FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL

& ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(SUBJECT CODE – 2002208)

NEW GOVERNMENT POYTECHNIC

PATNA - 13
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Determine the permeability of magnetic material by plotting its B-H

curve.
2. Measure voltage, current and power in 1-phase circuit with resistive
load.
3. Measure voltage, current and power in R-L series circuit.
4. Determine the transformation ratio (K) of 1-phase transformer.
5. Connect single phase transformer and measure input and output
quantities.
6. Make Star and Delta connection in induction motor starters and
measure the line and phase values.
7. Identify various passive electronic components in the given circuit
8. Connect resistors in series and parallel combination on bread board
and measure its value using digital multimeter.
9. Connect capacitors in series and parallel combination on bread board
and measure its value using multimeter.
10. Use multimeter to measure the value of given resistor.
11. Determine the value of given resistor using digital multimeter to
confirm with colour code.
12. Test the PN-junction diodes using digital multimeter.

1
 EXPERIMENT-1

B-H CURVE
AIM: Determine the permeability of magnetic material by plotting its B-H curve.

COMPONENT REQUIRED:

Sr. Suggested Resources required Machines/Tools/ Instruments

Quantity
No with vital specifications

1. Single phase AC source: 230V, 50Hz 1

2. Connecting wires: Multi strand Copper wire, 1.5 mm2 As required
3. Single pole switch: 5A 2
4. 1-phase Autotransformer: 2 KVA, 230V/270V 1
5. 1-phase Transformer, 1 KVA, 230V/115V 1
6. Voltmeter: 0-300V AC 1
7. Ammeter: 0-1A, AC/Digital Ammeter 1
8. Connecting wires: Single strand Teflon coating As required
(0.6mm diameter)

THEORY:
The BH curve, also known as the magnetization curve or hysteresis loop, is a graphical
representation of the relationship between magnetic field strength (H) and magnetic flux density
(B) in a magnetic material.
The curve typically takes the form of a loop when the magnetic field is alternated. This loop
illustrates how the material responds to changes in the external magnetic field.
Here's what each axis represents:
- The horizontal axis (H) represents the magnetic field strength, typically measured in amperes
per meter (A/m).
- The vertical axis (B) represents the magnetic flux density, usually measured in teslas (T) or
gauss (G).
The shape of the BH curve depends on the material's magnetic properties. Figure shows the
permeability of different types of magnetic materials. The subscript shows whether the material
is ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, free space or diamagnetic

2
 . Fig.1.1 B-H curve of different types of magnetic material

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1.2 Circuit diagram to determine the permeability of magnetic material

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Select appropriate type and range of measuring instruments.
2. Connect ammeters and voltmeters as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Check the circuit connections as per circuit diagram and ensure that the wire connections
are tight, before switch S1 is turned ON for power supply to the autotransformer.
4. Switch OFF the power supply after conduction of experiment.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.
2. Ensure proper connection of the auto transformer and the single phase transformer.
3. Keep the autotransformer rotary knob at zero voltage position.
4. Switch on the single pole switch S1.
5. Increase the supply voltage to 1-phase transformer in steps of 10-15 volts up to the rated
voltage by gradually turning the rotary knob of autotransformer.
3
6. Record the primary (V1), current (I1) and secondary voltage (V2) of the two winding
transformer in the observation table.
7. Plot the B-H curve and draw a tangent to the linear portion of the B-H curve as shown in
Fig.

CALCULATIONS:

Sr. No. Primary current (I1) Secondary

voltage(V2)
1.

Mark the current value on the x-axis of the graph paper and the voltage value on the y-axis of
the graph paper.

Fig.1.3 B-H curve

RESULTS:
The permeability µ of the magnetic material used for the given transformer is ..........

***

4
 EXPERIMENT-2
MEASUREMENT OF CIRCUIT PARAMETERS FOR
RESISTIVE LOADS
AIM: Measure voltage, current and power in 1-phase circuit with resistive load.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sr. No Suggested Resources required Quantity

with vital specifications

1. Single phase AC source: 230 V, 50 Hz 1

2. Connecting wires, Multistrand Copper wire, As required
1.5sq.mm
3. Single pole switch: 5 A 2
4. Resistive load: 1 kW 1
5. Voltmeter: 0-300 V AC 1
6. Ammeter: 0-5 A AC 1
7. Single phase wattmeter: Current coil 0-5 A, Voltage 1
coil 0-300 V

THEORY:

Pure Resistive Circuit

From Ohm’s law, I =V/R or V= I R
When an alternating voltage V is applied across a pure resistance R as shown in Fig., the
instantaneous value of current flowing through the resistance in given by i= I𝑚 sin 2πf t.
Putting the value of V in terms of maximum voltage and I𝑚 = V𝑚/R,
V = V𝑚 sin 2πf t
From the expressions of v and i, we see that the quantities can be represented as shown in Fig.
From the phasor diagram of a pure resistive circuit as shown in Fig. 5.11, the phasors for the
voltage and the current are in the same direction for all instances, the phase angle between the
voltage and the current is zero that is the phase difference is zero. Hence, the value of power factor
or cos ø is unity, i.e. one.

