ECCLESIA THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE AND SEMINARY

Accredited by Asia Theological Association bearing Regd. No. H/RS-2213

Darogajan, Dimapur-797116, Nagaland, North East India
First Semester for the Academic Session 2022-2023

Lecturer: Anika Sumi

Class: B.Th. II
Course: Introduction to Christian Ethics

Course Objectives
 To help the student to understand the foundation of Ethics.
 To help the students to understand the interrelationship between ethics and Bible, ethics
and theology.
 To equip the students to ethical discernment and praxis through introducing
methodological guidelines such as modes of ethical discourses, a survey of sources and
the like.
 To challenge the students to enter into a deeper engagement with contemporary realities
with a commitment to interpret and to change those realities through ethical reflections
and praxis.
Course Requirements

Final Examination 60%

Internal Assessment 40%

Unit I: Introduction

1. What is Christian Ethics?

2. Definitions
3. Morality and Ethics
4. Secularization and Modernity
5. Philosophy and Ethics
Unit II: Bible and Ethics
1. Ethical Reflections on Biblical Themes
2. Message of the prophets
3. The Ethical Perspectives of Jesus
4. Pauline Ethical Approach
Unit III: Methodological Issues in Christian Ethics
1. Deontological
2. Teleological
3. Responsibility
 4. Liberation
Unit IV: Bio Ethics
1. Bioethical Issues
(a) Abortion
(b) Euthanasia
(c) Suicide

Unit V: Select Christian Ethicists

1. M.M Thomas
2. K C Abraham
3. Paul Lehman
4. Reinhold Niebuhr
5. H Richard Niebuhr
6. Stanley Haverwas

Unit I: Introduction
 1. What is Christian Ethics?

According to Wayne Grudem, Christian Ethics is any study that answers the question, “what
does the whole Bible teach us about which acts, attitudes, and personal character traits receive
God’s approval, and which do not?” this definition indicates that, the study of Christian ethics is
the study of God-centered and Bible centered.

2. Definitions
Before defining the definition of Ethics it is very important to know what Ethics is. Ethics is the
science of human conduct. It is the study of human conduct and values. Ethics is the science of
customs or habits. It is the science of the habitual conduct of people. Ethics is the science
because it aims at systematic explanation of rightness and wrongness or our voluntary actions in
the light of the highest good of man. The aim of ethics is to define the nature of the highest
good of man as person in the society. Ethics evaluates the voluntary actions and habitual
actions of persons and considers their rightness and wrongness.

According to J.S. Mackenzie, ethics is the study of what is right or good in human conduct.
According to Sinha, it is concerned with judgments upon conduct, its rightness and wrongness.
Thomas Kadankavil states that good life is the goal of ethics. He continues to state that good life
is the goal of ethics. Anything good is perceived at first as value. Value is something which
refers to the worthiness of being. Anything that is good or useful for life is regarded as valuable.

3. Morality and Ethics

Ethics comes from the Greek word Ethos meaning custom or behavior and morality comes from
the Latin word ‘mos’ or ‘mores’ meaning character or conduct. Ethics deals with the
foundational aspect behavior rather than the personal moral behavior. Ethics is not merely
dealing with the dos and don’ts but it analyses things and provides ethical response. Ethics
reminds about responsibilities, responsible human beings i.e. serving others, caring for others.
Christian Ethics is always responding to oppressive elements. It has a prophetic role.
Morality deals with the norms, principles and rules of behavior, human conduct, feelings and
judgments which express the normative regulation of people’s relations with each other and
with social entities (class, nation, society).

4. Secularization and Modernity

The world is undergoing rapid changes because of technological development. It is getting
sensitive to the values of being secular. Obviously we are being influenced and affected by the
forces of these changes. Modernization is taking place because of development of science and
technology. People are migrating from rural to urban places, because more modern facilities are
available in urban areas. In urban areas there is an admixture of cultures and conflict of values.
There is no monoculture in the city. Different communities are coming to the cities from
different social, religious, cultural and linguistic backgrounds. They think differently and act
differently. There are different cultures and cultural values. There are cultural differences.
Culture is also undergoing changes so also the values.

Tribal communities have their own lifestyle. There is no much individualism among them.
Because of interaction between communities a new value system emerges in the urban set-up.
Because of these reason autonomy is created by persons because of secularization. The values
are eroded because of the influence of secularization.

In earlier days human beings were at the centre; now human beings are no longer at the centre.
Now market economy is at the centre. Economic structure is controlling our values. Value
system is undergoing changes. Science and technology controls human values. Those who have
money are on the top, others have no value. The post-modern thinking is also part of
secularization of values. Human beings are no more central.

