ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

EDEXCEL IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Kristan for personal use only.
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

1. Forces And Motion a= change in velocity v−u

time taken
= t ​ ​

Negative acceleration is known as deceleration.

Velocity-time graphs:
1.1. Movement and Position They indicate the velocity of a particle within a given
amount of time. The gradient of velocity-time graphs
Speed is a scalar quantity.
indicates acceleration.
Average speed, v= T otal Distance The area under the graph of a velocity-time graph
T otal T ime (t) ​

indicates distance as,

Total distance s = v × t

Units for speed: m/s, km/h, cm/s, mph However, in the

IGCSEs, we use metric units. Hence, always use m/s.
Distance-time graphs:
They indicate how much a vehicle has travelled within
a given interval. The gradient (slope) of distance-time
graphs indicates speed. 1.2. Forces and Shape
y 2 −y 1
Speed= Distance
T ime = x2 −x1
​
​

​
​

​
​

The steeper the gradient, the higher the speed. As it can be

seen in the above graphs

Graph (a) has zero speed.

In Graph (b), Object A has a higher speed than Object B.
Speed is increasing in Graph (c).
Speed is decreasing in graph (d).
Lastly, speed is constant in graph (e).
Vector quantities have both magnitude as well as
direction.
For example, displacement is distance but with a
particular direction, whereas velocity is speed with a
particular direction.

Average velocity= increase in displacement time taken

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Force is a vector quantity

Some examples of forces are friction, upthrust,
weight, normal reaction force, etc. Its unit is Newton
(N).
In most situations, more than one force will act on the
object.
An unbalanced force can be calculated by considering
the magnitude and direction of the forces acting on a
particular object.
If forces are unbalanced, it can cause the object to
change the way it moves. If balanced, the forces will have
no effect.
Friction is the force that causes moving objects to slow
Elastic bands are made of rubber. When they are
down and finally stop. Friction occurs when solid objects
stretched, graphs like this are achieved.
rub against other solids and also when objects move
through fluids.
Forces can also change the shape of an object. These
changes in shape can be both temporary or permanent.
Ex - elastic band, it returns to its original position after
being stretched (temporary).
Ex – glass (permanent)
Springs stretch when force is applied and returns to its
original position after force is removed.
Hooke’s Law:
This law states that the extension of the spring is
directly proportional to the force applied. The graph
obtained by plotting force against extension is a
straight line passing through the origin.
It is applicable only up to a certain point called the
limit of proportionality. This is where the spring stops
1.3. Forces and Movement
obeying Hooke’s law and starts stretching more for If unbalanced forces are acting on an object, the object
each load force increase. may accelerate or decelerate depending on the direction
Once the elastic limit has been reached, the spring of the unbalanced force.
will not return to its original length. The acceleration depends on the size of the unbalanced
force and the mass of the object.

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Velocity–time graph for a free-fall parachutist

When mass is constant, the graph of force against reaching terminal velocity:
acceleration is a straight line passing through the origin.
Therefore, F ∝ a.
F = ma
Brakes on cars and bicycles work by increasing the
friction between the rotating wheels and the vehicle's
body.
However, if the road is wet or the tires are in bad
condition, the frictional force will be smaller. If the
brakes are too hard, the tires will not grip the road
surface, and the car will skid.
It can take a driver an amount of time to react to a new
object or situation in front of them. The time they take to
react is known as reaction time.
The amount of distance travelled during this reaction
1.4. Momentum
time is known as thinking distance.
The distance travelled within the time when brakes are Momentum measures how difficult it is to stop
something that is moving.
first applied and the car stops is known as braking
distance. p = m*v
The weight of an object is the force that acts on it
because of gravity. The rate of change of momentum of an object is
W = mg proportional to the force applied to that object.
An object moving through air experiences a force that (mv−mu)
Rate of change of momentum = t ​

opposes its movement known as air resistance or drag. The total momentum of objects that collide remains the
The size of the drag force acting on an object depends on same: momentum before the collision = momentum
its shape and its speed. after the collision
The drag coefficient is a measure of how easily an object Rockets also use the law of conservation of momentum
moves through the air. to propel the spacecraft through space.
Seatbelts and crumple zones of cars are used to increase
the time of impact so that the momentum can be
changed.
The less the momentum, the less the passengers will be
affected.