5
 V = Vm sin2p ft

Fig.2.1 Pure Resistive Circuit with AC Source

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Wattmeter

Single Pole Ammeter

Switch

Source
AC Load
Voltmeter

Fig.2.2 Circuit diagram for measurement of voltage, current and power

Magnitude

V∠0°
∠

Phasor diagram

Fig.2.3 Response of a pure resistive circuit to AC voltage input

6
PRECAUTIONS
1. Ensure proper selection of range of measuring instruments.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Check the circuit connections as per circuit diagram before switching ON the power
supply.
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.
2. Ensure proper connection of ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter.
3. Measure the resistance of the given resistive load.
4. Connect the single phase power supply.
5. Switch ON the single pole switch.
6. Record the multiplication factor of wattmeter according to the selected current and voltage
coil rating.
7. Record the current, voltage and wattmeter reading in the observation table.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Sr. No. Ammeter (A) Voltmeter (V) Wattmeter (W)

1.

Calculations:
Calculate power of the given resistive load P = V2/R and current I= V/R
Where V is the reading of the voltmeter and R is the resistance of the given resistive load as
measured in step 3 of the procedure.
RESULTS:

Sr. No. Parameter Measured Calculated Error

Observed Value Value

1. Current
2. Wattmeter

***

7
 EXPERIMENT-3
MEASUREMENT OF CIRCUIT PARAMETERS FOR RL LOADS
AIM: Measure voltage, current and power in R-L series circuit.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED

Sr. No Suggested Resources required Quantity

with vital specifications
1. Single phase AC source 230V, 50Hz 1
Connecting wires, Multistrand Copper wire,1.5
2. As Required
sq.mm
3. Single pole switch, 5A 1
4. Resistive load, 1 kW 1
5. Voltmeter, 0-300V AC 3
6. Ammeter, 0-5A AC 1
Single phase wattmeter, Current coil 0-5A, Voltage
7. 1
coil 0-300V
8. Choke coil 1

Theory

Resistance - Inductance (R-L) circuit

AC voltage applied across circuits consisting of pure resistance, inductance and capacitance in
turn was explained. However, in a series circuit when AC voltage is applied across the combination of
the two i.e. a circuit consisting of pure resistance R and pure inductance 'L' in series as shown in
Fig.5.18, the current flowing in R and L will be same and therefore, will have same instantaneous
value as also the R.M.S. and maximum value. '𝑖𝑖' is taken as reference, for the solution of the series
circuit.

Fig.3.1 R.L. Series circuit

8
Let i = Im sin ωt be the expression for current flowing. This will cause voltage drops across R and
L. The instantaneous voltage drop across 'R' is VR = IR = Imsin ωt R.and, the instantaneous
voltage drop across 'L' is
VL = L (Imsinωt)dt
= (Im cos ωt) ωL

Fig.3.2 Response of a R-L series circuit to AC input

Then, the total instantaneous value of the supply voltage is
V = VR+ VL
= Im R sin ωt + Im ωL cos ωt
= Im (R sin ωt + ω L cos ωt]
Substituting
R = Z cos θ and ω L = XL = Z sin θ;
where Z is called impedance of the circuit.
V = Im [Z cos θ sin ωt + Z sin θ cos ωt]
= Im Z [cos θ sin ωt + sin θ cos ωt]
= Im Z[sin (ωt + θ)]
= Vm sin (ωt + θ)
Thus, the voltage leads over the current by an angle θ, this also means that, the current in an
inductive circuit lag over the voltage by an angle θ.
The value of θ in terms of known parameters be found out by taking ratio of
Z sin θ/ Z cos θ = tan θ

or θ = tan-1 ω L/ R
It is a function of ' ω ' the frequency. The value of Z in terms of given parameters is
R = Z cos θ ; ωL = Z sin θ.