The present context is undergoing tremendous changes because of several factors like
urbanization, westernization, transportation facilities, media and science and technology.

5. Philosophy and Ethics

Historically ethics is an integral part of philosophy. Philosophy means a world-view and

philosophers have their own world-views. There are different perceptions of the world.
Morality or ethics also depend on how a person perceives the world. The ethics is also shaped
by the perceptions of the world or world-view depending on the being of the person.
Philosophies have no consistent view on ethics. Immanuel Kant’s view is quite different from
existential view. For Kant the duty is very important. Decisions are made on the situations by
persons according to their own will. Existentialism is more humanistic.

There are different philosophical thoughts:

1. Utilitarianism: the basic understanding, is what is useful. The moral questions or

judgments are based on the question, what is useful. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart
Mill uphold utilitarianism.
2. Pragmatism: William James supports pragmatism. ‘what is practical’ is the key idea
behind pragmatism. It is concerned with facts and consequence.
3. Positivism: the important thing is what is observable. ‘Believe in only what can be
observed is affirmed.’
4. Existentialism: it emphasizes freedom. Each existential moment is important. “Man is
condemned to be free” says Jean Paul Sartre. One’s life is not meaningful, if it
depends on others. Man is at the centre. Man is sensible enough to take decisions.
 Unit II: Bible and Ethics
1. Ethical Reflections on Biblical Themes
According to Chris Wright, in the Old Testament ethics and theology are inseparable. The OT
ethics is based on Israel’s understanding of God-Yahwism. It is based on what Yahweh offers.
God acts and we are to respond. God takes initiative to redeem and we are to live in the light of
his commands. The faith of the people of Israel is on God. Israel history is a liberative history.
Israel’s keeping of god’s commandment/law was meant to be a response to what God had
already done. Ethics is basically walking in God’s way (Deut. 10:12-19, 15:15).
i. The Law: the law is common in the Semitic world-ancient near East or modern West
Asia. There are several codes. To the law codes of Israelites, Decalogue (Exo. 20) is the
key. However, the law becomes inhuman because they are used irresponsible by the
people. Law is provided for guidance of the community, and it is given to have harmony,
love, justice and human relationships. Some laws are based on issues. This is known as
case laws. There can be also commands which cannot be changed. This is called
apodictic law, permanent law. For example, love your God and love your neighbor. That
is the essence of all the law, as religion is to uphold love. Only when we love others that
we exercise law. Law is a normative element. It is a norm and science of conduct. Law
for law’s sake is not adequate.
ii. Covenant: Covenant is a contract/ treaty between two parties. The Hebrew word Berith
means breaking the covenant. Israel’s covenant is with God, the liberator. According to
Anthony Ceresko, covenant means to be faithful to each other. The covenant is to care for
the weak, marginalized people, sojourners, orphans and widows (Exo. 22:22f, 23:5, 9). It
was also concerned of the rights of the slaves (Exo. 21:2f). According to Von Rad, OT
covenant law of Israel is for the poor, slaves, strangers. The prophets stress clearly that
the God of Israel watches particularly over the rights of those who have no property and
to whom justice is denied.

Different Covenants which God made with his people

a. Covenant with Noah (Gen. 6:18-21, 8:21-9:17): The covenant with Noah is
universal. It talks about God’s grace that is available to all. This is a commitment
by God to all living creatures. It affirms preservation, which is ecologically
conscious covenant. It is inclusive of nature as God is everyone.
b. Covenant with Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3, 15:1-21, 17:1-27): the covenant with
Abraham too is universal. This is a blessing to all ethnic groups. This blessing is
related to gospel i.e. all communities will be blessed by the gospel of Jesus Christ
(Gal. 3:16). This is one of the echoes of the covenant.
c. Sinai Covenant (Exo. 19:3-16): here the covenant is national. It speaks about what
God has promised to Abraham. God promises the land to them. God’s relationship
with people is renewed. The duty is to love God and love neighbor (Deut. 6:5).

