A LEVEL

(2025-2026)

PSYCHOLOGY (9990)
PAST PAPER BOOKLET
PAPER-3 & PAPER-4

NAME: …………………………………………………………………………
 INDEX

PAPER-3

SL NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

PSYCHOLOGY AND ABNORMALITY 1-11

1 SCHIZOPHRENIC AND PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS 2

1 2 BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS 4

IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDERS AND

3 6
NON-SUBSTANCE ADDICTIVE DISORDERS

4 ANXIETY DISORDERS 8

5 OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE AND RELATED 10

DISORDERS

PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS 12-20

6 MOTIVATION TO WORK 12

2 7 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 14

8 GROUP BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS 16

9 ORGANISATIONAL WORK CONDITIONS 18

10 SATISFACTION AT WORK 20
 SPECIALIST OPINIONS: THEORY
PAPER-4
SPECIALIST OPTIONS: APPLICATION

SL NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

PSYCHOLOGY AND ABNORMALITY 22-40

1 SCHIZOPHRENIC AND PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS 23

1 2 BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS 26

IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDERS AND

3 29
NON-SUBSTANCE ADDICTIVE DISORDERS

4 ANXIETY DISORDERS 34

5 OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE AND RELATED 38

DISORDERS

PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS 41-56

6 MOTIVATION TO WORK 41

2 7 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 45

8 GROUP BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS 49

9 ORGANISATIONAL WORK CONDITIONS 52

10 SATISFACTION AT WORK 56
 1

PAPER-3
SPECIALIST OPINIONS: THEORY
 2

1. SCHIZOPHRENIA AND PSYCHOTIC DISORDER

1. (a) Describe the treatment and management of schizophrenia [8]

(b) Evaluate the treatment and management of schizophrenia, including a discussion of determinism.
[10]

2. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘electro-convulsive therapy’ (ECT) as a treatment for schizophrenia.

(b) The study by Freeman (2008) used virtual reality to assess symptoms of schizophrenia. Describe

the procedure of this study. [4]

(c) Discuss the reliability of this procedure. [6]

3. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘schizophrenia’. [2]

(b) Describe the genetic explanation of schizophrenia, as outlined by Gottesman and Shields (1972). [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between cognitive and genetic explanations of
schizophrenia. [6]

4. (a) Describe explanations of schizophrenia [8]

(b) Evaluate explanations of schizophrenia, including a discussion of the
Individual versus situational debate. [10]

5. (a) Outline one cognitive explanation of schizophrenia . [2]

(b) Describe the procedure in the study by Sensky et al. (2000) of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) for
schizophrenia. [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between CBT and biochemical treatments for
schizophrenia/delusional disorder. [6]
 3

2 .BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS

1. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘learned helplessness’ (Seligman, 1988). [2]

(b) Describe the Beck depression inventory. [4]
(c) Explain two strengths of the Beck depression inventory. [6]

2. (a) Describe explanations of depression. [8]

(b) Evaluate explanations of depression, including a discussion of nature versus nurture. [10]

3. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘ depression’. [2]

(b) Describe two drug treatments for depression. [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between drug treatments for depression and cognitive
restructuring treatment for depression (Beck, 1979). [6]

4. (a) Describe the treatment and management of depression. [8]

(b) Evaluate the treatment and management of depression, including a discussion of ethics. [10]

5. Evaluate explanations of depression, including a discussion of practical applications. [10]

6. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘bipolar’ disorder. [2]

(b) Describe cognitive restructuring (Beck, 1979) as a treatment for depression. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of cognitive restructuring as a treatment for depression. [6]

7. (a) Describe characteristics and measures of bipolar and related disorders. [8]
(b) Evaluate characteristics and measures of bipolar and related disorders, including a discussion of validity.
[10]

8. (a) Describe rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) as a treatment for depression (Ellis, 1962). [4]
(b) Explain one similarity and one difference between REBT and one biological treatment for depression. (6)

9. (a) Outline the cognitive explanation of depression (Beck, 1979). [2]

(b) Describe the study by Oruc et al. (1997) about a biological explanation for bipolar disorder. [4]
(c) Explain two strengths of the study by Oruc et al. [6]
 4

3. IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDERS AND NON-SUBSTANCE

ADDICTIVE DISORDERS

1. (a) Describe the treatment and management of impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive
disorder. [8]
(b) Evaluate the treatment and management of impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive
disorder, including a discussion of the application of psychology to everyday life. [10]

2. (a) Describe covert sensitisation for treating and managing impulse control disorders.
[4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between covert sensitisation and one biochemical treatment
for managing impulse control disorders. [6]
3. (a) Describe the causes of impulse control disorders [8]
(b) Evaluate the causes of impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive disorder, including a
discussion of reductionism. [10]

4. (a) Explain how dopamine can cause impulse control disorders. [2]
(b) Describe the Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS). [4]
(c)Explain one strength and one weakness of the type of data collected from the K-SAS. [6]

5. (a) Outline one cause of impulse control disorders . [2]

(b) Describe the study by Grant et al. (2008) on the biochemical treatment of addiction to gambling. [4]
(c) Explain two weaknesses of the study by Grant et al. [6]

6. (a) Outline one biochemical treatment for impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive disorder. [2]
(b) Describe the feeling-state theory (Miller, 2010) as a cognitive cause of impulse control disorders and
non-substance addictive disorder. [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between cognitive explanations and behavioural explanations
of impulse control disorders/non-substance addictive disorder. [6]
 5

7. (a) Evaluate the causes of impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive disorder, including a
discussion about nature versus nurture. [10]

8. (a) Describe the characteristics of impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive disorder
(definitions, types, measures). [8]
(b) Evaluate the characteristics of impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive disorder
(definitions, types, measures), including a discussion about self- reports. [10]

9. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘kleptomania’. [2]

(b) Outline two of the components that Griffiths (2005) used to define addiction. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the definition of addiction proposed by Griffiths. [6]
 6

4. ANXIETY DISORDERS

1 . (a) Explain what is meant by a ‘button phobia’. [2]

(b) Describe cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) as a treatment for a button phobia. [4]
© Explain one strength and one weakness of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) as a treatment for
anxiety disorders. [6]

2. (a) Describe explanations of phobias.[8]

(b) Evaluate explanations of phobias, including a discussion of determinism. [10]

3. (a) Describe the treatment and management of anxiety disorders. [8]

(b) Evaluate the treatment and management of anxiety disorders, including a discussion of the
longitudinal research method. [10]

4. (a) Describe the characteristics, types and measures of anxiety disorders. [8]
(b) Evaluate the characteristics, types and measures of anxiety disorders, including a discussion of
case studies. [10]

5. (a) Outline one biomedical/genetic explanation of a phobia. [2]