9
Squaring and adding it,
R2 + ω2 L2 = Z2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = Z2

Z= √
shows variation of voltages and current across an R-L circuit.
Total power of the circuit, P= VI cos θ
where V and I are the r.m.s. values of voltage and current.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.3.3 Circuit diagram for measurement of voltage, current and power

PRECAUTIONS
1. Select proper type and range of measuring instruments.
2. Connect voltmeters and ammeter as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Check the circuit connections as per circuit diagram and the wire connections are tight
before switching ON the power supply.
4. Switch OFF the power supply after conduction of experiment.

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.
2. Ensure proper connection of ammeter, voltmeters and wattmeter.
3. Measure the resistance of the given resistive load.
4. Connect the single phase power supply.
5. Switch on the single pole switch
6. Record the multiplication factor of wattmeter according to the selected current and voltage
coil rating.
7. Record the current, voltages and wattmeter reading in the observation table.
10
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Sr. No. Ammeter Voltmeter reading (V) Wattmeter

reading (A) reading (W)
1. VS VR VL

Calculations:

Fig.3.4 Phasor diagram

1. The current flowing through the circuit is I, the voltage drop across resistive load is VR, the
voltage across choke coil is VC, where VC = Vr + jVL where Vr, VL the drop across resistance
and inductance of choke coil.
2. Calculate the power factor of the given R-L load cos0 = P/VsI and load impedance Z = Vs/I
3. Using sine law the power factor cos0 = cos(sin-1 (VC sinα /Vs)
4. The input power = VsI cosθ

RESULTS:

Sr. No. Parameter Observed Measured Value Calculated value Error

1. Power
2. p.f

***

11
 EXPERIMENT-4
DETERMINE THE TURNS RATIO OF A TRANSFORMER
AIM: Determine the transformation ratio (K) of 1- phase transformer.

COMPONENTS REQIRED:

Sr. No. Suggested Resources required Quantity

with vital specifications
1. Single phase AC source 230V, 50Hz 1
2. Connecting wires, Multistrand Copper As required
wire,1.5 sq.mm
3. Single pole switch, 5A 1
4. 1-phase Autotransformer, 2 KVA, 230V / 1
270V
5. 1-phase Transformer, 2KVA, 230V/115V 1
6. Voltmeter, 0-300V AC 2

THEORY:
The turns ratio is an important parameter in transformer. The turns ratio determines which
winding terminals will be the high voltage and which terminals will be the low voltage side. The
turns ratio is very useful in determining the voltage regulation, efficiency of a transformer by
referring the transformer parameters like winding resistance, leakage inductance, induced e.m.f,
current and voltage either to the primary or secondary side of the equivalent circuit of a
transformer.
Voltage Transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary
voltage. It is denoted by K. If K < 1, then the secondary voltage will be less than the primary
voltage and the transformer will be called as step down transform- er. If K > 1, then the
transformer is a step up transformer.

In an ideal transformer, the following assumptions are made:

• Winding resistance are negligible
• All the flux produced in confined to the core of the transformer and links fully both the
windings.
12
• The permeability of the core is high so that the magnetizing current required to produce the flux
and establish it in the core is negligible.
• Hysteresis and Eddy current losses are negligible.
With the above assumption, the input volt ampere and output volt ampere of a transformer can be
approximated as equal i.e. V1 I1= V2 I2 . The above equation becomes

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.4.1 Circuit diagram for determining turns ratio of transformer

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Select proper type and range of measuring instruments.
2. Connect voltmeters and ammeter as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Check the circuit connections as per circuit diagram and the wire connections are tight
before switching ON the power supply to the autotransformer.
4. Switch OFF the power supply after conduction of experiment.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.
2. Ensure proper connection of the auto transformer and the single phase transformer.
3. Keep the autotransformer rotary knob at zero voltage position.
4. Switch on the single pole switch S1.
5. Switch on the single pole switch S2.
6. Increase the supply voltage to 1-phase transformer in steps by gradually turning the rotary
knob of autotransformer.
7. Record the primary (V1) and secondary voltage (V2) reading of the two winding transformer
13
 in the observation table.
8. Repeat step 6 in steps till the rated voltage of the primary of the 1-phase two winding
transformer is reached.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

Secondary voltage
Sr. No. Primary voltage (V1)
(V2)

1.
Calculations:
1. Calculate the turns ratio as N1/N2 = Vp/Vs, where Vp and Vs are the rated primary and
secondary voltage given in the name details of the 1- phase two winding transformer.
2. Calculate the turns ratio by calculating the ratio of V1 and V2 recorded in observation
table.