2. Message of the Prophets

The prophet is the spokesman of God. The one, who challenges the social order, brings
new values and a counter culture.
 i. Isaiah: Hassel Bullock refers to him as a bright star of eight century. His
prophetic activity started in the last year of Uzziah (740 BC). Isaiah was
concerned with the divine law. For Isaiah, the administration of justice displays
man’s attitude to God (1:26, 11: 3ff). He criticized bribery which was prevalent
in every sphere of life (5:20-23). There was moral bankruptcy (5:8-23) i.e. the
morality of the people. The people were corrupt. They were violating the
commandments of God. They were disobedient, disloyal, going away from God.
It also deals with exploitation, i.e. robbing the poor (10:1-4, 11:1-9) and God’s
rule of justice.
ii. Jeremiah: he was called a prophet in the year 627-626 BC. He announces that
disaster is coming from the north upon Israel which has forsaken the worship of
Yahweh and given itself up to the worship of Baal. People forsook Yahweh and
were unfaithful. He announces the impending judgment (2:14-19). He indicates
the enormity of Judah’s offences and exhorts to repent. The people are
condemned as those who violated the Decalogue (7:1-15).there is a definite call
to return to God and renewal (18:1ff, 31:31-4). Obedience to divine will is
stressed by the prophet. It is a demand for the restoration of covenant-
relationship with God.
iii. Amos: Amos was the prophet of social justice. He prophesied in the eight
century. His prophetic activity was during the reigns of Uzziah and Jeroboam
(767-753 BC). He challenged the injustices in the court (5:10-12), fraud in the
market place (8:4-6) and the luxury of the people (3:15, 4:1, 6:4). Israel was
idolatrous and immoral (2:6-16). The cult became a place of corruption (3:9-19,
5:1, 14). Justice was nowhere to be found. The prophet urged for justice to roll
like river (5:24).
iv. Micah: He was an eight-century prophet like Hosea. He was well aware of the
social, religious and political movements of eight century. He demanded moral
obedience from the people of the covenant (6:6-8). He asserted the importance of
justice (3:1, 9). The rich used false weights and measures to deceive the poor
(6:9ff). Even the priests were involved in shedding blood (3:10; 7:2). The ruling
class did not follow justice. Micah proclaims a God who upholds justice (3:11).
God will judge those who accumulate wealth by unjust means (3:9-12). There is
prophecy of doom and also the restoration (5:1-10). He also condemned the
people for ignoring the demands of righteousness (2:1f; 6:1f).
v. Zephaniah: it is believed that Zephaniah prophesied before Josiah’s reform of
621 BC. He was focusing on the moral decay in the period of Manasseh’s reign.
He was aware of the injustices (3:3-4) and conscious of God’s dispensation of
justice (3:5). He prophesied the day of the Lord (2:3),, which gives hope to those
who obey God’s commandments and judgment to the unrighteous.

3. The Ethical Perspectives of Jesus

Jesus’ ethical teaching is found in the Sermon on the Mount and in the Gospels. They are
the Kingdom of God, the law and Jesus and the Sermon on the Mount.

i. Kingdom of God and Ethics of Jesus: the kingdom of God is the key concept to
the understanding of Jesus’ preaching, theology and ethics. Some of the phrases like ‘the
kingdom of God is at hand,’ ‘the kingdom of God is in our midst’ and ‘enter into the
Kingdom of God.’ Different scholars differ in this issue. Harnack believed that for Jesus
the Kingdom of God is not only in heaven, but also in the hearts of people. Harnack
opined that the Kingdom of God is present everywhere where love is exercised, selfless
love that serves. For Harnack the gospel is ‘profoundly individualistic’ since soul is of
infinite independent value and at the same time the gospel is ‘profoundly socialistic’
since we are asked to love our neighbor as ourselves. For Bultmann, Jesus’ ethics is an
ethics of obedience. He also calls this decision ‘radical obedience.’ This radical
obedience, Jesus demands involves in his relation not only with man but also with his
neighbor.

According to C.H. Dodd, the Kingdom of God was not going to come in the future; it had
already come. According to Heirs, “Dodd sees all the eschatological events present in
Jesus’ ministry: the appearance (parousia) of the Messiah, the coming the Kingdom, and
the time of judgment. In his view, for Jesus the Kingdom means God’s reign, reigning in
the hearts of people, and reigning in the whole sphere of their outward life as well,
individual and cooperate. In the words of Warren Kissinger, man is called to see first
God’s kingdom which is the place of eternal happiness promised to human beings. God’s
kingdom is the kingdom of righteousness. Ritchls’ view of the Kingdom of God is more
socially oriented. It is concerned with man’s working with Jesus to usher in the moral life
in society.
ii. Sermon on the Mount: Ethical Significance
(a) General comments about Jesus’ ethics
Leo Tolstoy was impressed by the teachings of Christ concerning love, meekness,
humility, self-renunciation and retribution of evil and good. According to Martin Dibelius,
Jesus’ teachings have an eschatological background including the Sermon on the Mount.
T.W. Manson in his book; Ethics and the Gospel’ presented four keys to Jesus’ ethics:

1. It is not merely ideal: it is an act and deed. It is the way Jesus carried out his mission
on earth.
2. It goes beyond the requirement of the existing Hebrew-Jewish code by requiring a
more complete love of neighbor than is involved in loving him as I love myself.
3. It does not abrogate the old standards. Jesus showed it in thought, word and deed what
was meant by loving one’s neighbor.
4. Jesus stressed the inward of action, as against Judaism which was concerned merely
with outward acts.
 (b) An Analysis of the Sermon on the Mount: Various views and meaning
(1) Various views:
Saint Augustine referred the Sermon on the Mount as the perfect measure of the Christian life.
August Thouluck believes that the Sermon on the Mount was addressed primarily to the
disciples and secondarily to the people; Christ object, for him in giving the sermon was to set
an example as the fulfiller of the law and to enunciate the Magna Carta of his new kingdom. In
the book ‘Jesus the Messiah’ William Manson says that the Sermon on the Mount must be
interpreted in the context of grace. The Sermon begins with the theme of the gospel or grace in
the Beatitudes. The fact that the kingdom of heaven is promised to the poor, the sorrowful, the
hungry shows the emphasis of grace.

A.M. Hunter says that there are three qualities which make the Sermon on the Mount unique;
its essential morality, its inwardness, and its universality. He examines the Sermon on the
Mount in four ways (i) it is religious ethics rooted in the good news of the Kingdom of God as
a present reality, (ii) it is disciple’s ethic-it is addressed to the twelve disciples and to the wider
community of Jesus’ followers, (iii) it is prophetic ethic- it is not legalistic-Jesus enunciates the
ideals and aims that ought to govern the lives of people who are living in the new order of
grace (iv) it is an unattainable ethic-the kind of people we ought to be; how Christians should
live socially.
2. The Meaning
The Gospel of Matthew chapter 5-7 is about the Sermon on the Mount. The following is an
explanation of the Sermon on the Mount.
(a) The Beatitudes (Mt. 5:3-12)
The Beatitudes portray the human misery and God’s remedy. It is an assurance that God
will take care of the people who are struggling in various ways. The poverty and
persecution, the purity of heart and peacemaking, and even the mourning are the main
concerns. Bonhoeffer comments on the “Blessed are the poor in spirit” said, “they have no
security, no possession to call their own, not even a foot of earth to call their own, no
earthly society to claim their absolute allegiance.” For him, the ‘mourning’ ones are victims
of misantrophy and the ‘meek’ are those who never go to law to defend their rights or make
a scene when they suffer injustice, nor do they insist on their legal rights. According to
Hendrickx, “God undertakes to guarantee the right of persons who cannot protect
themselves by their own means and cannot count on anybody else to find their rights.”
(b) The Salt and Light (Mt. 5:13-16)
The disciples were asked to function as salt and light in the society. The salt can preserve
things, so also we should preserve people from injustice, exploitation and suppression. The
society should not be polluted by corruption. The light denotes transparency, so it our
responsibility to bring into light what is unrighteousness, corruption and evil.

(c) Jesus and the Law (Mt. 5:17-20)

 Jesus said that he came to fulfill the law. He reinterpreted the law in order to eradicate evil.
He challenged the existing law on Sabbath. There are elements of continuity and
discontinuity in Jesus’ attitude towards the law of Moses. He never disregarded, but obeyed
the law (Mt. 17:27, 23:23; Mark 14:12). He rejected the scribal interpretations of the law
(Mk. 2:23-28, 3:1-16; Lk. 13:10-21, 14:1-24).

(d) The various other issues (Mt. 5:21-7:29)

Jesus was against hypocrisy with regard to fasting and prayer. He was also against revenge,
curse, divorce and lustful look. The Sermon on the Mount is applicable to all. According to
Dibelius, Jesus taught the pure, unconditioned will of God without compromise. Law
condemned murder, but Jesus condemned even revenge and anger.