(b) Describe one study about classical conditioning of a phobia, e.g. the study of little Albert. [4]
© Explain one strength and one weakness of the study you described in (b). [6]

6. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘systematic desensitisation’. [2]

(b) Describe the cognitive explanation of phobias. [4]
© Explain two strengths of the cognitive explanation of phobias. [6]

7. (a) Outline the behavioural explanation of phobias. [2]

(b) Describe the Generalised Anxiety Disorder assessment (GAD-7). [4]
© Explain one strength and one weakness of the GAD-7. [6]
 7

8. (a) Evaluate explanations of phobias, including a discussion of nature versus nurture. [10]

9. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘blood phobia’. [2]

(b) Describe features of the blood injection phobia inventory (BIPI). [4]
© Explain one similarity and one difference between the BIPI and the Generalised Anxiety Disorder
assessment (GAD-7). [6]
 8

5. OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS

1. (a) Describe the biomedical explanation of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). [4]

(b) Explain one similarity and one difference between the biomedical explanation of obsessive-
compulsive disorder (OCD) and one other explanation of this disorder. [6]

1. (a) Describe explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). [8]

(b) Evaluate explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), including a discussion of nature
versus nurture. [10]

2. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘hoarding’ disorder. [2]

(b) Describe the Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (MOCI). [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between the Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory
(MOCI) and the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS). [6]

3. (a) Describe the treatment and management of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. [8]
(b) Evaluate the treatment and management of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, including a
discussion of validity. [10]

4. (a) Explain how SSRIs treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). [2]

(b) Lehmkuhl et al. (2008) treated a boy called Jason who had OCD.
Describe how exposure and response prevention treatment was used to reduce Jason’s symptoms. [4]
(c) Discuss the validity of the study by Lehmkuhl et al. [6]

5. (a) Describe explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). [8]

(b ) Evaluate explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), including a discussion of
determinism. [10]

6. (a) Outline two common obsessions in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). [2]

(b) Describe the study by Lovell et al. (2006) on a cognitive treatment for OCD. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the study by Lovell et al. [6]
 9

7. (a) Evaluate the treatment and management of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, including a
discussion about determinism versus free-will. [10]

8. (a) Describe characteristics of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (types, examples/ case studies,
measures). [8]
(b) Evaluate characteristics of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (types, examples/ case studies,
measures), including a discussion of qualitative and quantitative
 10

6. MOTIVATION TO WORK

1. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘intrinsic motivation’ in relation to work. [2]

(b) Describe the hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1970). [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between the hierarchy of needs and one other need theory of
motivation to work. [6]

2. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work (e.g. intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation, rewards). [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work, including a discussion of
reductionism. [10]

3. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories about motivation to work. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories about motivation to work,
including a discussion about determinism. [10]

4. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘extrinsic motivation’ in relation to work. [2]

(b) Describe how employees can be motivated by two monetary reward systems. [4]
(c) For one of the monetary reward systems you referred to in (b):
Explain one strength and one weakness of this reward system for an organisation. [6]

5. (a) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work (intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation, types of rewards systems, non-monetary rewards), including a discussion about
determinism. [10]

6. (a) McClelland proposed the theory of achievement motivation which included three types of needs.
Identify two of these needs, other than the need for achievement.[2]
(b) Describe how equity theory (Adams, 1963) explains motivation at work. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of equity theory. [6]
 11

7. (a) Give the equation proposed by Vroom (1964) to calculate motivation. [2]
(b) Outline two non-monetary rewards that are motivators at work. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of using non-monetary rewards as motivators at work. [6]

8. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about need theories (hierarchy of needs, ERG theory,
achievement motivation). [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about need theories (hierarchy of needs, ERG theory,
achievement motivation), including a discussion of determinism versus free-will. [10]
 12

7. LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

1. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about leadership styles. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about leadership styles, including a discussion of cultural
bias [10]

2. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘adaptive leadership’. [2]

(b) Describe two of the three levels of leadership from Scouller (2011). [4]
(c) Discuss the applications of everyday life in organisations of the three levels of leadership proposed by
Scouller (2011). [6]

3. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about traditional and modern theories of leadership. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about traditional and modern theories of leadership,
including a discussion of nature versus nurture. [10]

4. (a) Identify two ‘followership’ types (Kelley, 1988). [2]

(b) Describe the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) devised by Kouzes and Posner (1987). [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the Leadership Practices Inventory. [6]

5. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about leaders and followers in organisations (leader-
Member exchange model/individualised leadership model, followership, measuring leadership). [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about leaders and followers in organisations (leader-
member exchange model/individualised leadership model, followership, measuring leadership),
including a discussion reductionism versus holism. [10]

6. (a) Kouzes and Posner (1987) produced the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) which measures five
practices of exemplary leadership.
Identify two of these practices. [2]
(b) Describe the styles of leader behaviour proposed by Muczyk and Reimann (1987). [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between styles of leader behaviour (Muczyk and Reimann,
1987) and situational leadership (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). [6]
 13

7. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about leadership style (contingency theory,
situational leadership, styles of leader behaviour). [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about leadership style (contingency theory,
situational leadership, styles of leader behaviour), including a discussion about practical
applications. [10]

8. (a) Outline one universalist theory of leadership. [2]

(b) Describe the contingency theory of leadership proposed by Fiedler (1967). [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the contingency theory of leadership. [6]
 14

8. GROUP BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS

1. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about group development and roles in organisation. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about group development and roles in organisations,
including a discussion of reductionism. [10]

2. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘groupthink’. [2]

(b) Describe strategies to avoid groupthink. [4]
(c) Discuss the applications of these strategies to everyday life in organisations. [6]

3. (a) State two causes of group conflict within organisations. [2]

(b) Describe the Belbin team inventory. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the Belbin team inventory. [6]

4. (a) Explain what is meant by the ‘norming’ stage of group development by Tuckman (1965). [2]
(b) Describe the theory of team roles in organisations proposed by Belbin (1981). [4]
(c) Discuss the validity of Belbin’s theory of team roles. [6]

5. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about group decision-making in organisations. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about group decision-making in organisations, including a
discussion of generalisations. [10]

6 .(a) Identify one physical and one psychological work condition. [2]
(b) Cowpe (1989) tested a safety promotion campaign.
Describe this safety promotion campaign. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of this safety promotion campaign. [6]

7. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about group development and roles in organisations. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about group development and roles in organisations,
including a discussion of practical applications. [10]
 15

8.(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about group conflict in organisations. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about group conflict in organisations, including a
discussion of individual and situational explanations. [10]

9. (a) Identify two team roles as proposed by Belbin (1981). [2]

(b) Describe the theory of group development (Tuckman, 1965). [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the theory of group development. [6]

10. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about group decision-making in organisations
(the decision-making process, groupthink, cognitive limitations and errors). [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about group decision-making in organisations
(the decision-making process, groupthink, cognitive limitations and errors), including a discussion of
practical applications. [10]
 16