Newton’s Three Laws of Motion:

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Newton’s First Law: P=lV

An object will not change its motion unless acted on Watts = ampere x volts
by an unbalanced force.
Newton’s Second Law: Energy = power x time
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional E = Pt
to the net force and inversely proportional to its Joules = Watt x seconds
mass. Varying current or voltage in an appliance is called an
Newton’s Third Law: alternating current (a.c.) or alternating voltage.
For every action, there is an equal and opposite Currents and voltages that are always in the same
reaction. direction and have the same value is called direct current
For example, when you sit down, your weight pushes (d.c.) or direct voltage.
down on the seat. On the other hand, the seat pushes
back on you with an equal force in the upward direction.
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when
bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains
constant, provided no external force acts on the system.
mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB

1.5. The Turning Effect of Forces

All objects are turned around a fixed point called a pivot.
The turning effect of the force depends on both the size
of the force applied and the distance from the hinge or
pivot at which it is applied.
Moment (Nm) = force (N) × perpendicular distance from
pivot, d (m)

Moment = F × d
An object will be in balance if the sum of anticlockwise
moments = the sum of clockwise moments.
The point through which the entire weight of a body acts
is known as its centre of gravity.

How devices are protected:

The position of the centre of gravity of an object will

affect its stability. The lower the centre of gravity, the
more stable the object.

2. Electricity
2.1. Mains Electricity
Power is m­­easured in joules per second or watts.

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Fuse Circuit Breaker
A fuse protects a circuit. Thin piece of wire
which overheats and melts if current is too An automatic switch which if current rises over
high. It is placed on the live wire before the a specified value, the electromagnet pulls the
switch. This prevents overheating and catching contacts apart, breaking the circuit. The reset
fire. A fuse will have a specific current value button is to rest everything. It works like a fuse
(e.g. 13 amps.) So when choosing a suitable
fuse you must use the one above minimum but is better because it can be reset.
value but less than maximum value

2.2. Current and Voltages in circuits

An electric current is a flow of charge.
Some modern appliances use casings made from an Electrons flow easily through all metals, so they are
insulator such as plastic. This is known as insulation. labelled as good conductors of electricity.
If all the electrical parts of an appliance are insulated in Electrons do not flow easily through plastics - they are
this way, so that they cannot be touched by the user, the poor conductors of electricity, or, an insulator.
appliance is said to have double insulation. Appliances We measure the size of the current in a circuit using an
that have double insulation use a two-wire flex. There is ammeter.
no need for an earth wire. charge, Q (coulombs) = current, I (amps) x time, t
Benefits of Earthing a Metal Case: (seconds)
Many electrical appliances, have metal cases, the Q = I*t
earth wire creates a safe route for current to flow energy transferred, E (joules) = charge, Q (coulombs) x
through if the live wire touches the casing voltage, V (volts)
Earth terminal connected to metal casing, so in such E = Q*V
a case, the current goes through earth wire instead of There are two main types of electrical circuit:
causing an electric shock.
A strong current surges through earth wire because it
has very low resistance
This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance
The wires of a heating element are designed to have a
high resistance so that as the current passes through
them, energy is transferred and the element heats up.
We use this heating effect of current in many different
appliances in our homes such as kettles, dishwashers,
electric cookers, etc.