4. Jesus’ Ethics in the Gospels

According to James Gustafson, the gospels can be related to morality in three important
ways. (i) they can be interpreted to provide a theological justification for the moral life-
morality of love, self service, obligation to God and man (2) they interpret moral life to
provide moral commands, rules and principles to be applied to particular moral acts (3)
Gospels interprets moral life to influence the development of the “sort of persons”
members of the community became and the impact that the gospels have on the
foundation of the agent, the person, who acts.
(a) An Analysis of various issues
1. Love: Jesus teachings in regard to love our neighbor as ourselves means helping the
neighbor who is in need. According to Paul Ramsey, “Jesus’ actions and teachings
may be described as following from an orientation which valued the needs of the
neighbor above all else.” In Luke chapter 10:25ff, Jesus gives an example of true
love through a parable. Pannenberg says that if we participate in the love of God,
we participate in the dynamics that make for unity, especially for the unity by which
humankind is joined in the common quest for the highest good. The ‘agape’ or
selfless love should be reflected towards fellow people- in their suffering, poverty,
exploitation and injustice.
2. Forgiveness: the forgiveness theme is seen in the Lord’s Prayer. The parable of the
unforgiving servant is a good example (Mt. 18:21-35). It teaches us that if we
receive forgiveness we should forgive others (Lk. 19:1-10).
3. Divorce: For Jesus, even the lustful eye is an act of adultery. Divorce is not
tolerated or permitted unless there is a serious violation of faithfulness within the
marriage (Mt. 19:1ff).
4. Taxes: We are to obey the government and rules. Jesus was very strict in keeping it
as he paid the tax (Mt17:24-27). The famous words of Jesus affirms it, “render unto
Caesar what is Caesar’s and render unto God what is God’s.” we are responsible to
perform the duties as responsible citizens of a country.
 5. The aspect of Liberation: the message of the kingdom of God is the message of
liberation. Jesus challenged the oppressive structures (Lk. 4:6-21). Jesus knew that
the socio-economic and political structure and even the religious structure was
oppressive. He healed the people on the Sabbath day; he loved the sinners and
prostitutes; he challenged the Pharisees and scribes calling them hypocrites. He
cared for the people by providing for their physical needs such as food. The
publicans and Gentiles were accepted by Jesus. The women were also liberated.
The holistic liberation is proclaimed by Jesus.

The teaching of Jesus has a permanent value and relevance. It is for the well being of others
and it stands as a standard for all humanity. The ethics of Jesus has in focus a community of
everyone who can function as one in order to accomplish the perfect will of God on earth.

5. Pauline Ethical Approach

1. Law and Freedom
Jesus’ ethics aimed at freedom. Law symbolizes bondage and gospel, grace and
freedom. Paul believed that Jesus modified the law. The essence of law is love (Gal.
5:1). The freedom of the spirit is found in Paul. F.F. Bruce calls Paul, apostle of free
spirit. Joseph Pathrapankal said “the indispensable condition for being under the
authority of the spirit is what Paul calls the freedom in the spirit.” He said “freedom
means responsibility and responsibility means the ability to respond to the authority
of the spirit.” The main emphasis of Paul is responsibility. He upholds responsible
freedom.
2. Reconciling Spirit in Paul.
Paul looks forward to harmonious society through Christ. He uses the word righteousness,
vertically and horizontally i.e. reconciling to God and to human beings (Romans 5:11, 2 Cor.
5:18, 19). Reconciliation is God’s humanity which promises forgiveness and restoration. He was
proposing two things. (1) The new creation or renewal (2 Cor. 5:17) (2) a new humanity or new
community. A community which belongs to all groups of people. It transcends social
classification, the rich and the poor, master and slave. It looks for cosmic reconciliation, that is
everything on earth and heaven will be reconciled by Christ (Col. 1:20, 21).
Paul looks for personal changes, social transformation and also cosmic transformation.
Reconciliation challenges hostility between God and human beings, the Jews and non-Jews, the
dividing wall of master and slave and the hostility between men and women (Gal. 3:28; 1 Cor.
12:13; Col. 3:10, 11). Joseph Pathrapankal said, “all have equal rights, equal responsibilities and
the discrimination once practiced on racial, social and sexual grounds are abolished once for all.”
There is a cosmic reconciliation in Paul. (Rom. 8:19-25). Paul has a unified vision. He stood for
the dignity and rights of women, slaves and the poor.

3. Indicative and Imperative in Paul

There is a close link between theology and ethics in Pauline perspective. Indicative is the new
life in Christ through the cross. Imperative is the ne wlife that has to be continually manifested
and worked out by the believer. Indicative is the religious or theological element and imperative
is the ethical element.
Indicative involves faith, worship, and salvation. Imperative includes conduct, moral judgments.
For Bultmann there seems to be an inner unity between indicative and imperative which is
reflected in love. Paul gives importance to both indicative and imperative in his writings.