9. ORGANISATIONAL WORK CONDITIONS

1. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘the slow rotation theory’ of shiftwork (Pheasant, 1991). [2]
(b) Describe the findings of the study by Fox et al. (1987) on the use of token economies to reduce accidents
at work. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the study by Fox et al. (1987). [6]

2. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about health and safety in the working environment. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about health and safety in the working environment,
including a discussion about qualitative and quantitative data. [10]

3. (a) Describe the study by Gold et al. (1992) on shiftwork and accidents. [4]
(b) Explain one strength and one weakness of the study by Gold et al. (1992).[6]

4. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about physical and psychological work conditions in
organisations. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about physical and psychological work conditions in
organisations, including a discussion of individual and situational explanations. [10]

5. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘open plan offices’. [2]

(b) Describe the findings of the study by Cowpe (1989) of a safety promotion campaign to avoid chip pan
fires. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the study by Cowpe (1989) of a safety promotion campaign to
avoid chip pan fires. [6]

6. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about temporal conditions of work environments. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about temporal conditions of work environments,
including a discussion of demand characteristics. [10]

7. (a) Explain what is meant by a ‘continental rota’ in shiftwork.[2]

(b) Outline two types of bullying at work from the study by Einarsen (1999). [4]
(c) Explain two weaknesses of the study by Einarsen (1999). [6]
 17

8. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about physical and psychological work conditions in
organisations. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about physical and psychological work conditions in
organisations, including a discussion about validity. [10]

9. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about health and safety in organisational work conditions
(accidents at work, reducing accidents at work, safety promotion campaigns). [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about health and safety in organisational work conditions
(accidents at work, reducing accidents at work, safety promotion campaigns), including a discussion
about experiments. [10]

10. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about temporal conditions of work environments
(shift-work, effects of shift-work on health, shift-work and accidents). [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about temporal conditions of work environments
(shift-work, effects of shift-work on health, shift-work and accidents), including a discussion about
ecological validity. [10]

11. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘organisational commitment’, e.g. Mowday et al. (1979). [2]
(b) Outline two hygiene factors identified by Herzberg (1959) in the two-factor theory of job
satisfaction. [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the two-factor theory of job s
 18

10. SATISFACTION AT WORK

1. (a) Outline one type of job absenteeism. [2]

(b) Describe the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967). [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire and one
other questionnaire used to measure job satisfaction. [6]

2. (a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work. [8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work, including a discussion on
generalisations. [10]

3. (a) Describe measures of job satisfaction used by psychologists. [8]

(b) Evaluate measures of job satisfaction used by psychologists, including a discussion of self-reports.
[10]

4. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘enlargement’ as a job design technique. [2]

(b) Describe two of the four general methods of workplace sabotage outlined by
Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987). [4]
(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the study by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987) on workplace
sabotage. [6]

5. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘job satisfaction’. [2]

(b) Describe the quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974). [4]
(c) Discuss the use of self-reports to measure job satisfaction. [6]

6.(a) Describe theories of job satisfaction. [8]

(b) Evaluate theories of job satisfaction, including a discussion about determinism. [10]

7. (a) Outline the two factor theory of job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1959). [2]
(b) Describe the job descriptive index (JDI) developed by Smith et al. (1969). [4]
(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between the JDI and the quality of working life (QWL)
questionnaire (Walton, 1974). [6]
 19

8. (a) Explain what is meant by ‘enrichment’ as a job design technique. [2]

(b) Describe the study on workplace sabotage by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987). [4]
(c) Explain two weaknesses of the study by Giacalone and Rosenfe
 20

PAPER-4
SPECIALIST OPTIONS:
APPLICATION
 21

1. SCHIZOPHRENIA AND PSYCHOTIC DISORDER

1. (a) Design a study to assess the effectiveness of virtual reality as a way to measure symptoms of
schizophrenia. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

2. ‘A token economy used for patients with schizophrenia in hospitals only makes them behave better for
the staff.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to
support your answer. [12]

3. People with symptoms of schizophrenia are often diagnosed through an interview with their doctor.
Freeman (2008) says virtual reality (VR) is useful for symptom assessment and the treatment of
psychotic disorders. Freeman also says this technology has many other applications.
(a) Explain the symptoms of schizophrenia which are targeted by virtual reality. [2]
(b) Suggest two uses of virtual reality in abnormal psychology, other than the application to
schizophrenia. [4]
(c) Give two differences between the use of virtual reality for symptom assessment of schizophrenia
and an interview with a doctor. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using virtual reality to treat schizophrenia. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

4. (a) Design a longitudinal study to investigate whether electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) as a treatment for
schizophrenia has side effects. [10]
(b)Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

5. ‘A case study of a person with schizophrenia will reveal more about the disorder than any other method.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

6.(a) Design a study to investigate the long-term effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with
schizophrenia. [10]
 22

(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]
7.‘Cognitive explanations of schizophrenia ignore the effects of nature.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

8. Newspaper headline: Treatment for schizophrenia is successful.

Sensky et al. (2000) conducted a longitudinal study and found that cognitive-behavioural therapy was
effective. It treated both negative and positive symptoms in patients that were resistant to drug
treatments for schizophrenia.
(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘baseline’ when gathering data. [2]
(b) Suggest two weaknesses of the longitudinal method in the study by Sensky et al. (2000). [4]
(c) A randomised controlled design was used by Sensky et al.
(i) Identify the two therapies that this design compared. [2]
(ii) Suggest why a randomised controlled design was used. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of cognitive-behavioural therapy as an alternative to drug
treatments for schizophrenia. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

9. ‘Symptom assessment of schizophrenia using virtual reality will one day remove the need for a doctor.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

10.(a) Design a longitudinal study to investigate whether cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) manages
schizophrenia effectively. [10]
(b)Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

11. Three comments about electro-convulsive therapy (ECT):

‘It was the best thing that my wife could have had at that time; a good decision by the doctors after
drugs had failed.’
‘It was a positive experience; worked well for my schizophrenia.’
‘I was able to go home after five months of inpatient stay as a result of ECT, after years of unsuccessful
psychological treatment.’
(a) Outline the procedure of electro-convulsive therapy (ECT). [2]
(b) (i) Outline one biochemical treatment for schizophrenia. [2]
 23

(ii)Give one advantage of this biochemical treatment for schizophrenia. [2]

(c)Outline two psychological treatments for schizophrenia. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of ECT as a treatment for schizophrenia. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

12. Schizophrenia can be treated with medical techniques and it can be managed with psychological
techniques.
Medical treatments include the use of electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) and drugs such as antipsychotics
And a typical antipsychotics. Schizophrenia can be managed psychologically using token economy and
cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT).
(a) Suggest one difference between medical and psychological techniques for treating and managing
schizophrenia. [2]
(b) Explain two differences between antipsychotic drugs and atypical antipsychotic drugs. [4]
(c) Explain how ECT is used to treat schizophrenia. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of psychological techniques to manage schizophrenia. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

13.(a) Design a longitudinal study using observation to investigate whether a token economy effectively
manage schizophrenia. [10]
(b)Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

14. ‘In the future a genetic explanation of schizophrenia will be the only explanation needed.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]
 24

2. BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS

1. A person is accused of setting several fires. You have to determine whether they are an accidental firesetter,
an arsonist or a pyromaniac.
(a) Design an interview to find out what type of firesetter the accused person is. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your interview is based. [8]

2. ‘Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) is not a cure for depression.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

3. ‘In the future it will be a fact that the cause of depression is biological.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

4. Cognitive explanations of depression are too reductionist to be useful.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

5.The Beck depression inventory (BDI) includes 21 items, all of which are assessed on a four-point scale.
One of the items is ‘irritation’, as shown below.