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Series circuit
Parallel circuit 2.3. Electrical Resistance
The current at any point in a series circuit is the same
The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so V (volts) = I (amps) x R (ohms)
We measure resistance in units called ohms (Ω).
the total current is always greater than the current in
one branch Current voltage graph for a wire:
Combining resistors
In Series: RT otal = R1 + R2
​ ​ ​

In Parallel: RT otal = 1 +1 1
​ ​

R1 R2
​ ​

​ ​

The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is

less than that of either resistor by itself and the
current in the two resistors in greater in the source
than in the individual resistors and is equal to the
sum of the currents in all the resistors connected in
parallel.
Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:
If one lamp breaks, the other still works
Each lamp gets maximum PD Current voltage graph for a filament bulb:
In series: PD across the supply = PD across all the
components combined
In parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents
in the separate branches.
The relationship between current, voltage and resistance
is expressed by Ohm's Law.
This states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly
proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the
temperature remains constant.
Circuit symbols:

Current voltage graph for a diode:

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Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass and wood do not 2 types of charges: positive and negative.
allow electricity to flow through them easily. They are Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
electrical insulators. SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).
Types of resistors: The presence of an electrostatic charge can be detected
Variable resistor is used to control the size of the using a leaf electroscope.
current in a bulb. If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are
If the resistance is decreased, there will be a larger induced.
current and the bulb shines more brightly. The metal cap gets one type of charge (positive or
If the resistance is increased the current will be negative) and the metal stem and gold leaf get the
smaller and the bulb will glow less brightly or not at other type of charge so they repel each other.
all.
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes
with small changes in temperature.

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that

changes when light is shone on it. In the dark its All atoms contain small particles called protons, neutrons
resistance is high but in light, its resistance is low. and electrons.
Diodes are very special resistors that allow charges to Charge Mass(AMU) location
flow in one direction. Some diodes glow when charges Proton +1 1 Nucleus
flow through them. They are called light emitting diodes Neutron
Electron
0
-1
1
0
Nucleus
Orbitals
(LEDs).
If an atom gains extra electrons, it is then negatively
charged.
If an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
An atom that becomes charged by gaining or losing
electrons is called an ion.
When electrical insulators of different materials are
rubbed together, they become charge.

2.4. Electric Charge

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Period: time taken for one oscillation in seconds

Wavefront: the peak of a transverse wave or the
compression of a longitudinal wave
Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
Wavelength: distance between a point on one wave to
the corresponding point on the next wave in length
Amplitude: maximum displacement of a wave from its
undisturbed point.

Painting an awkwardly shaped object with a spray gun

can take a long time and use a lot of paint. Hence,
electrostatic spraying is used to make the process much
more efficient.
Uses of static electricity:
Electrostatic Paint Spraying
Inkjet Printers
Photocopiers
Electrostatic Precipitator
Problems of static electricity:
As aircraft fly through the air, friction causes them to
become charged with static electricity. Solution: Earth Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves
the plane with a conductor as soon as it lands, before Travelling waves in which oscillation is
perpendicular to direction of travel
Travelling waves in which oscillation is parallel
to direction of travel.
refuelling. Has crests and troughs Has compressions and rarefactions
For example, light, water waves and vibrating For example, sound waves
string

3. Waves
3.1. Properties of Waves
Waves are a way of transferring energy from place to
place.
Wavefronts are created by overlapping lots of different
waves. A wavefront is a line where all the vibrations are
in phase and the same distance from the source.
Equation:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength

v = fλ
Frequency: It is the number of waves passing any point
per second measured in hertz (Hz)
1
F requency =
Period
​

1
f= ​

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At higher frequencies, the water waves have shorter The electromagnetic spectrum (EM spectrum) is a
wavelengths. The speed of the waves does not change. continuous spectrum of waves, which includes the visible
Plane (flat) mirrors produce a reflection. spectrum
Rays from an object reflect off the mirror into our eyes, All electromagnetic waves:
but we see them behind the mirror. Travel at the speed of light: approximately 3 ×
The image has these properties: 108 m/s.
Image is the same size as the object They travel at around the same speed in air too.
Image is the same distance from the mirror as object Don’t need a medium to travel through (travel
A line joining corresponding points of the image and through a vacuum)
object meet the mirror at a right angle Can transfer energy
Image is virtual: no rays actually pass through the Are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy
image and the image cannot be formed on a screen in some way
Doppler effect: It is the change in wave frequency Are transverse waves
during the motion between a wave source and its
observer.
For example, when a sound object moves towards us,
the frequency of the sound waves increases and hence a
higher pitch is produced.

