moulding sand should have sufficient green strength.
• Ramming should not be too soft.

9. SWELL
Swells are excessive amounts of metal in the vicinity of gates or beneath the sprue.
Causes
• Insufficient or soft ramming.
• Low mould strength.
• Mould not being adequately supported.
Remedies
Sand should be rammed evenly and properly.

31
10. METAL PENETRATION
Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the sand particles in the mould. These
defects are due to inadequate strength of the mold and high temperature of the molten metal adds on
it.

Causes
• Low strength of moulding sand.
• Large size of moulding sand.
• High permeability of sand.
• Soft ramming.
Remedies
• Use of fine grain with low permeability.
• Appropriate ramming.

10. HOT TEARS

A hot tear is a fracture formed during solidification because of hindered (delayed) contraction. Hot
tears are ragged irregular internal or external cracks occurring immediately after the metal have
solidified.
Causes
• Faulty casting design leading to excessive stresses at certain portions in the casting.
• Hot tears occur on poorly designed castings having abrupt section changes or having no proper
fillets or corner radii.
• Very hard ramming.
• Too much shrinkage of molten metal.

32
 • Incorrect pouring temperature.
• Improper placement of gates and risers.
• Low flowability of molten metal.
• High sulphur content in molten steel.
• Wrongly placed chills.
• Hot tears are also caused by poor collapsibility of cores,if the core does not collapse when the
casting is contracting over it stresses will be set up in the casting leading to its failure.
Remedies
• Ramming should not be too hard.
• Modification in pattern to take care of residual stresses.
• Hot tears can be eliminated by improved design, proper directional solidification.
• Uniform rate of cooling, correct pouring temperature.
• Control of mould hardness.

11. GAS POROSITY

Gas porosity is described as pockets of gas inside the metal, developed due to escape of dissolved gases
during solidification and is characterised by spherical holes as shown below:

Causes
• Dissolved hydrogen and sulphur dioxide in molten metal.
• High poring temperature.
• High moisture content of the mould.

33
Remedies
• Maintenance of proper melting temperature.
• Perform degassing operation before pouring.
• Permeability of the mould should be increased.
• Moisture content of mould should be kept low.

11. SHRINKAGE POROSITY

Shrinkage porosity is described as micro cracks or pockets inside the metal, developed due to
volumetric shrinkage of the metal during solidification and is characterized by irregularly shaped
holes as shown below:
Causes
• Improper gating & riser design.
• Excessive poring temperature.
• Non-direction solidification.
Remedies
• Maintenance of proper melting temperature.
• Casting should be made to solidify quickly by using proper gating and risering design.
• By direction solidification.

12. SCABS
• Scabs are surface slivers/shavings caused by splashing and rapid solidification of the metal
when it is first poured and strikes the mold wall.
• Scabs are rough, irregular projections on surface of castings containing embedded sand.
Causes
• Insufficient strength of mould and core.
• Uneven mould ramming.
• Lack of binding material in facing as well as core sand.
• Faulty gating.
• Intense local heating due to slow running of molten metal over sand surface.

34
 • Occurs when a portion on the face of mould or core lifts and metal flows underneath in a thin
layer.
• They are caused by using too fine sand grains or using sand of low permeability or moisture
content.
• They may also be caused by uneven mould ramming or by intense local overheating.
Remedies
• Appropriate ramming.
• Improved gating system.
• Addition of sufficient binders in facing and core sands.
• Scabs can be reduced by mixing additives like sea coal, wood flour or dextrin in the sand,
providing uniform ramming and pouring with correct velocity.

13. HARD SPOTS

These spots are formed due to the local chilling by moulding sand which leads to the formation of white
cast iron at those places, rendering them hard.
Causes
• Faulty metal composition.
• Faulty casting design resulting in relatively more rapid cooling of certain spots.
Remedies
• Modification of casting design.
• Modification of casting composition.