0 I am no more irritated by things than I ever was.

1 I am slightly more irritated now than usual.
2 I am quite annoyed or irritated a good deal of thetime.
3 I feel irritated all the time.

(a) State two items from the BDI, other than ‘irritation’.[2]
(b) Explain the theory on which the BDI is based.[4]
(c) (i) Suggest how the reliability of the BDI could be assessed.[2]
(ii) Suggest how the validity of the BDI could be assessed. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using self-report questionnaires to measure depression.
You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]
 25

6. (a) Design a longitudinal study to investigate whether electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) as a treatment for
depression has side effects. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

7‘. Medical techniques, such as drugs, can treat all patients with depression effectively.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

8. (a) Design a study to test age differences in the effectiveness of rational emotive behaviour therapy for
depression. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

9. The ABC model of psychological change:

• Activating event
• Beliefs about the event
• Consequences: emotional and behavioural responses.
Ellis (1962) used this model in rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). The aim of REBT is to treat
depression by changing a client’s thinking.
(a) Explain why a depressed client’s thinking needs to be changed in order to treat their depression.
[2]
(b)(i) Outline one irrational belief that clients might have before starting REBT. [2]
(ii)Outline how irrational beliefs are changed by REBT. [2]
(c) Suggest one psychological treatment for depression, other than REBT. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of psychological treatments for depression. You should include a
conclusion in your answer. [5]

10.One drug treatment for depression is monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). The effectiveness of this
treatment can be tested using randomised control trials.
(a) Explain how MAOIs work when treating depression. [2]
(b) (i) Suggest how randomised control trials can be used to study the effectiveness of MAOIs. [2]
(ii) Give one strength of a randomised control trial.[2]
 26

(c) Suggest one treatment for depression, other than MAOIs. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using drugs to treat depression. You should include a
conclusion in your answer. [5]

11.(a) Design a study to investigate the effectiveness of chemical/drug treatments (MAOIs, SSRIs) for
depression. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

12.‘The nature versus nurture debate is irrelevant when explaining depression.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]
 27

3. IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDERS AND NON-SUBSTANCE

ADDICTIVE DISORDERS

1. Blaszczynski and Nower (2002) looked at the effect of imaginal desensitisation on patients with impulse
control disorders and used relaxation (trigger) monitoring tables to measure the effectiveness of their
therapy. These tables are completed at home by the patient. At the end of their treatment, the patient should
report a significant reduction in the frequency and intensity of urges to act on impulse.
(a) Explain the technique of ‘imaginal desensitisation’. [2]
(b) Give two advantages of ‘imaginal desensitisation’. [4]
(c) Suggest two problems with the use of relaxation monitoring tables. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of psychological techniques to treat impulse control
disorders.
You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

2. The feeling-state theory proposes that impulse control disorders are caused by intense positive feelings
that
become associated with an experience such as stealing or gambling.
(a) Design an experiment to investigate the intensity of positive feelings about an event, in people with and
without an impulse control disorder. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your experiment is based. [8]

3. Miller (2010) described the case study of ‘John’ who received impulse control therapy. John was a 35-
year-
Old successful banker, but had a long history of gambling problems. In 10 years, John lost more than
$1 000 000 playing poker.
(a) Explain the ‘feeling-state’ theory of impulse control disorders. [2]
(b) Give two differences between impulse control disorder protocol (ICDP) and eye movement
desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR). [4]
(c) Suggest two cognitive-behavioural treatments for impulse control disorders. [4]
 28

(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using case studies to investigate impulse control therapy. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

4. ‘The biochemical explanation is the only scientific explanation for impulse control disorders.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

5. A question from the Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS):

During the past WEEK, approximately how many hours (add up hours) did you spend
Thinking about stealing? Please circle the appropriate number.

None 1 hour or less 1 to 4 hours 4 to 10 hours over 10 hours

0 1 2 3 4

(a) Explain the characteristics of kleptomania. [2]

(b) Suggest two possible limitations of answers participants may give to the question above. [4]
(c) (i)Suggest how the reliability of the K-SAS could be assessed. [2]
(ii) Suggest how the validity of the K-SAS could be assessed. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using self-report questionnaires to measure kleptomania.
You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

6. ‘All impulse control disorders are caused by a person receiving positive reinforcement after engaging in a
particular behaviour.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
Your answer. [12]

7. The use of nalmefene, a biochemical treatment, is believed by Grant et al. (2008) to help reduce the urge to
gamble. To test its effectiveness, participants were assessed to ensure they were suitable to participate.
They were then randomly allocated to either a group receiving nalmefene or to a group receiving a
placebo.
(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘placebo’. [2]
 29

(b) Outline two testing procedures used to assess participants’ gambling severity in the study by Grant et
al. (2008). [4]
(c) Give two reasons why this assessment excluded some participants from the study. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using biochemicals to treat gambling disorder. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

8.(a) Design an experiment to investigate the effectiveness of covert sensitisation for treating
kleptomania.[10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your experiment is based. [8]

8. Miller (2010) proposed impulse control therapy which he developed from his feeling‑state theory of
impulse control disorders. This therapy uses what Miller calls the impulse control disorder protocol
(ICDP), a procedure which uses a modified form of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing
(EMDR).
(a) Explain what is meant by eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR). [2]
(b) Outline the procedure used in impulse control therapy, including reference to EMDR. [4]
(c) (i)Suggest one similarity between impulse control therapy and imaginal desensitisation. [2]
(ii)Suggest one difference between impulse control therapy and imaginal desensitisation. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using self‑report data from people with addictions. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

10.(a) Design a study using an observation to investigate the characteristics of addiction in people with
kleptomania. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

11. Griffiths (2005) refers to a case of a person addicted to gambling who says:
‘If I wasn’t actually gambling I was spending the rest of my time working out clever little schemes to
obtain money to feed my habit. These two activities literally took up all my time.’
This quote is typical of gambling and many other types of addictive behaviours, including pyromania and
 30

kleptomania.