Applications:
Radio waves: radio and television communications
Microwaves: satellite television and telephones
Safety issue: cause internal heating of body tissues
Infrared: electrical appliances (radiant heaters and
grills), remote controllers for televisions and intruder
alarms
X-rays: medicine (x-ray photography and killing
cancer cells) and security
Safety issue: is a mutagen, it causes cancer
3.2. Electromagnetic Spectrum (mutations)
Monochromatic: light of a single wavelength and
colour (used in lasers)
UV light causes the skin to tan, but overexposure (too
much) will lead to sunburn and blistering.
Gamma rays, like x-rays, are highly penetrating rays
and can cause damage to living cells. This can cause
mutations which can lead to cancer.
Gamma rays are also used to sterilize medical
instruments, to kill microorganisms so that food will
keep for longer and to treat cancer using
radiotherapy.

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Total internal reflection: It only occurs when rays of

3.3. Light Waves light are travelling towards a boundary with a less
optically dense medium (a medium with a lower
Light waves are transverse waves that can be reflected refractive index).
and refracted.
Use of total internal reflection: Optical fibres,
Laws of reflection:
submarines, etc.
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection As the fibres are very narrow, light entering the inner
The incident ray, reflected ray and normal are always core always strikes the boundary of the two glasses at an
on the angle that is greater than the critical angle.
same plane (side of mirror) No light escapes across this boundary, providing a path
that the light follows even when the fibre is curved.
Critical angle: angle at which refracted ray is parallel to Different materials can bend rays of light by different
the surface of material. amounts. We describe this by using a number called the
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle refractive index (n).
there is no refracted ray, there is total internal reflection. The refractive index of glass is about 1.5 and water is 1.3.
If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle the We can use the equation below to calculate the refractive
incidence ray will split into a refracted ray and a weaker sin(i)
index of a material: n = sin(r) ​

reflected ray.
(where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of
refraction)

Another equation can be extracted:

1
sin(c) = n ​

3.4. Sound Waves

Sounds are produced by objects that are vibrating.
Speed of sound can be calculated using, d = v*t.
Some other properties of sound:
Sound waves are longitudinal: they have
compressions and rarefactions and oscillate
backwards and forwards.
Sound waves need a medium to travel through as it
moves due to oscillating particles.
Compression: High pressure section of a longitudinal
wave
Rarefaction: Low pressure section of a longitudinal wave

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The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch. Real systems always have an unwanted energy output so
The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound. can never have 100% efficiency.
The average person can only hear sounds that have a The efficiency of an energy conversion system is defined
frequency higher than 20 Hz but lower than 20 000 Hz. as:
useful energy output
eff iciency = total energy input ​
× 100

Efficiency does not have a unit because it is a ratio.

4.2. Thermal Energy

4. Energy Resources and Thermal or heat energy is energy that is stored in 'hot'

Energy Transfer matter.

Thermal conduction is the transfer of thermal (heat)
energy through a substance by the vibration of the
atoms within the substance. The substance itself does
4.1. Energy Transfers not move.
For energy to be useful, we need to be able to transfer it Conduction is the flow of heat through matter from
from one form to another. places of higher temperature to places of lower
When transferring energy, some energy might be temperature without movement of the matter as a
wasted. whole.
Unwanted energy transfers reduce efficiency. In non-metals - when heat is supplied to something, its
The principle of conservation of energy states that: atoms vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the
Energy is not created or destroyed in any process adjacent atoms.
(only transferred from one form to another).
Sankey diagrams are a simpler and clearer way of
showing what happens to an energy input into a system.
The energy flow is shown by arrows whose width is
proportional to the amount of energy involved. Wide
arrows show large energy flows, narrow arrows show
small energy flows.