35
14. BUCKLES/RAT TAILS
Rat tail or a buckle is a long, shallow, angular depression caused by expansion of the sand.
Causes
• Excessive mould hardness.
• Lack of combustible additives in the moulding sand.
• Continuous large surfaces on the casting.
Remedies:
• Suitable addition of combustible additives to moulding sand.
• Reduction in mould hardness.
• Modifications in casting design.

15. INCLUSIONS
• Inclusions are any foreign materials present in the cast metal.
• These may be in the form of oxides, slag, dirt, sand or nails.
Causes
• Common sources of these inclusions are impurities with the molten metal, sand and dirt from
the mould not properly cleaned, break away sand from mould, core or gating system, gas from
the metal and foreign items picked on the mould cavity while handling.
Remedies
• Inclusions are reduced by using correct grade of moulding sand.
• Proper skimming to remove impurities.

36
Experimentation
• First prepare three molds of a plate.
• In first mold there should not be any riser.
• In second mold, place a single riser at the centre. The size of the riser needs to be calculated
using NRL method.
• In third mold, split the already calculated riser in two and place them as side risers at both ends
of the longer sides.
• Now clean the pit furnace crucible and remove all the non-metallic inclusions from inner side
of the crucible.
• The dry the crucible by heating it to red hot state.
• Then charge the dry aluminium ingot into the furnace crucible and dust the coverall flux (0.3 -
0.8 %) over it.
• When the charge becomes partially molten (pasty) add master alloys into the furnace and again
dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) on the surface of the charge. Finally add tin in the melt.
• Heat the melt, till the temperature is reached to 720 ºC, then stop heating and remove the slag.
• Then add AlTiB grain refiner (0.1 - 0.5 %) in the melt.
• Wait until the temperature begins to fall then degas the melt by putting the degasser tablet (0.2
- 0.3%) into the melt bottom by perforated bell plunger and withdraw the plunger when
bubbling activity ceases as shown in the Fig 1.

Fig. 1: Degassing operation.

• When there is no visible reaction of degassing withdraw the plunger.

• Then again apply coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) and allow to stand undisturbed for 5 to 10 minutes.
• Finally, rabble the flux into the surface of the melt, as shown in the Fig. 2, until red glowing
dross is obtained. This will produce powdery metal-free dross which is easy to skim away.

37
 Fig. 2: Rabbling of flux.

• Skim dross away and cast the melt into sand molds.
• After cooling the mold, analyse the defects produce in all and compare the results.

Pouring Temperatures
The following pouring temperatures are usual for castings of varying section poured into sand molds:
• Light Castings ----------- Less than ½ in section ------------- 710 ºC
• Medium Castings-------- Between ½ - 1 ½ in section------- 690 ºC
• Heavy Castings-----------Over 1 ½ in section ----------------- 670 ºC

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen gas in it.

38
Experiment No. 8
To illustrate the effect of riser and chill on solidification shrinkage in aluminium casting
of variable section thicknesses.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Coveral Flux, Degasser Tablet, Aluminium-Ingot, Zinc, Altab-Iron, Aluminium-Silicon, Aluminium
Copper, Aluminium Magnesium, Aluminium Manganese, Aluminium Nickel and Aluminium-
Titanium Master Alloys, etc.

Experimentation
• First prepare three molds of a step like pattern as shown in figure 1.
• In first mold there should not be any riser.
• In second mold, place a single riser (as side riser) on the thinner side. The size of the riser needs
to be calculated using NRL method.
• In third mold, place a metal chill on the thinner side of the casting.

Fig 1: Step like mold

• Now clean the pit furnace crucible and remove all the non-metallic inclusions from inner side
of the crucible.
• The dry the crucible by heating it to red hot state.
• Then charge the dry aluminium ingot into the furnace crucible and dust the coverall flux (0.3 -
0.8 %) over it.
• When the charge becomes partially molten (pasty) add master alloys into the furnace and again
dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) on the surface of the charge. Finally add tin in the melt.
• Heat the melt, till the temperature is reached to 720 ºC, then stop heating and remove the slag.
• Then add AlTiB grain refiner (0.1 - 0.5 %) in the melt.