RESULTS:

Using measured Using rated

Sr. No. Parameter Primary/Secondary Primary/Secondary Error
voltage Value voltage value
1. Turns ratio N1/N2

***

14
 EXPERIMENT-5
MEASURE THE ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES OF A TRANSFORMER

AIM: Connect single phase transformer and measure input and output quantities.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sr. No. Suggested Resources required with vital Quantity

specifications
1. Single phase AC source: 230V, 50Hz 1
Connecting wires: Multistrand Copper wire, 1.5
2. As Required
mm2
3. Single pole switch: 5A 2
4. 1-phase Autotransformer: 2 KVA, 230 V/270 V 1
5. 1-phase Transformer: 2 KVA, 230 V/115 V 1
6. Voltmeter: 0-300 V AC 2
7. Ammeter: 0-10 A, AC 2
8. LPF Wattmeter: 0-75-150-300 V, 0-2.5-5-10 A 1
9. UPF Wattmeter: 0-75-150-300 V, 0-2.5-5-10 A 1

THEORY:
Voltage Transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary
voltage. It is denoted by K. If K < 1, then the secondary voltage will be less than the primary
voltage and the transformer will be called as step down transform- er. If K > 1, then the
transformer is a step up transformer.

In an ideal transformer, the following assumptions are made:

• Winding resistance are negligible
• All the flux produced in confined to the core of the transformer and links fully both the
windings.
• The permeability of the core is high so that the magnetizing current required to produce the flux
and establish it in the core is negligible.
• Hysteresis and Eddy current losses are negligible.
15
With the above assumption, the input volt ampere and output volt ampere of a transformer can be
approximated as equal i.e. V1 I1= V2 I2 . The above equation becomes

When a transformer is under no load condition, the current I2 in the secondary winding as shown
in Fig. 6.4 is zero while the primary winding carries a small current I0 known as no load current .
The current I0 consists of following two components.
 A reactive or magnetising component Im and
 An active or power component Iµ.

The magnetising component produce the magnetising flux, so it is in phase with the flux. The
active component produces the power to supply the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the iron
core, the active component is in phase with the applied voltage V1. The induced emf E1 in the
primary winding lags the magnetizing flux by 90° as shown in equation. Normally the active
component is very small compared to the magnetising component of no load current. Fig shows
the phasor diagram at no load condition of a transformer.

0

Fig.5.1 Phasor diagram at No load

From the phasor diagram the magnetizing current,
Iµ = I0 sin 0
and the core loss component
Iω = I0 cos 0.
The power input to the transformer at no load condition is given by
Po = V1I0 cos 0

where cos o is the no load power factor and the no load current I0 is given as
I0=√

16
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.5.2 Circuit diagram for determining transformer parameters

PRECAUTIONS
1. Select proper type and of range of measuring instruments.
2. Connect ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeter as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Check the circuit connections as per circuit diagram and the wire connections are tight
before switch S1 is turned ON for power supply to the autotransformer.
4. Switch OFF the power supply after conduction of experiment.

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.
2. Ensure proper connection of the auto transformer and the single phase transformer.
3. Keep the autotransformer rotary knob at zero voltage position.
4. Switch on the single pole switch S1.
5. Increase the supply voltage to 1-phase transformer in steps up to the rated voltage by
gradually turning the rotary knob of autotransformer.
6. Record the primary (V1), current (I1), secondary voltage (V2), and LPF wattmeter reading of
the two winding transformer in the observation table.
7. Bring the autotransformer rotary knob to zero position.
8. Switch on the single pole switch S2.
9. Increase the supply voltage to 1-phase transformer in steps up to the rated voltage by
gradually turning the rotary knob of autotransformer.
10.Record the secondary voltage V2.
11.Record the primary voltage (V1), primary current (I1), secondary voltage (V2), and UPF
17
 wattmeter reading of the two winding transformer in the observation table no 2 by varying
the resistive load in steps.
12.Repeat step 10 in steps till the rated current on the secondary side of the 1-phase two winding
transformer is reached.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Sr.No. Primary voltage (V1) Primary current (I1) Wattmeter

reading
1.

Sr. No. Primary Voltage Primary Secondary Secondary Wattmeter

Current (I1) Voltage (V2) current (I2) reading
(V1)

1.
2.