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘pyromania’. [2]

(b) Give two components of any addiction outlined by Griffiths (2005). [4]
(c) Suggest two ways to measure a person’s addiction to gambling, other than using a questionnaire. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using questionnaires to measure kleptomania. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

12 ‘Psychometric measures, such as the Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS), provide
therapists
with no useful information.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

13. A woman was treated by Glover (2011) for kleptomania. She had a 14-year history of daily compulsive
shoplifting and was treated with covert sensitisation. At a 19-month follow-up she was free of stealing
behaviour apart from one lapse, and there were corresponding improvements in her self-esteem and
socialisation.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘covert sensitisation’. [2]
(b) Outline how the aversive stimulus was used in the study by Glover (2011) to treat the woman’s
kleptomania. [4]
(c) Give two differences between covert sensitisation and imaginal desensitisation. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using covert sensitisation to treat impulse control
disorders.
You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

14 (a) Design a study to investigate gender differences in the effectiveness of imaginal desensitisation for the
treatment of impulse control disorders. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]
 31

15 ‘Behavioural explanations of impulse control disorders are too reductionist to be useful.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

16. In a case study by Glover, a 56-year-old married woman who had been shoplifting every day for 14
years
attended treatment sessions. Her treatment used covert sensitisation with aversive imagery.
(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘aversive imagery’. [2]
(b) Suggest two strengths of the use of a face-to-face interview by a therapist treating a patient with
kleptomania. [4]
(c) Suggest why biochemical treatments might not be effective when treating kleptomania. [4]
(d) Discuss whether generalisations can or cannot be made from this case study. You should consider
both sides of the argument and include a conclusion. [5]

17. (a) Design a study to investigate the effectiveness of biochemical treatments for impulse control
disorder. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

18. Richard has a fear of oranges and knows about the behavioural explanation of phobias. Richard wants to
be treated using systematic desensitisation (Wolpe, 1958). However, his partner thinks that other
treatments may be better.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘behavioural explanation of phobias’. [2]
(b) Explain how systematic desensitisation would be used to treat Richard’s fear of oranges. [4]
(c) Suggest two ways in which a phobia can be treated, other than systematic desensitisation. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using systematic desensitisation to treat phobias. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]
 32

4. ANXIETY DISORDERS

1 Billy has a fear of the dark, and has read about Freud’s psychoanalytic explanation of phobias. Billy
thinks this is a good explanation for his fear, but his sister Janet does not agree.
(a) Outline Freud’s psychoanalytic explanation of phobias. [2]
(b) Give two limitations of this psychoanalytic explanation of phobias. [4]
(c) Suggest one alternative explanation for phobias. [4]
(d) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of using case studies to study phobias. You should include a
conclusion in your answer. [5]

2. ‘Even though Little Albert was just one child, the behavioural explanation of anxiety disorders can be
generalised to everyone.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

3. (a) Design a study using a questionnaire to investigate the characteristics of hoarding behaviour.[10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

4. . The Generalised Anxiety Disorder assessment (GAD-7) was developed using questionnaires with
2740 patients, followed by a telephone interview with 965 of these patients who were selected
randomly. The GAD-7 asks 7 questions each scored from 0–3. A score of 15 or more indicates severe
anxiety.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘generalised anxiety disorder’. [2]
(b) Suggest two advantages of using quantitative data to assess anxiety. [4]
(c) Outline two advantages of the sample used to develop the GAD-7. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using telephone interviews to assess anxiety. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

5 People who have been bitten by an animal may interpret this experience in different ways, and for some a
phobia develops.
(a) Design a study using a questionnaire to investigate why people interpret the experience of being bitten
by an animal in different ways. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]
 33

6 (a) Design a study using an observation to investigate whether a person has generalised anxiety
disorder. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

7 (a) Design a study to investigate which type of phobia the general public think is the most
common. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

8. An experimenter made a loud noise behind little Albert who jumped, gasped and raised his arms. The
second time the experimenter did this, Albert trembled and almost cried. The third time, Albert cried
suddenly. So the experimenter had shown that an emotional situation in the laboratory could produce fear
and crying in a child.
(a) Outline the psychological explanation of phobias on which this case study is based. [2]
(b) Suggest one reason why this case study could be considered unethical. [2]
(c) (i) Suggest one generalisation that can be made from this case study. [2]
(ii)Suggest two reasons why the findings of this case study cannot be generalised. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of conducting research on phobias in a laboratory. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

9 (a) Design a study to investigate phobias of horses in boys. [10]

(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

10 ‘The genetic explanation of phobias is better than all other explanations.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

11 (a) Design a study to investigate the long-term effectiveness of applied tension. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]
 34

12 ‘Even though little Hans was just one child, the psychoanalytic explanation of phobias can be
generalised to everyone.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

13 The Blood Injection Phobia Inventory (BIPI) is a questionnaire with items about phobic situations. The
participants rate their cognitive, behavioural and physiological responses to these phobic situations on
four-point scales. Fig. 1.1 shows one of these items.

Item 5. When I hear a conversation about blood.

Type Response statement four-point scale

of ne someti alm alw
respo ve mes ost ays
nse r alw
ays

Cognitive I think I’m going to faint. 0 1 2 3

Behaviour I escape from the situation 0 1 2 3

al immediately.

Physiologi Response X 0 1 2 3
cal

Fig. 1.1

(a) Suggest one physiological response statement that could be used for Response X in Fig. 1.1. [2]
(b) Suggest two strengths of using a four-point scale to measure anxiety in people with blood injection
phobia. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest one way in which anxiety in people with blood injection phobia could be measured, other
than using a rating scale. [2]
(ii) Suggest one weakness with the measure you suggested in (c)(i). [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using quantitative data to assess blood injection phobia. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]
 35

14. ‘The cognitive explanation of phobias is better than all other explanations.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer.
 36

5. OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS

1 The aim of the study by Lovell et al. (2006) was to compare the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy
(CBT) for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), delivered face-to-face or by telephone.
(a) What was concluded about the effectiveness of the therapy? [2]
(b) How and why did the researchers gather baseline data from the participants? [4]
(c) Give two differences in the delivery of telephone and face-to-face therapy in this study. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using telephone delivery of CBT with patients. You should include a
conclusion in your answer. [5]

6. (a) Design a study using a questionnaire to investigate the most common body dysmorphic disorder
behaviours. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

3. The Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) is a questionnaire. It has questions which are
scored on a five-point scale. One question asks about the amount of time spent on obsessions:

Time spent
0 hour/day 0–1 hour/day 1–3 hour/day 3–8 hour/day >8 hour/day
on obsessions

Score: 0 1 2 3 4

(a) Explain the difference between obsessions and compulsions. [2]