Unit III: Methodological Issues in Christian Ethics

1. Deontological
The deontological ethics is rule oriented ethics or it is a duty oriented ethics. It is based on
traditional rules and regulations, which exist in the society. The main question is what is
right? There are some rules and regulation like honoring the elders or certain do’s and don’ts
prevalent in the society. In Indian situation we talk about dharma which holds people together.
There is kuladharma, caste duty and svadharma or personal duties. Taking care of parents is
Svadharma. Svadharma is an essential part of our life.
Deontological ethics is very much rooted in natural law i.e. reason. If one maintains that
homosexuality or murder is wrong and if asked to give a reason, a deontological response
shall be “because it is the law of nature” or “because it is against God’s will,” amounting to
“breaking the 6th commandment” or that it is simply wrong. Some laws are given, which
everybody has to obey. For example, general principles like ‘do not harm.’ Deontological
theory or moral obligation says actions are right if we fulfill our duty and wrong if we do not.
There are rigid rules among Catholics. They are strong deontological in character. The Papal
encyclical ‘Humanae Vitae’ means human life. ‘Humanae Vitae’ deals with control. The
question is whether we can use artificial devices like sterilization to control birth. The
Catholics say ‘no,’ as for them it is related to sanctity of life. The rules of natural law cannot
be practiced in all contexts as it is rigid.
Adolf Eichmann, the Nazi war criminal killed millions of Jews during world war II. He was
called Hitler’s technician of death. He promoted the gas chamber. He said “obeying an order
was more important to me. It could be that is in nature of the German.” Deontological ethics is
not concerned with the consequence of a decision, i.e. whether that will bring good or that will
negatively affect a person. Principles are important, but should not be applied legalistically.

2. Teleological Ethics
Telos means the aim or goal. It is goal-centred ethics. What is good is the main question. The
critical question is whose goodness? It is related to Aristotelian thinking. He talks about a
total good. The goal is ultimate happiness. To put it in simple terms, it is linked to “Be
Good/do Good” so one may receive some reward either in the present or future; such as
reward may be in the form of happiness in the more form of an earthly utopia or of a
transcendent eternal life.
Aristotelian ethics is understood as practical science. The goals of the state reflect the goals of
an individual citizen. Every member is supposed to act for the good of the society or state.
Women should be educated for the maximum good of the state. Epicurian thinking is pleasure
seeking, based on the dictum “eat, drink and tomorrow you will die.”
In the Christian point of view Kingdom of God is the aim. The traditional thinking is seek
good and avoid evil.

3. Responsibility
In one way Responsibility is contextual ethics. It was proposed by Richard Niebuhr.
Ethics helps us to understand ourselves as responsible beings. His questions were what is
going on in the world? What is God doing? What am I to do? God is acting all the time.
The response is shaped by what is going on in the situation. Responsibility ascribes that
everybody is dutiful. For example, Jesus Christ was a responsible person. He interpret the
situation and gets response. According to Niebuhr there are three types of man’s
responses:
(1) Man, the maker can reject materials that do not fit his purpose. He could creatively
respond.
(2) Man, the citizen is always under the law and he/ she is controlled by the rules of the
society. He/ she acts according to the law. There is no much freedom he/ she can
enjoy.
 (3) Man, the answerer is always engaged in dialogue. Man respons to situations. This is
where the question of responsible self comes. So the responsible man is dialogical
man. Dialogical man has interaction with his context. Along with the responsibility
there is accountability. He should be responsible for the decision he/she takes.

4. Liberation Ethics

The main aim of liberation ethics is liberation or structural transformation. It emerged from
the colonial or imperial context. The whole issue emerged from Latin American/ South
American context. It was a context of extreme colonialism. For nearly 600 years they were
colonized by Western forces. They underwent extreme poverty. As the resources were
exploited the natives became poor. There was exploitation and oppression. It was a political
and economic oppression.

The Christians gathered around which is known as ‘basic Christian communities.’ They
asked the question what God would do in their particular situation or what the Bible said.
From the Bible, they come to the answer that God is a liberating God and he sides with the
poor. He does have solidarity with the poor. They even see God and Jesus as the liberator.
They interpret the text from their own experience of poverty and oppression. They examined
Exodus and observed that God is actively involved in liberating activity. The Nazareth
manifesto (Lk. 4:16-21) also speaks about the liberation. Liberation ethics is life centred or
life affirming ethics. This is the struggle between life and death.

The father of liberation theology is Gustavo Gutierrez. His well known book is ‘A Theology
of Liberation.’ In his book he mentioned that to know God as liberator is to liberate, that is to
do justice. Liberation theology is the theology of people. It is the ongoing struggle of the
oppressed. God’s justice is emphasized in Gustavo’s theology and ethics.

Unit IV: Bio Ethics

1. Bioethical Issues
1. Abortion
Understanding the Terminology of Abortion
Abortion: the term abortion consists of two Latin phrases. ‘Ab’ meaning ‘off’ or ‘away’
‘Oriri’ meaning ‘to be born,’ the term means ‘birth miscarriage.’ Abortion can be
spontaneous (Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion and pregnancy loss, is the
natural death of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently) and induced
(the terminology of pregnancy using drugs or surgical intervention after implantation and
before the embryo of fetus has become independently viable. It is also called an artificial or
therapeutic abortion). It is an act of bringing forth or terminating the life of a baby in the
womb of the mother. It is a term referring to the destruction of the unborn fetus/foetus or
embryo in the womb or the extraction of the immature child from the womb in order to end
its life. Abortion is understood as a moral issue because there are conflicts of values and
rights in the scenario from which it emerges. Abortion is recognized as ending pregnancy
before the fetus develops adequately to survive separately (fetus less than 20 weeks of
pregnancy).
2. Abortion: Pro Life and Pro Choice
Pro Lifers Stance on Abortion
Pro-Lifers opposed abortion because they think it is destruction to human existence, it is not
just abortion but human life. The Pro-Life Movement affirms the significance from a moral
position that ending life is always incorrect, particularly an unborn baby’s innocent life.
This movement claimed that life starts at conception and therefore abortion is morally
wrong at any stage of pregnancy. The Bible teaches that in the image of God every human
being is made, and the sixth commandment forbids killing.