39
 • Wait until the temperature begins to fall then degas the melt by putting the degasser tablet (0.2
- 0.3%) into the melt bottom by perforated bell plunger and withdraw the plunger when
bubbling activity ceases as shown in the Fig 2.

Fig. 2: Degassing operation.

• When there is no visible reaction of degassing withdraw the plunger.

• Then again apply coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) and allow to stand undisturbed for 5 to 10 minutes.
• Finally, rabble the flux into the surface of the melt, as shown in the Fig. 3, until red glowing
dross is obtained. This will produce powdery metal-free dross which is easy to skim away.

Fig. 3: Rabbling of flux.

• Skim dross away and cast the melt into sand molds.
• After cooling the mold, analyse the defects produce in all and compare the results.

Pouring Temperatures
The following pouring temperatures are usual for castings of varying section poured into sand molds:
• Light Castings ----------- Less than ½ in section ------------- 710 ºC
• Medium Castings-------- Between ½ - 1 ½ in section------- 690 ºC
• Heavy Castings-----------Over 1 ½ in section ----------------- 670 ºC

40
Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen gas in it.

41
Experiment No. 9
Prepare a heat of aluminium alloy and study the effect of modification on microstructure.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Coveral Flux, Degasser Tablet, Pure Aluminium Ingot, Zinc, Altab-Iron, Aluminium-Silicon,
Aluminium-Manganese, Aluminium-Copper and Aluminium-Titanium-Boron Master Alloys.

Modification of Cast Structure

In unmodified aluminium-silicon alloys, the aluminium-silicon constituent appears as a coarse needle
–like structure as shown in the Fig. 1.

X 50
Fig. 1 Unmodified Structure.

Although modification does not actually refine the grain size of the metal, it does break up this needle-
like structure within the grains and changes it to the fine form as shown in the Fig.2.

42
 X 50
Fig. 2 Modified Structure.

The effect of modification on all the mechanical properties of the alloy is very marked, but is possibly
greatest on the ductility and toughness. The comparison of mechanical properties before and after
modification is given in the table 2.

Melting Procedure in Gas Fired Pit Furnace

• First make charge calculation to find out the weights of master alloys and other additions.
• Weigh the required quantities of the aluminium & its master alloys along with flux and
degasser for the asked weight of heat.
• Clean the pit furnace crucible and remove all the non-metallic inclusions from inner side of the
crucible.
• The dry the crucible by heating it to red hot state.
• Then charge the dry aluminium ingot into the furnace crucible and dust the coverall flux (0.3 -
0.8 %) over it.
• When the charge becomes partially molten (pasty) add master alloys into the furnace and again
dust the coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) on the surface of the charge. Finally add tin in the melt.
• Heat the melt, till the temperature is reached to 720 ºC, then stop heating and remove the slag.
• Then add AlTiB grain refiner (0.1 - 0.5 %) in the melt.
• Wait until the temperature begins to fall then degas the melt by putting the degasser tablet (0.2
- 0.3%) into the melt bottom by perforated bell plunger and withdraw the plunger when
bubbling activity ceases as shown in the Fig 3.

43
 Fig. 3: Degassing operation.

• When there is no visible reaction of degassing withdraw the plunger.

• Then again apply coverall flux (0.3 - 0.8 %) and allow to stand undisturbed for 5 to 10 minutes.
• Finally, rabble the flux into the surface of the melt, as shown in the Fig. 4, until red glowing
dross is obtained. This will produce powdery metal-free dross which is easy to skim away.

Fig. 4: Rabbling of flux.

• Skim dross away and cast the melt into sand molds.

Pouring Temperatures
The following pouring temperatures are usual for castings of varying section poured into sand molds:
• Light Castings ----------- Less than ½ in section ------------- 710 ºC
• Medium Castings-------- Between ½ - 1 ½ in section------- 690 ºC
• Heavy Castings-----------Over 1 ½ in section ----------------- 670 ºC

44
Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen gas in it.