Calculations:
1. Using calculate the no load power factor . The magnetizing current Iµ = I1
cos and the core loss current Ic= I2 sin 0. The voltage V1 is the rated primary voltage
for the given transformer and I1 is the primary current observed with no load connected
to the secondary or low voltage side of the given transformer.
2. Observe and record the secondary voltage with the primary voltage at its rated value with
switch S2 in OFF position in table. Let this voltage be termed as V2nl. Observe and record the
secondary voltage with rated current flowing through secondary winding. Let this voltage be
termed as V2fl.
RESULT:

Sr. Parameters Using Using rated Error

measured Primary/
No. Primary/ Secondary
Secondary voltage value
voltage Value
1. Turns ratio=

***

18
 EXPERIMENT-6
MEASURE LINE AND PHASOR VALUES OF AN INDUCTION STARTER

AIM: Make Star and Delta connection in induction motor starters and measure the line and phase
values.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sr. No. Suggested Resources require with vital Quantity (No.)

specifications
Three phase Induction motor, 5 HP, 415 V,Squirrel
1. cage I M with six terminals brought out at the motor 1
terminal block
2. Manual Star Delta starter 1
2
3. Connecting wires: Multistrand Cu wire, 2.5 mm As Required
4. Three phase MCB, 25 A 1
5. 3-phase supply 415 V 1
6. Voltmeter: 0-500V AC 2
7. Ammeter: 0-10A, AC 3

THEORY:

There are different methods for starting a three phase induction motor. An induction motor is
similar to a transformer with secondary shorted. The different starting methods of a three phase
induction motor are (i) Direct Online (DOL) starting,(ii) Auto transformer starting and
Star/Delta starting. In DOL starting, the rated voltage to the motor is applied by directly
switching on the power supply. Small three phase induction motor less than 25 kW uses Direct
online starting. Usually the stator winding of three phase motor using DOL starters are delta
connected. In autotransformer starting, a reduced voltage is applied to the stator of the three phase
induction motor at the time of starting. The reduced supply voltage to the motor reduces the line
current at the time of starting. When the motor gathers appropriate speed the supply voltage is
increased to the rated voltage of the motor. The Star/delta starter is used in three phase induction
motors where the terminals of each phase of the motor are brought out. The starter employs a 2-
way switch which connects the stator winding in star at the time of starting and in delta during
normal running. The reduced voltage across the winding due to star connection at the time of
starting reduces the line/supply current. When a three phase induction motor is started by
directly switching on the power supply, it takes 5 to 7 times its rated current. The large starting
current produces a large voltage drop in the supply lines, which may affect the operation of other
equipment/devices connected to the same supply line. The Star/Delta three phase induction motor
19
starter reduces the starting current taken by a three phase induction motor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.6.1 Circuit diagram of Manual Star/Delta starter

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Select proper type and range of measuring instruments.

2. Connect ammeters and voltmetersas shown in the circuit diagram.

3. Check the circuit connections as per circuit diagram and the wire connections are tight
before three pole MCB SM is turned ON for power supply to Manual Star/delta starter.

4. Switch OFF the three phase power supply after conduction of experiment.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.

2. Ensure proper connection of the motor phase terminals A1, A2 of phase A winding, B1, B2
of phase B winding and C1, C2 of phase C winding with the three pole change over switch
terminals of the manual star and delta starter.
20
3. The handle of the manual Star/Delta starter should be in “NORMAL” position.

4. Switch on the three pole MCB switch SM.

5. Turn the handle of the Star/Delta starter to the Star position i.e. the three pole switch SY
“ON”. The motor stator windings are now in star connection.

6. Record the line currents IR, IY, IB or the stator phase currents and the line voltage
VRY and VYB in the observation table. The observed currents are the starting currents
taken by the motor.

7. Turn the handle from the Star to the Delta position, i.e. the three pole switch SΔ will turn
“ON” and the switch SY will turn “OFF”. The motor stator winding is now delta connected.

8. Repeat Step No.6. The measured currents IR, IY,IB will be the stator line currents. The
observed current in the three supply phases are the currents taken by the motor during
normal running conditions.

9. Switch off the motor by turning “OFF” the three pole switch “SM”.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sr. Manual Starter in Star position Manual Starter in Delta position

No. Current Voltage Current Voltage
IR IY IB VRY VYB IR IY IB VRY VYB
1.

RESULTS:

Sr. No. Motor starting Current Motor running Current

1.

***

21
 EXPERIMENT-7
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
AIM: Identify various passive electronic components in the given circuit.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Suggested Resources required with

SL.No. Quantity
vital specifications
Sample circuits containing different
1 2
components
Various types of resistors, pots,
2 Assorted
inductors and capacitors

THEORY:

Resistors
The resistor is an electrical component with two terminals. It is one of the most important
components in a circuit as it allows the user to precisely control the amount of current and
voltage in the circuit.
Resistors can be divided in terms of construction type as well as resistance material. A
resistor though very small, is often made up of copper wires coiled around a ceramic rod and an
outer coating of insulating paint. This is called a wire-wound resistor, and the number of turns
and the size of the wire determine the precise amount of resistance. Smaller resistors, those that
are designed and used for low-power circuits, are often made out of carbon film, which replaces
the wound of copper wire that can be bulky. Fig shows Color Coding of carbon film
resistors.