Pro-Choice stance on Abortion

Pro-Choice consider abortion as the only manner to regulate population growth. They claim
in the interests of women health and saving the mother’s life. Abortion is essential.
According to Functionalism (theory about the nature of mental states), a foetus is not an
individual. Only when an individual starts to behave as an intellectual, spiritual and moral
being then she/he is a human being. Human beings have the right to life if they can only
behave with self-awareness and private thinking. The ‘Pro-Choice’ Movement is typically,
regarded as the ‘secular liberal’ side of the destruction with the principle that females must
be given the authority and the right to decide what happens to their own bodies.

Abortion as Christian Ethics

Abortion is one of the moral issues among the Christians today which need a critical
reflection in decision making whether one can kill the fetus. In this regard, the Catholics
apply the traditional concept of “do not harm” and argues that life is given by God and that
no one has the right to take one’s life. Although the Bible does not specifically states that the
fetus is a person, and one should not abort, it clearly prohibits the killing of innocent life in
the sixth commandment that one should not murder (Exod. 20:13). There is a further
argument that the fetus in the womb is potentially human. God is actively involved in
fashioning the unborn and thus deeply cares about the unborn (Jeremiah 1:5; Psalms 136:16).
Therefore from the Biblical perspective abortion is seen as unjustified.

Pro Choice advocates women’s freedom of choice. They say that women have every right to
choose her will and that no one has the right to control over her body. Basing on this notion,
most of the women go for abortion. However, in the deep sense it is not actually her will,
rather others are controlling her—“what others will say or think,” or “others will not accept
me.” Such factors leave her with no choice but to abort. Thus pro choice view of freedom of
choice does not find reliable.

Christian Ethics is based on God’s will and command. According to Dietrich Bonhoeffer,
“the embryo’s existence is itself evidence of God’s intention to create a human being and that
the embryo’s right to life is therefore divinely bestowed, and that any deliberate deprivation
of it is nothing but murder.” Therefore as responsible individuals, one must not just sit back
and talk about such issues but get involved in spreading awareness about the actual meaning
of abortion, its consequences and its prevention .Christian way of ethical conduct also
involves safeguarding individual rights and the God’s given gift to humanity in the form of
children.

(b) Euthanasia
Etymology of Euthanasia
The word ‘euthanasia’ comes from the Greek word eu, which means ‘good’ or ‘well,’ and
the Greek word for death means thanatos. In its broadest sense, euthanasia is all about dying
well or good or happy death. In simple term, it means easy or gentle death.

Defining Euthanasia
According to dictionary, ‘euthanasia’ refers to a ‘gentle and easy death,’ but it is now used to
refer to killing of those who are incurably ill and in great pain or distress, in order to spare
them from further suffering or pain. Euthanasia is the deliberate bringing about a gentle and
easy death, making the last days of the patient as comfort as possible. Euthanasia is the
deliberate bringing about a gentle and easy death, making the last days of the patient as
comfortable as possible. This is to ensure a calm and peaceful death within the context of
relieving incurable suffering in terminal illness and disability. In other words, Euthanasia it
also normally refers to a medical action performed by heath care professionals with the
purpose of ending a patient’s life to reduce the pain and suffering of the terminally ill patient
who could no longer have a chance of recovering medically.

Forms of Euthanasia
Active Euthanasia: Active Euthanasia occurs in those instances in which someone takes
active means, such as lethal injection, to bring about someone death. In other words, active
euthanasia is when death is caused directly by a third party in response for a specific request
from a patient. It also includes removing the life supporting mechanism an ddelibertae
actions to shorten the patient’s life. In short, active euthanasia is when death is brought by
medically agreed and prescribed act.
Issues in Active Euthanasia: A Cancer patient without any hope of recovery is languishing
for a long time. He/she is unable to bear the condition and the suffering of his/her family
emotionally and financially. Hence, asks the doctor to put an end to his/her life.
Passive Enthunasia: in the indirect Euthanasia/ passive euthanasia, the drugs are
administered in terminal illness to relieve pain, or to render the dying person unconscious in
order that he/she might not suffer too much pain and mental anguish. But the treatment may
hasten the death. In other words, passive euthanasia is when death is brought about by an
omission- i.e. when someone allows the person die. This can be by withdrawing or
withholding treatment.
i. Withdrawing treatment: for example, switching off a machine that is keeping a person
alive, so that they die of their disease.
ii. Withholding Treatment: for example, not carrying out surgery that will extend the life
of the patient.