45
Experiment No. 10
Prepare a heat of Copper-Zinc alloy and also perform degassing operations.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Copper Ingot, Zinc, Lead, Tin, Cupro-Nickel, Degassing Tablet (Logas), Copper Phosphorous.

Literature Survey
In the production of copper castings such as blast furnace tuyeres, cylinder heads and miscellaneous
electrical fittings, etc., the ultimate in electrical and thermal conductivity is not always necessary.
Copper of commercial quality is therefore quite adequate for many purposes and it has an advantage
of being not only a less expensive material, but easier to handle in the foundry than the high
conductivity copper.
The term commercial quality copper generally means that up to about 2% of the elements may be
present, tin and/or zinc being the more usual alloying additions. The presence of either of these
elements increases the hardness of copper to a small degree, and this in turn noticeably improves
machinability in contrast to the soft and ductile characteristics of pure copper.
Today there is an increasing tendency for copper alloys to be specified in preference to pure copper
because of their superior mechanical properties. Thus, alloying additions can be made which improves
machinability or strength or hardness without appreciably affecting electrical and thermal properties.
There is also a group of copper alloys with low conductivities properties which contain beryllium as
the principal alloying ingredient, and these are indicated in this collection of data because their melting
points and casting problems are similar to those encountered in the production of high conductivity
copper alloys. Castings of beryllium copper are frequently specified I cases where non-magnetic and
non-sparking properties coupled with very high tensile strength area far more important than high
conductivity.

Effect of Impurities
Sulphur
This element is reported to give little trouble, even when present to the extent of 0.25%. Neither is the
ductility of the copper affected. It has been found however that if cuprous oxide exists in the copper
together with cuprous sulphide, sulphur dioxide is evolved during solidification which can result in
porosity. The melt must therefore be adequately deoxidized as described above.
As little as 0.6 % of iron in copper is sufficient to lower electrical conductivity by about 10 %. On the
other hand deliberate alloying additions of iron, of the order of 2 %, have been shown to raise the tensile
the tensile strength appreciably from14.5 tons/in2 to 22 tons/in2, an increase of 65 %. The element would
not therefore appear to be critical constituent of commercial quality copper.

46
Silicon and Aluminium
The presence of these elements should be avoided as much as possible because both form oxide films
in the molten copper, which are difficult to remove and may form inclusions in the castings, leading to
loss of pressure tightness and poor mechanical properties.
Should either of these elements be present in contaminating amounts (up to around 0.5 %) a treatment
with ELIMINAL flux is recommended. This will effectively remove the contamination by preferential
oxidation and transfer of their oxides to the slag layer.
Bismuth
As little as 0.02 % of bismuth will make copper hot shot so the presence of this element will likely to
leave to hot tears particularly at change of section of if the casting is of complex shape. 0.05 % of bismuth
will reduce the ductility of copper seriously and even 0.002% will produce mark deterioration.
Lead
Lead is insoluble in copper and therefore separates during solidification, forming inter crystalline films
or elongated globules which cause hot shortness. In this respect however, it is not such a detrimental
impurity as bismuth. It would be advisable to restrict lead to about 0.2 % max.
Antimony
Up to 0.5 % may be present before hot shortness becomes noticeable. Increases tensile strength while
elongation is not significantly affected.
The Problem of Hydrogen in Copper
Molten copper will absorb an appreciable amount of hydrogen, the quantity increasing as the
temperature is raised; at a temperature of 100C above its melting point, 100 g of copper of 99.98% purity
will, in fact, hold 10cc hydrogen in solution. Unless most of this is removed it ill subsequently be
explained on the solidification of the casting, casting the feeder head to rise or “back-up”; this, of course,
is anonymous with severe internal porosity.
Blow holes arising from hydrogen evolution are rarely, however, found in practice; more frequently,
they are the result of “steam reaction” due to a reaction between evolved hydrogen and cuprous oxide,
the later constituent being present in the commercial quality copper.
The Problem of Oxygen in Copper
In the absence of the hydrogen, oxygen alone does not lead to gas unsoundness but it does not result
in the formation of cuprous oxide with copper solidifies. The cuprous oxide dissolves and forms a
eutectic of copper and copper oxide, which appears as a separate constituent at the grain boundaries.
In the table 1 some typical features are shown illustrating the downward trend in properties of sand
cast copper as the oxygen content increases; but it should be mentioned that cuprous oxide in the
quantity shown has relatively little influence on conductivity.