Fig 7.1 Symbol for different types of Resistors Fig 7.2 Color bands in Resistors

22
 Fig 7.3 Types of Resistors

Inductors
Inductor is a two-terminal component that temporarily stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field. It is usually called as a coil. The main property of an inductor is that it opposes any change
in current. An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store
energy in it as a magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in continuous
basis. The energy absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is limited.
According to the Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction, when the current flowing through
an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor.
According to Len's law, the direction of induced EMF opposes the change in current that created
it. Hence, induced EMF is opposite to the voltage applied across the coil. This is the property of
an inductor. An inductor blocks any AC component present in a DC signal. The unit of
inductance is Henry i.e. H.

Fig 7.4 Symbol for different types of Inductors

23
Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive component that has the ability to store the energy in the form of potential
difference between its plates. It resists a sudden change in voltage. The charge is stored in the
form of potential difference between two plates, which form to be positive and negative
depending upon the direction of charge storage.
A non-conducting region is present between these two plates which is called as dielectric. This
dielectric can be vacuum, air, mica, paper, ceramic, aluminum etc. The name of the capacitor
is given as per the dielectric used.
The standard units for capacitance is Farads. Generally, the values of capacitors available will be
in the order of micro-farads, pico-farads and nano-farads.
The symbol of a capacitor is as shown in Fig.

Fig 7.5 Symbol for different types of Capacitors

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure that any passive component taken for identification is put back at the right place.
2. Maintain neatness on the working table.
3. Handle the components properly.

PROCEDURE:
1. Observe carefully the various components.
2. Identify value and type of resistors, inductor and capacitors in the given two circuits and
note them down in the observation table.
OBSERVATIONS:

Circuit 1
Sr. No. Resistors Inductors Capacitors
Types Values Types Values Types Values

***
24
 EXPERIMENT-8
RESISTOR IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
AIM: Connect resistor in series and parallel combination on breadboard and measure its value
using multimeter.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sr. No. Suggested Resources required with SPECIFICATION Quantity

vital specifications
3 1/2 digit display
1 Digital Multimeter 2
with probes
2 Variable DC power supply 0- 30V, 2A 1
Resistances of two different values
3 2
R1 and R2
4 Breadboard 5 cm X 17 cm 1
Connecting wires: Single strand
5 0.5 mm diameter As required.
Teflon coating

THEORY:
Resistors connected in such a way that current from one flow only into another are said to be
connected in series. The series combination of two resistors as shown in Fig. acts, as far as the
voltage source is concerned, as a single resistor having a value equal to the sum of the two
resistances.

Series circuit Parallel circuit

Fig 8.1 Series and Parallel connection of resistors

For circuits having resistances connected in parallel as shown in Fig. Similar to resistance, when
capacitance and inductances are connected in series and parallel in circuits, Table shows the
formula for equivalent value.

25
Formulas for Parallel and Series connection of elements

Type of Connection Resistor Inductor Capacitor

R = R1 + R2 L = L1 + L2 = +
Series

Parallel = + = + C = C1 + C2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Digital multimeter Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Fig 8.2 circuit diagram for series and parallel connection

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure that the connections should be as per the experimental setup.
2. While doing the experiment select proper function of multi-meter.
3. Do not switch ON the multi-meter unless you have checked the circuit connections.
4. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Multimeter when used for measuring voltage across resistor should be connected in
parallel with it.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit on the breadboard as shown in Fig.
2. Connect the unknown resistor R1 in the circuit.
3. Connect the black lead to the COM terminal on the multi-meter.
4. Connect the red lead to the Ω terminal on the multi-meter.
5. Turn the multi-meter on. The display window should indicate either 0L or OPEN.
6. Vary the voltage in the circuit using variable voltage supply
7. Record the reading of voltage and current using the multimeter.

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8. Calculate the resistance using ohms law.
9. Calculate the average value of resistance.
10. Repeat steps 6 to 9 to calculate unknown resistance R2.
11. Connect the two resistances R1 and R2 in series combination.
12. Repeat steps 6 to 9 to find out resistance by experiment
13. Calculate equivalent resistance theoretically.
14. Connect the two resistances R1 and R2 in parallel combination.
15. Repeat steps 6 to 9 to find out resistance by experiment
16. Calculate equivalent resistance theoretically.