Different kinds of Euthanasia

There are three types of conditions in which euthanasia is carried out. The following are the
brief discussion of it.
i. Voluntary Euthanasia
Voluntary euthanasia is carried out at the voluntary request of the person killed, who
must be, when making the request, mentally competent and adequately informed.
Voluntary euthanasia purposes that the choice is made when the patient is calm and
that he/she retains the right to withdrew his/her request when crisis come. It can be
done by life withholding life-supporting system like peacemaker or oxygen tube. Thus,
in short voluntary means an individual willingly chooses to die.
ii. Involuntary Euthanasia
Involuntary euthanasia is when the person is capable of consenting to his/her own
death but does not do so, either because he/she is not asked or because he/she is asked
and chooses to go on living. Involuntary euthanasia occurs when the individual’s death
is brought about against the individuals’ wishes. In simple term, involuntary
euthanasia is when the patient is in an unconscious state therefore the relatives decide
to administer euthanasia and put him/her to death.
iii. Non- voluntary Euthanasia
Non- voluntary euthanasia occurs when the patient’s death is brought about (either
actively of passively) without the patient’s choosing to die. In other words, non-
voluntary euthanasia refers to those in which the individual cannot make an expressed
choice at all. In simple terms, involuntary euthanasia is when the patient is in an
unconscious state, the relatives may decide for him/her whether to administer
euthanasia.

Ethical Response to Euthanasia

Human beings are made in the image of God and are, therefore, of invaluable worth.
Following are the responses on euthanasia basing on the scripture.
i. No Moral Right to Kill: the euthanasia proponents assume that there is a moral rights
to purposely kill an innocent human but the Bible clearly says “Thou shall not kill”
(Exo. 20:13). They consider that human is sovereign over human life but Bible
declares that God is sovereign because the word of God says in Deut. 32:39, “I put to
death and I bring to life…and no one can deliver out of my hands.” As Job declared,
“The Lord gave and the Lord has taken away” (Job 1:21). God created human life
(Gen. 1:7) and God alone has the right to take it (Heb. 9:27). Therefore, if we take
someone life it is against the will of God.
ii. It is Contrary to God’s Sovereignty Over Life: Euthanasia is morally unacceptable
from an evangelical Christian perspective because it rejects God’s sovereignity over
human life. According to the Bible, God is the creator and owner of all things (Gen.
1:1, Psalm 24:1). God made humans in His own image (Gen. 1:27) and holds them
responsible to Him for human life. Moses was told by God, “I put to death and bring to
life…and no one can deliver out of my hand (Deut. 32:39). God alone is sovereign
over life and since human life is in His own image, God has placed a social saction
upon it. Therefore, God alone created human life so God alone has the right to take
life.
iii. It is Against the Sanctity of Human life: Not only is God sovereign over human life
but human life is sacred as well. Is is made in the image and likeness of God (Gen.
1:27). Because of this it is wrong to kill an innocent human being. The reason for this
was stated explicitly by God: “whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his
blood be shed, for in the image of God made man” (Gen. 9:6). Human life is sacred
and God-like. Therefore, God has forbidden that anyone who kills another, he/she has
thereby indirectly attacks God.

(c) Suicide

Selected Readings

Anderson, Norman. Issues of Life and Death. London: Norfolk Press, 1976.

Chandan, J. Russel. Christian Ethics. Delhi: ISPCK, 1997.

Das, Soman. Christian Ethics and Indian Ethos. Delhi: ISPCK, 1989.

Gill, Robin. Text Book of Christian Ethics. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1995.
Niebuhr, Reinhold. Interpretation of Christian Ethics. 3rd ed. New York: SCM Press,
1975.

Razu Mohan, Indukri John. Christian Social Ethics. Mokokchung: CCPRA. 2015.

Reynolds, Stephen M. “Euthunasia.” Wycliffe Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Edited by

Carl H. Henry. Massachesetts: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc...2000, 223-225.

Singer, Peter. Practical Ethics. 3rd ed. Cambridge: University Press, 2011.

Stephen, M. Introducing Christian Ethics. Delhi: ISPCK, 2013.

_______. Christian Ethics: Issues and Insights. New Delhi: ISPCK, 2003.