(b) Give two limitations of the question and rating scale presented above. [4]
(c) Explain how one other questionnaire assesses obsessive-compulsivedisorder (OCD).[4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using psychometric measures to assess OCD. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

4. ‘Biomedical treatments are perfect for treating obsessive-compulsive and related disorders.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]
 37

5. Explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

genetic

biomedical
biochemical
explanations of
obsessive-compulsive disorder neurological
(OCD)
alternative
cognitive

Fig. 1.1

a. Outline one neurological explanation of obsessive-compulsivedisorder (OCD).[2]

b. Outline one genetic explanation of OCD and one biochemical explanationof OCD.[4]
c. Suggest two ways in which one biomedical explanation differs from cognitive explanations for
OCD.[4]
d. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the biomedical explanation of OCD. You should include a
conclusion in your answer.[5]

6. ‘Telephone-administered cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder

(OCD) will never be as effective as face-to-face treatment.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

7. ‘Exposure and response prevention is always successful in treating obsessive-compulsive and related
disorders.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

8. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) can be used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

(a) Design a study to test gender differences in effectiveness of CBT administered by telephone for OCD.
[10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]
 38

9 ‘Even though Charles was just one child, Rapoport’s case study of Charles’ obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD) can be generalised to everyone.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your
answer. [12]

10 (a) Design a study to investigate the most common type of compulsive behaviour in people with obsessive-
compulsive disorder (OCD). [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

11 ‘Biomedical treatments for obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are irrelevant.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

12 ‘Psychometric measures used to assess obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) provide therapists with no
useful information.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]
 39

6.MOTIVATION TO WORK

1. (a) Design a study using a questionnaire to investigate whether intrinsic or extrinsic motivation is more
effective
for workers in an organisation. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your questionnaire is based.[8]

2. (a) Design a study to investigate how much managers know about Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

3. ‘Managers only need to set clear goals to motivate their workers.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

4 ‘I really lack motivation.

What I need is ERG: existence, relatedness and growth.’
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘need theory of motivation’. [2]
(b) Suggest one similarity and one difference between the need theories of Maslow and Alderfer.[4]
(c) Outline one theory of motivation, other than a need theory. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using self-reports to gather data on need theories of
motivation. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

5. ‘The harder I work the more I get paid. It is hard work, but pay is all I need to support my family. Do I get
bored? Yes, of course I do.
Do I have a sense of job satisfaction? Not at all.
Am I motivated? Yes, by the pay. Pay is all I will ever need.’ [Factory worker]
(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘intrinsic motivation’. [2]
(b) Outline two types of extrinsic reward system that could be used to motivate workers. [4]
(c) Outline two cognitive theories of motivation, other than equity theory (Adams, 1963).[4]
 40

(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different types of reward system used to motivate
workers. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

7 (a) Design a study using an interview to investigate the extent to which workers believe equity theory
(Adams, 1963) applies to them.[10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

8. (a) Design a study to investigate intrinsic motivation in workers in a factory making shoes. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

9. ‘Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is culturally biased because it was developed in the United States.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

10. (a) Design a study to investigate which type of ‘need for achievement’ is most likely to motivate workers.
[10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

11 According to achievement motivation theory (McClelland, 1965), people have different needs. Some have
a need for power or need for achievement, others have a need for affiliation.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘need for affiliation’. [2]
(b) Suggest two reasons why the need for affiliation is important in work environments. [4]
(c) Suggest how the needs of a manager in an organisation would differ from the needs of a worker
[4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using self-report to measure need for achievement. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]
 41

12 (a) Design a study using observation to investigate whether a group follows the stages of development
proposed by Tuckman (1965). [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

13 ‘Recognition, respect and a sense of belonging are the most important motivators at work.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

14 When goal-setting, some organisations set workers targets and some organisations do not.
(a) Design a study to investigate the extent to which setting targets motivates workers. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

15 ‘Workers do not have the need to achieve; they just need to work hard to earn money.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

16. In his theory, Maslow originally proposed a hierarchy of five needs. Several years later, he added three
more needs, giving eight in total. These needs are: physiological, safety, social, esteem, cognitive,
aesthetic, self-actualisation and transcendence. These needs can be understood in relation to individual and
situational explanations.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘self-actualisation’. [2]
(b) (i) Explain how one need, other than self-actualisation, could be ‘individual’. [2]
(ii) Explain how one need, other than self-actualisation, could be ‘situational’. [2]
(c) Suggest why Alderfer’s ERG theory is more reductionist than Maslow’s theory. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews to gather data on need theories of
motivation. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

17 (a) Design a study using a questionnaire to investigate which non-monetary reward is more effective for
workers in an organisation. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]
 42

18 ‘There is no difference between Alderfer’s ERG theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

19 (a) Design a study to investigate absenteeism on different days of the week in a food production factory.
[10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]
 43

7. LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

1. Traditional management theory challenged

For many years, Henry Mintzberg’s ten managerial roles allowed the nature of leadership to be defined.
However, it has never been clear how leadership relates to the way managers in organisations manages
their workers.
(a) Explain the relationship between leadership and managerial roles. [2]
(b) Suggest one disadvantage of a participative/democratic style of leadership. [4]
(c) Give two types of leader behaviour determined by how much they participate with their workers and
how much they direct their workers. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of investigating leadership styles in organisations. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

2. ‘The situation is irrelevant; all that any leader needs to succeed is individual charisma.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

3 The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) assesses the extent to which leaders use the five practices
outlined by Kouzes and Posner (1987). An LPI-self questionnaire is completed and then other people
complete the LPI-observer questionnaire which includes rating scales and open- ended questions.
(a) Outline one of the five leader practices from Kouzes and Posner (1987). [2]
(b) Give one strength and one weakness of using open-ended questions. [4]
(c) Suggest one way in which leadership could be measured, other than using a questionnaire.[4]
(d) There are advantages and disadvantages to using both an LPI-self questionnaire and an LPI- observer
questionnaire. Discuss how having both questionnaires affects the validity of the LPI. You should
consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

4. Different types of followers do not exist. Workers either follow a leader or they do not.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]
 44

5 ‘Belbin’s team role inventory is not a psychometric test.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer.[12]

6 (a) Design a study to investigate to what extent the manager of a clothes factory demonstrates ‘levels of
leadership’. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

7 Fiedler (1967) proposed a contingency theory.

Leader member relations: good or poor
Task structure: high or low
Position power: strong or weak
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘contingency theory’ of leadership. [2]
(b) (i) Explain how Fiedler used the Least‑Preferred Co‑worker (LPC) questionnaire. [2]
(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using this questionnaire with workers.[2]
(c) Explain how one alternative theory of leadership considers individual differences between worker
[4]
(d) Discuss the usefulness of theories of leadership to the management of an organisation. You should
consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion. [5]