OBSERVATIONS:

Sr. Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current

No. across flowing across flowing across R1 flowing across R1 flowing
Resistor with R1 in Resistor with R2 in and R2 in with R1 and R2 in with R1
R1 circuit R2 circuit series and R2 in parallel and R2 in
series parallel

Calculations:
Average value of R1 = Average Value of R2 =
Average value of equivalent resistance when R1 and R2 are in series =
Average value of equivalent resistance when R1 and R2 are in parallel =

RESULTS:
Equivalent resistance of Equivalent resistance of
Value of R1 Value of R2 series combination of parallel combination of
resistances, Rs resistances, Rp

Experimentally Experimentally Theoretically Experimentally Theoretically Experimentally

***
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 EXPERIMENT-9
CAPACITOR IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
AIM: Connect capacitors in series and parallel combination on bread board and measure its
value using multimeter.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

SL. Suggested Resources required

Specifications Quantity
No. with vital specification

1. Digital Multimeter 1/2 digit display with probes 3

2. DC power supply 0- 30 V, 2A 1
3. EMF source Voltage=0-20 V, Ampere=0-1 A 1
4. Ammeter 0-5 Amps 2
5. Suitable capacitors in micro farads 2
Connecting wires: Single strand
6. 0.5 mm diameter As required
Teflon coating

THEORY:
A capacitor is a passive component that has the ability to store the energy in the form of potential
difference between its plates. It resists a sudden change in voltage. The charge is stored in the
form of potential difference between two plates, which form to be positive and negative
depending upon the direction of charge storage.

Fig 9.1 Series and Parallel connection of capacitor

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not switch ON the multi-meter unless you have checked the circuit connections.
2. While doing the experiment select proper function of multi-meter.
3. Ensure that all capacitors are discharged completely before connecting in the circuit.
4. Ensure that your hands are not wet while touching the circuit.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the black lead to the COM terminal on the multi-meter.
2. Connect the red lead to the Ω terminal on the multi-meter.
3. Make sure that each capacitor is discharged (V = 0) by connecting a wire lead across the
capacitor for about 30 seconds.
4. Note down the value of capacitors before connecting them in circuit.
5. Connect the capacitors in series on the bread board along with meters as given the circuit
diagram, Fig.
6. Switch on the supply and note down the readings of ammeter and multimeters used as
voltmeter and measure voltage across each capacitor and the supply voltage.
7. Switch off the supply.
8. Find out the series equivalent capacitance.
9. Connect the capacitors in parallel along with meters as given the circuit diagram, Fig.
10. Switch on the supply and note down the readings of multimeters used as voltmeter and
ammeter.
11. Switch off the supply.
12. Find out the parallel equivalent capacitance.
13. Change the value of C1 to C1’ and C2 to C2’ and repeat steps 3 to 12 and find series
equivalent capacitance CTS2 and parallel equivalent capacitance CTP2.

OBSERVATIONS:
1. C1 = ; C2 =
2. C1’ = ; C 2’ =
Series connection

Theoretically, for series connection

V = V1 + V2
Q/C = Q/C1 + Q/C2

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i.e. 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2
CTS1 = = ………………………….

CTS2 = = ………………………….

Parallel connection

Sr. No. V V2 I1 I2

Theoretically, for parallel connection

V = V1=V2
Q = C.(V1 + V2)
CTP1 = C₁ +C₂ =
CTP2 = C1’ +C2’ =

***

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 EXPERIMENT-10
RESISTOR MEASUREMENT USING MULTIMETER
AIM: Use multimeter to measure the value of given resistor.

COMPONENTS REQUIURED:

Suggested Resources required with vital

Sr. No. Quantity
specifications

1. Digital Multi meter 3 1/2 digit LCD display with probes 1

5 (Each of different
2. Carbon resistors of different values and wattages
value)

THEORY:
The resistor is an electrical component with two terminals. It is one of the most important
components in a circuit as it allows the user to precisely control the amount of current and
voltage in the circuit.
Resistors can be divided in terms of construction type as well as resistance material. A
resistor though very small, is often made up of copper wires coiled around a ceramic rod and an
outer coating of insulating paint. This is called a wire-wound resistor, and the number of turns
and the size of the wire determine the precise amount of resistance. Smaller resistors, those that
are designed and used for low-power circuits, are often made out of carbon film, which replaces
the wound of copper wire that can be bulky.