Table 1 shows some typical features illustrating the downward trend in properties of sand cast
copper as the oxygen content increases.
Oxygen Tensile Strength Elongation Electrical Conductivity
Content (lb/in2) (% on 2 in.) (as cast) % I.A.C.S
%
0.02 21.700 26 95.4
0.09 16.100 10 94.7
0.12 15.700 11 94.0

47
The Effect of Various Elements on the Conductivity of Copper
Elements which are purposely added to pure copper generally one or both of the following functions:
• deoxidation of the melt,
• production of certain physical properties in the castings which pure copper would not
otherwise possess.

These elements reduce the conductivity of copper by varying degrees, and some are more
harmful than others. Consequently, such additions are carefully chosen whether used to deoxidize or
to modify as-cast properties. Figure 1 shows effect of various elements on electrical conductivity.

Figure 1 shows effect of various elements on electrical conductivity of copper.

Copper zinc alloys with zinc contents less than 20% are usually known as ‘Gilding Metals’ and when
the zinc content exceeds this figure the alloys are generally classified as ‘Brasses’.
When zinc is added to copper there is an increase in strength and hardness, but ductility is reduced
according to the amount of zinc present. This may be seen from the table 2.
The addition of copper to zinc may also have an effect on the microstructure. As will be seen from the
table a copper/zinc alloy containing about 34% of zinc will have a homogeneous microstructure
consisting entirely of an intermetallic constituent known as the alpha phase. When more zinc is added
a second phase known as a beta constituent, begins to appear in the microstructure. The amount
increases with increasing zinc content until at 46 % zinc the microstructure consists entirely of this beta
phase.
Therefore, brasses are often classified according to their microstructures. Those of zinc up to 34 % are
known as alpha brasses whilst within the range of 34 to 46% zinc are contained the alloys with a duplex
structure referred to as alpha-beta brasses. Beyond 46 % zinc he alloys again assume a single-phase

48
solid solution structure and form the series of beta brasses. Actually, the range of beta brass is very
narrow, about 46 to 51% zinc, so that beyond this limit a duplex structure returns and a new gamma
phase makes it appearance.

Table 2 shows mechanical properties of copper-zinc alloys—sand cast

Zinc Alpha Tensile Elongation% Brinell
% % Tons/in 2 Kg/mm 2 on 2" Harness
33.7
100 15.0 23.6 63 55
35.0
88 19.0 30.1 59 59

38.0
75 21.0 33.9 56 64

40.1
69 23.0 36.2 55 72

41.8
55 24.0 38.7 50 80

43.7
14 27. 8 43.8 27 102

45.5
0 30.4 47.9 27 105

Melting Procedure in Gas Fired Pit Furnace

• Pre-heat the crucible to redness.
• Charge copper ingot into the furnace crucible. The ingot must be cleaned and dried.
• Add the coproflux (1 %) on the charge and melt the charge as rapidly as possible under
neutral or slight reducing conditions. This will minimize oxidation during melting.
• When the charge becomes molten, add the remaining alloying element in the melt and also add
coproflux (1 %) on the charge.
• Raise the temperature of melt to 1250 ºC. Ensure that the pyrometer is accurate, and that the
thermocouple is coated with a protective dressing.
• At this stage turn off the fuel and degas the melt with the crucible still in the furnace.
• Plunge the degassing tablet (Logas) into the melt by means of a forked rod plunger as shown
in the figure 1. The tools must first be pre-heated and coated with refractory dressing to avoid
pick-up of iron by the melt.