8 ‘Situational leadership is irrelevant if the individual leader is a universalist ‘great man or woman’.
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

9. Heifetz (1997) proposes a ‘modern’ theory of adaptive leadership, and suggests that ‘getting on the
balcony’ to see the whole organisation is more effective than seeing a specific part of one work process.
 45

Fig. 4.1 ‘getting on the balcony’

(a) Explain one principle from adaptive leadership, other than ‘getting on the balcony’. [2]
(b) (i) Explain what is meant by the reductionism versus holism debate. [2]
(ii) Suggest how adaptive leadership shows holism rather than reductionism. [2]
(c) Suggest two ways in which adaptive leadership differs from ‘traditional’ leadership. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of adaptive leadership. You should include a conclusion in your
answer.[5]

10 (a) Design a study to investigate which of Muczyk and Reimann's styles of leader behaviour is shown by the person
in charge of a school or college. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

11 ‘Adaptive leaders should not spend time ‘on the balcony’, thinking about the organisation as a whole; they should
spend time on the factory floor with the workers.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer.
[12]

12 (a) Design a study using a questionnaire to investigate the effectiveness of adaptive leadership to manage
employees’ experiences during organisational change within a company. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]
 46

13 ‘Situational leadership is no longer relevant. Only individual styles of leader behaviour are relevant to modern
organisations.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer.
[12]

14. The success of a leader could be due to how well followers can follow them. Kelley (1988) described the different
qualities and types of followers and within this description he included a diagram. Fig. 4.1 is based on this
diagram.

Alienated followers Effective followers

(alienated) (stars)
Pragm atist
follow ers

(surviv ors)

(sheep) (yes people)

Passive Conformist followers

followers

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘followership’.[2]

(b) Explain two qualities of effective followers from Kelley (1988).[4]
(c) Give two differences between alienated followers (alienated) and conformist followers (yes people).[4]
(d) Discuss whether Kelley’s types of followers can be applied to all organisations. You should consider both sides
of the argument and include a conclusion.[5]

15 ‘Having both LPI-Self and LPI-Observer questionnaires in the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) is of no
practical value.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support your answer.
[12]
 47

8. GROUP BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS

1 ‘Groupthink always has negative consequences.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

2 (a) Design a study to investigate whether the illusion of unanimity occurs when groupthink occurs. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

3 One cognitive limitation/error in group decision-making is a ‘sin of commission’.

(a) Design a study using observation to investigate whether a group of managers makes a ‘sin of
commission’ when making a group decision about buying new computers. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

4 ‘There are no positive outcomes of group conflict.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

5. Wedley and Field (1984) proposed that the decision-making process of any group can be improved using a
pre-decision support system. Their model of the pre-decision process begins with the manager answering
situational questions. Examples of these questions and how they could be answered appear in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1

Question number Questions Your answers

1 Is quality required? Yes No

2 Have you sufficient information? Yes No
3 Is the problem structured? Yes No
4 Is acceptance important? Yes No
5 Would your autocratic decision be accepted? Yes No
 48

(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘pre-decision support system’. [2]
(b) (i) Identify the type of questions used to gather the data in Table 4.1. [1]
(ii) Identify the type of data gathered in Table 4.1. [1]
(iii) Suggest one disadvantage of this type of data, using an example from Table 4.1. [2]
(c) Suggest two ways in which any decision support system can improve managerial effectiveness.
[4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of gathering data from managers and workers about decision-
making in their organisation. You should include a conclusion in your answer [5]

6 ‘Errors in group decision-making are always due to the cognitive limitations of an individual rather than to
being part of a groupthink situation.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

7 (a) Design a study to investigate how much time is spent managing group conflict by people at different
levels of management. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

8. In the 1920s, scientific management studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric
Company in the United States, which were known as the ‘Hawthorne studies’. The aim was to investigate
which physical variables could be manipulated to increase production. The findings were not as expected,
leading to a conclusion called the ‘Hawthorne effect’.
(a) Explain what is meant by the ‘Hawthorne effect’. [2]
(b) (i) Describe the main independent variable (IV). [2]
(ii) Describe the dependent variable (DV). [2]
(c) Suggest two alternative interpretations of the results of the study, other than the Hawthorne effect.
[4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of controlling variables when conducting field
experiments on physical working conditions. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]
 49

9 ‘Group conflict can always be managed successfully.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

10 ‘Belbin’s team role types are the perfect way to categorise people into team roles.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

11 Tuckman outlined different stages of group development.

(a) Design a study using observation to identify whether a group in an organisation is ‘forming’ or
‘norming’. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence
 50

9. ORGANISATIONAL WORK CONDITIONS

1. The study by Gold et al. (1992) found that the number of shiftwork accidents made by nurses was
significantly higher in those working a ‘rotator’ shift. To investigate this further, the researchers sent
questionnaires to all nurses. However, only 78% returned their questionnaires.
(a) Explain what Gold et al. meant by a ‘rotator’ shift.[2]
(b) Give two findings for ‘rotators’ compared with ‘non-rotators’, other than the number of shiftwork
accidents. [4]
(c) Suggest two reasons why only 78% of participants returned their questionnaires.[4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaires to gather data about accidents in the
workplace. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

2 (a) Design a study using a questionnaire to investigate management perceptions of bullying at work. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your questionnaire is based. [8]

3 Manager José was bullied at work for many years. The bullies argued with him every day and stole his
belongings. Eventually he left to work for an employer where bullying was not tolerated.
(a) Explain the effects bullying may have on an individual in the workplace. [2]
(b) Suggest two phases in the development of bullying at work. [4]
(c) Give two differences between dispute-related bullying and predatory bullying. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews to investigate bullying at work. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

4. Oldham and Brass (1979) studied open plan offices, such as shown in Fig. 4.1.
 51

a. Explain what is meant by an ‘open plan office [2]

b. Suggest two job characteristics that may be affected by office design. [4]
c. Outline two of the dependent variables (outcome measures) in the study by Oldham and Brass. [4]
d. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of gathering qualitative data using interviews to study
workers’ views of open plan offices. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

5 (a) Design a study to investigate worker preference for the metropolitan or the continental rapid rotation
system of shiftwork. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

6 (a) Design a study using observations to investigate which followership type is the most common in an
organisation producing toys. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

7 (a) Design a study to investigate how colour of lighting in a factory affects productivity level. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

8 Accidents at work may be caused by human errors or errors in operator-machine systems.

(a) Design a study to investigate which errors result in the most risk of accidents for workers. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

9 One type of rapid rotation is the metropolitan shift-work rota: work two early shifts (6 am to 2 pm), two
late (2 pm to 10 pm), two night (10 pm to 6 am), two rest days. Then repeat.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘temporal conditions of work environments’. [2]
(b) (i) Give one difference between the metropolitan rota and one other type of rapid rotation. [2]
(ii) Suggest two negative effects of shift-work on health. [2]
(c) Suggest two ways in which the number of hours people work can be organised, other than rotation
of shifts. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of shift-work, other than in relation to health. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]
 52