Fig 10.1 Resistance Measurement using Digital multimeter

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Ensure that both resistor leads are untouched while making the measurement, otherwise
DMM will measure the body resistance as well as the resistor.
2. While doing the experiment select proper function of multi-meter.
PROCEDURE:
1. Insert the red lead plug into the “V” socket of the digital multimeter and the black lead plug
into the “COM” socket.
2. Set function to resistance measurement.
3. Set to the appropriate range.
4. Connect the two probes’ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via jumper
wires to make measurement.
5. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary.
6. Determine the resistance value of various resistors using colour code and DMM .
7. Measure the resistance of each resistor and note the value in the observation table.
8. Compare the colour coded resistance value with measured value.
9. The measured resistance and the colour coded resistance should agree with in the tolerance
range of the resistor.

OBSERVATIONS:

Sr. No. Resistance value ‘R’ (Multimeter)

1.
2.
3.

***

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 EXPERIMENT-11
RESISTOR MEASUREMENT USING MULTIMETER AND
CONFIRMING USING COLOR CODE

AIM: Determine the value of given resistor using digital multimeter to confirm with colour
code.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Suggested Resources required with vital

Sr. No. Quantity
specifications
1. Digital Multi meter 3 1/2 digit LCD display with probes 1
2. Carbon resistors of different values and wattages Assorted (Minimun 5)

THEORY:
A carbon resistor’s outside is marked by three bands of different colours equidistant to each
other and a fourth band slightly farther from the third compared to previous spacing as shown
in Fig. The combination of the colours represents the value of the resistor in ohms. The bands
are read from left to right, with the first two colour bands representing the base value as
individual digits, while the third is a power multiplier and the last is a tolerance indicator
because manufacturing process limits the preciseness of the value. If there are five bands, then
the first three represent the base value, whereas the last two still represent the multiplier and
tolerance, respectively. Colour value representation:
0 = Black; 1 = Brown; 2 = Red; 3 = Orange; 4 = Yellow;
5 = Green; 6 = Blue; 7 = Violet; 8 = Grey; 9 = White Tolerance:
Brown = +/- 1%; Red = +/- 2%; Gold = +/- 5%; Silver = +/- 10%
The power rating of a resistor is given in wattage. The normal available resistors have power
ratings of 1/8 W, 1/4 W, 1/2 W, 1 W, 2 W.

Fig 11.1 Color band in Resistors Fig 11.2 Digital Multimeter

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure that both resistor leads are untouched while making the measurement, otherwise
DMM will measure the body resistance as well as the resistor.
2. While doing the experiment select proper function of multi-meter.

PROCEDURE:
1. Insert the red lead plug into the “V” socket of the digital multimeter and the black lead plug
into the “COM” socket.
2. Set function to resistance measurement.
3. Set to the appropriate range.
4. Connect the two probes’ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via jumper
wires to make measurement.
5. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary.
6. Determine the resistance value of various resistors using colour code and DMM .
7. Measure the resistance of each resistor and note the value in the observation table.
8. Compare the colour coded resistance value with measured value.
9. The measured resistance and the colour coded resistance should agree with in the tolerance
range of the resistor.
OBSERVATIONS:

Colour
Sr. Resistance Value Colour Coded Percentage
Coded
No. using Colour Code Tolerance Error
Tolerance
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATIONS:
–
Percentage Error =

***

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 EXPERIMENT-12

PN JUNCTION DIODE
AIM: Test PN Junction Diode using digital multimeter.

COMPONENT REQUIRED:

Sr. No Suggested Resources required with vital Quantity

specifications

1. Digital multi meter :1/2 digit display with probes 1

2. Diode IN4007 (or any other equivalent diode) 1

THEORY:

A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are curve
between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero,
circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit
current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is
connected to –ve terminal of the supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is
reduced when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential
barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit.
The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage. When
N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected to –ve terminal of
the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction increases.
Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse saturation
current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current due to
minority charge carriers.

Fig 12.1 Diode testing using digital multimeter

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PRECAUTIONS
1. Make sure all power to the circuit is OFF.
2. No voltage exists at the diode.

PROCEDURE

A. Direct diode test using digital multimeter:

1. Turn the dial (rotary switch) to Diode Test mode.
2. Connect the test leads to the diode. Record the measurement displayed.
3. Reverse the test leads. Record the measurement displayed.
B. Diode testing using resistance measurement mode:
1. Turn the dial to Resistance mode (Ω).
2. Connect the test leads to the diode after it has been removed from the circuit. Record the
measurement displayed.
3. Reverse the test leads. Record the measurement displayed.
4. For best results when using the Resistance mode to test diodes, compare the readings taken
with a known good diode.
OBSERVATIONS

A. Direct diode test

1. Multimeter display during forward biased condition volts
2. Multimeter display during reverse biased condition volts
B. Resistance Measurement test
1. Multimeter display during forward biased condition ohms
2. Multimeter display during reverse biased condition ohms

***

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