49
 Fig. 1 shows degassing operation.

• Remove the degasser plunger carefully, remembering that it an easily be damaged whilst hot.
• Then add Copper Phosphorous to the melt for deoxidation of melt.
• Commence to pour, employing temperature ranging from 1100 ºC to 1200 ºC depending on the
section thickness.
• Bring the metal up to pouring temperature and avoid overheating. When the metal is ready
for pouring, the moulds should be ready to receive it.
• Recommended pouring temperatures are as shown in the table 3 although these of course can
be varied quiet considerably by variations in casting and/or running system design.

Table 3 shows the Pouring Temperatures of various brass alloys.

Under
½ to 1 ½" Over 1 ½"
½"
Section Section
Section
60/40 - 65/35 alloys 1100 1050 1020
70/30 - 80/20 alloys 1150 1100 1070
85/15 - 90/10 alloys 1190 1150 1110

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen and oxygen
gases in it.

50
Experiment No. 11
Prepare a heat of Copper-Tin alloy and also perform degassing operations.

Equipment
Pit furnace, thermocouple with digital indicator, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw,
personal protective equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Copper Ingot, Zinc, Lead, Tin, Cupro-Nickel, Degassing Tablet (Logas), Copper Phosphorous.

Literature Survey
The original bronze alloys were of copper based with tin as a major alloying element. There is now such
a wide variety of bronzes and gun metals that, although copper is always the main constituent and tin
is present it is frequently accompanied by an equal or higher ratio of zing and lead. These notes are not
concerned wit phosphor bronze or high lead bronzes.
In the past, certain bronze compositions have been special names as the following examples:

Admiralty 88/10/2 Copper-Tin-Zinc

Bell Metal 88/2 Copper-Tin
Bearing Bronze 80/10/10 Copper-Tin-Lead
Speculum Metal 63/34 Copper-Tin
Coin Bronze 95/4/1 Copper-Tin-Zinc
Statuary Bronze 88/6/5/1 Copper-Tin-Zinc-Lead
Ounce Metal; Red Brass 85/5/5/5 Copper-Tin-Zinc-Lead

SPECIFICATION
Nowadays it is customary to identify the different bronze compositions by reference to standard-to-
standard specifications. Each specification has an abbreviated annotation which enables this to be done
conveniently. See table 1 below for typical, current standard specifications used in Great Britain;
specifications used in other countries are, in general, quite similar.

51
Table 1 shows Current British Standard Specifications of Bronze alloys.
Fe
Bs. 1400 Other
Cu Sn Zn Pb P Ni Fe Al Mn Sb As Sb
1969 s
As
Group A Alloys in common use
LB2.
9.0- 8.5-
80/10/10/1 Bal. 1.0 0.1 2.0 0.15 0.01 - 0.5 - - Si 0.02
11.0 11.0
0
LB4.
Bal. 4-6 2 8-10 0.1 2.0 - - - 0.5 - - Si 0.02
85/5/0/10
LG2. Si 0.02
Bal. 4-6 4-6 4-6 - 2.0 - 0.01 - - - 0.50
85/5/5/5 Bi0.05
LG4. 1.5- 2.5- Si 0.01
Bal. 6-8 - 2.0 0.20 0.01 - 0.25 - 0.4
87/7/3/3 3.0 3.5 Bi 0.05
Group B Special Purpose Alloys
CTI 90/10
Bal. 9-11 0.05 0.25 0.15 0.25 - - - - - - -
copper tin
LG1. 2- 7.0- Si 0.02
Bal. 4-6 - 2.0 - 0.01 - - - 0.75
83/3/9/5 3.5 9.5 Bi 0.10
Group C Alloys in Limited Production
1.75
9.5- Si 0.02
G1 88/10/2 Bal. - 1.5 - 1.0 0.15 0.01 - - - 0.20
10.5 Bi 0.03
2.75
G3 Nickel 0.10 5.25
6.5- 1.5- Si 0.01
G3WP Bal. - 0.02 - - 0.01 0.20 - - 0.20
7.5 3.0 Bi 0.02
gun metal 0.50 5.75