10. In just one year in the UK there were 21 deaths and 1372 injuries caused by chip pan fires. Cowpe (1989)
reported on a safety campaign where two television advertisements were shown in ten regions of the UK
between 1976 and 1982.
(a) Suggest the type of experiment used in this study. [2]
(b) Explain how two safety promotion strategies were used in the television advertisements for this
campaign. [4]
(c) (i) Explain how the effectiveness of the campaign was measured. [2]
(ii) Suggest one strength of gathering data in this way. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using television to promote safety in organisations. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

11 Job design involves matching work processes to improve a worker’s interest in the task and to improve
productivity. It can involve job rotation, job enrichment and job enlargement.
(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘job rotation’. [2]
(b) Suggest one similarity and one difference between job enrichment and job enlargement. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest one way in which worker satisfaction can be measured using a psychometric test. [2]
(ii) Suggest one way in which worker satisfaction can be measured, other than using a self-report. [2]
(d)Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of measuring job satisfaction using an interview. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

12 Gold et al. (1992) studied the effect of shift patterns on sleep. Fig. 4.1 shows the percentage of participants
in each sleep time category per 24 hours on workdays for the four types of shift.
 53

(a) Outline what is meant by ‘rotator’ in this study. [2]

(b) Give two findings from the data shown in Fig. 4.1. [4]
(c) (i) Identify two types of error or accident that were more likely to happen to nurses on a rotator shift
in this study. [2]
(ii) Other than errors or accidents, shiftwork can have direct effects on health.
Suggest two effects shiftwork could have on health. [2]
(d) Discuss whether the findings of the study by Gold et al. can be generalised. You should consider
both sides of the argument and include a conclusion. [5]

13 A new machine has been designed, but it is dangerous to use. In order to reduce errors and accidents, the
operator‑machine system needs to be improved.
(a) Design an experiment to investigate one way that the safety of the new machine could be improved.
[10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your experiment is based. [8]
 54

10. SATISFACTION AT WORK

1 In the study by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987), the Sabotage Reasons Questionnaire asked workers to
rate each of the sabotage methods on a 7-point scale of 1 (not at all justifiable) to 7 (totally justifiable).
(a) Give one way in which this study was ethical. [2]
(b) Suggest two ways in which the data from the Sabotage Reasons Questionnaire could be analysed,
including reasons for your suggestions. [4]
(c) Suggest how the reliability of this questionnaire could be tested. [4]
(d) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of using a 7-point scale in questionnaires given to workers.
You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

2 (a) Design a study using an interview to investigate levels of job satisfaction following a job rotation.
[10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your interview is based. [8]

3 ‘Job design techniques always improve job satisfaction.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

4 To test commitment, Mowday et al. (1979) developed and validated the Organisational Commitment
Questionnaire (OCQ). Three items from this questionnaire state:
• I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this
organisation be successful.
• I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organisation.
• I feel very little loyalty to this organisation.
Each is scored on a 7-point scale: 1 = strongly agree, 7 = strongly disagree.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘organisational commitment’. [2]
(b) Suggest two advantages of using a 7-point scale in the OCQ. [4]
(c) Suggest two reasons why the sample used in the validation of the OCQ was representative. [4]
 55

(d) Discuss the evidence suggesting that measuring organisational commitment using a questionnaire
like the OCQ is useful. You should consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion in
your answer. [5]

5. ‘Measuring sabotage using a questionnaire will never provide useful data.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

6. There are five job facets in the job descriptive index (JDI) (Smith et al., 1969).

One question from the JDI asks about the co-worker facet:

Think of the majority of people with whom you work or meet in connection with your work. How
well does each of the following words or phrases describe these people?
Stimulating Intelligent Frustrating Stubborn

‘Y’ for ‘Yes’ if it describes the people with whom you work ‘N’ for
‘No’ if it does not describe them
‘?’ for ‘do not know’ if you cannot decide

(a) Explain how the JDI is scored.[2]

(b) Give two ways in which job satisfaction can be measured using questionnaires, other than the JDI [4]
(c) Outline two job facets measured by the JDI, other than the co-worker facet. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of measuring job satisfaction using a ‘yes/no/do not know’
scale. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

7. ‘Work absenteeism is always a sign of work dissatisfaction.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]
 56

8. The Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) measures satisfaction with the work environment. The
long version takes 15–20 minutes to complete, using 100 satisfaction items. It is easy to read and Weiss et
al. (1967) say it is both reliable and valid. It can be completed as a postal questionnaire or in an interview
setting.
(a) Explain how Weiss et al. (1967) know the MSQ is reliable. [2]
(b) (i) Give two MSQ satisfaction items. [2]
(ii) Suggest one problem that would arise if the questionnaire took longer than 20 minutes to
complete. [2]
(c) Suggest two disadvantages of using a five-point scale, using an example from the MSQ. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using postal questionnaires to gather data about work
satisfaction. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

9 ‘The two-factor theory of job satisfaction is too reductionist to be useful.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

10 Hackman and Oldham (1976) used several different ways to collect data for their job characteristics model:
• the self-report Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) was administered to groups of employees
• supervisors and the researchers completed the Job Rating Form
• members of management were asked to rate the work performance of each worker
• absence data was obtained from company records.
(a) Explain what is meant by the ‘job characteristics model’. [2]
(b) Outline two psychological states identified by this model. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest one strength of using absence data from company records. [2]
(ii) Suggest one weakness of using members of management to rate each worker. [2]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using self-reports to gather data on job satisfaction.
You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

11 ‘Job satisfaction can only be measured effectively using closed questions.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]
 57

12 A machine in your factory has been sabotaged. You know who is responsible and want to find the reason
for this unacceptable behaviour
(a) Design a study using an interview to investigate the reason for sabotaging the machine. [10]
(b) Explain the psychological and methodological evidence on which your study is based. [8]

13 ‘Organisational commitment can be measured simply by looking at attendance and absenteeism.’

To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]

14. Fig. 4.1 is an example of a question about the quality of working life from the QWL questionnaire
(Walton, 1974).

How satisfied are you with the work influence on your family life/routine?

Very dissatisfied Dissatisfied Neither satisfied Satisfied Very satisfied

nor dissatisfied
1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 4.1

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘quality of working life’. [2]

(b) Outline two of the eight ‘key components’ used to assess quality ofworking life. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest how the reliability of the QWL questionnaire could be assessed. [2]
(ii) Suggest how the validity of the QWL questionnaire could be assessed. [2]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a five-point scale to measure quality of
working life. You should include a conclusion in your answer.[5]

15 ‘Quality of working life can only be measured effectively using five‑point rating scales.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples of research you have studied to support
your answer. [12]