Melting Procedure in Gas Fired Pit Furnace

• Pre-heat the crucible to redness.
• Charge copper ingot into the furnace crucible. The ingot must be cleaned and dried.
• Add the coproflux (1 %) on the charge and melt the charge as rapidly as possible under
neutral or slight reducing conditions. This will minimize oxidation during melting.
• When the charge becomes molten, add the remaining alloying element in the melt and also add
coproflux (1 %) on the charge.
• Raise the temperature of melt to 1250 ºC. Ensure that the pyrometer is accurate and that the
thermocouple is coated with a protective dressing.
• At this stage turn off the fuel and degas the melt with the crucible still in the furnace.
• Plunge the degassing tablet (Logas) into the melt by means of a forked rod plunger as shown
in the figure 1. The tools must first be pre-heated and coated with refractory dressing to avoid
pick-up of iron by the melt.

52
 Fig. 1 shows degassing operation

• Remove the degasser plunger carefully, remembering that it an easily be damaged whilst hot.
• Then add Copper Phosphorous to the melt for deoxidation of melt.
• Commence to pour, employing temperature ranging from 1100 ºC to 1200 ºC depending on the
section thickness.
• Bring the metal up to pouring temperature and avoid overheating.
• Molten bronze should never be held in furnace waiting for moulds to be ready; the moulds
must be prepared in advance to receive the metal as soon as its melting and fluxing treatment
is completed.

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of hydrogen and oxygen
gases in it.

53
Experiment No. 12
Prepare a heat of Grey Cast iron using induction furnace.

Equipment
Induction furnace, pyrometer, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw, personal protective
equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Steel scrap, Ferro-alloys, CaCO3 (or fluorspar) flux, Graphite (carbon) etc.

Melting procedure
• Charge half of the steel scrap in the furnace and start melting.
• When the melting starts, add CaCO3 flux (0.002%) into the furnace to form basic slag.
• Remove the first formed slag and take a sample for chemical analysis, added carbon if required.
• Add remaining scrap in the furnace and again put CaCO3 flux into the furnace for second slag
formation.
• Remove the second slag and perform the chemical analysis of the heat again.
• Check the temperature of the heat before pouring into ladle by a pyrometer; it should be around
1700 ºC. At correct temperature pour the melt into the ladle.
• Make the additions of necessary ferro-alloys and carbon into the heat in ladle.
• After doing additions perform nitrogen/argon gas purging to homogenize the composition and
degassing of the melt.
• Now pour the heat into the ingot moulds.

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of oxygen gas in it.

54
Experiment No. 13
Prepare a heat of AISI 1030 Steel using end cuts of rolling mills in induction furnace.

Equipment
Induction furnace, pyrometer, foundry tools, weighing balance, power hacksaw, personal protective
equipment (PPE) etc.

Materials
Steel scrap, Ferro-alloys, CaCO3 (or fluorspar) flux, Graphite (carbon) etc.

Melting procedure
• Charge half of the steel scrap in the furnace and start melting.
• When the melting starts, add CaCO3 flux (0.002%) into the furnace to form basic slag.
• Remove the first formed slag and take a sample for chemical analysis, added carbon if required.
• Add remaining scrap in the furnace and again put CaCO3 flux into the furnace for second slag
formation.
• Remove the second slag and perform the chemical analysis of the heat again.
• Check the temperature of the heat before pouring into ladle by a pyrometer; it should be around
1700 ºC. At correct temperature pour the melt into the ladle.
• Make the additions of necessary ferro-alloys and carbon into the heat in ladle.
• After doing additions perform nitrogen/argon gas purging to homogenize the composition and
degassing of the melt.
• Now pour the heat into the ingot moulds.

Precautions:
• Use personal protective equipment (PPE); safety shoes, safety glasses, helmet and leather
gloves etc.
• Dry all the tools before putting into melt in furnace.
• Avoid overheating of the melt, as it will cause excessive dissolution of oxygen gas in it.

55