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In metals – conduction happens in the previous way and The gravitational potential energy of an object that has
in a quicker way –electrons are free to move, they travel been raised to a height, h, above the ground is given by:
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass
on the vibrations Good conductors are used whenever gravitational potential energy,
heat is required to travel quickly through something GPE = mgh
Bad conductors (insulators) are used to reduce the The kinetic energy of a moving object is calculated using
amount of heat lost to the surroundings
the equation,
Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid from
places of higher temperature in places of lower K.E = ½ mν2
temperature by movement of the fluid itself.
As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles which In some cases, work done of object = gain in GPE before
are warmer become less dense and rise. hitting the ground
They then cool and fall back to the heat source, creating Work transfers energy to an object:
a cycle called convection current.
As particles circulate, they transfer energy to other Work = Force × distance
particles. If a cooling object is above a fluid it will create a
Power is the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of
convection current as well.
doing work.
work done
Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another Power = time taken ​

by means of electromagnetic waves. It does not require

a medium. 4.4. Energy Resources and Electricity
Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot
objects also give out light waves. Infra-red radiation is Generation
part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Renewable sources are not exhaustible
Matt Black White Silver Non-renewable sources of energy are exhaustible
Emitter Best Worst
Reflector Worst Best
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Absorber Best Worst
Fuel: burnt to make thermal Cheap Harmful wastes:
Greenhouse/
An emitter sends out thermal radiation. energy, makes steam, turns
turbine
Plentiful
Low-tech pollutant gas
Radiation
A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad
Wave energy: generators
absorber. driven by up and down No greenhouse gases
produced Difficult to build
motion of waves at sea.
An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat Tidal energy: dam built
up more quickly and a reflector will not heat up quickly. where river meets sea, lake
fills when tides come in & No greenhouse gases Expensive
produced Can’t be built everywhere
The amount of radiation also depends on the surface empties when tide goes out;
water flow runs generator
temperature and surface area of a body. Hydroelectric: river & rain Low impact on
Consequences of energy transfer include: fill up lake behind dam,
water released, turns
environment
Energy produced at
Few areas of the world
suitable
Metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it turbine ∴ generator constant rate

conducts heat Geothermal: water pumped

No CO2 produced Deep drilling difficult and
down to hot rocks rising as
Convection currents create sea breezes. During the steam expensive
Nuclear fission: uranium Produces a lot of energy with
day the land is warmer and acts as heat source. atoms split by shooting very little resources Produces radioactive waste
neutrons at them
During the night the sea acts as the heat source. Wind: windmills are moved
No CO2/ Greenhouse gasses
A black saucepan cools better than a white one, white by the breeze. They
generate electricity from produced
Few areas of the world suitable.
houses stay cooler than dark ones. kinetic energy.
Solar cells/ photovoltaic
cells: made of materials that No CO2 produced Variable amount of sunshine in
deliver electrical current some countries
4.3. Work and Power when it absorbs light
Solar panels: absorbs
energy and use it to heat
water

5. Solids, Liquids and Gases

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5.1. Density and Pressure

Solids, liquids and gases have different properties and
characteristic
mass
Density = volume ​

m
ρ= ​

v Solid Liquid Gas

Fixed volume but changes No fixed shape or volume, gases
The units for density are Fixed shape and volume shape depending on its
container
fill up containers
kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) or, Strong forces of attraction
between particles- particles
Weaker attractive forces than
solids- medium distances
Almost no intermolecular
forces- large distances between
grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3). close to each other. between particles particles
There is no fixed pattern;
Pressure = Force
Area
​ Fixed pattern (lattice) liquids take the shape of their Particles are quickly
container
far apart and move

Atoms vibrate but can’t Collide with each other and

F change position, ∴ fixed Particles slide past each other bounce in all directions
P = ​
volume, and shape
A
Gases also exert pressure on things around them. The Some other properties:
pressure exerted by the atmosphere on your body is
about 100,000 Pa.
mass of water, m = (A x h) x p
This equation can be used for calculating pressure
differences in other liquids or gases, as long as you know
their densities.
Density of a liquid: Place the measuring cylinder on
balance. Add liquid. Reading on measuring cylinder = V,
change in mass on balance = m. Use formula.
The density of solid:
Finding the volume: Use a mathematical formula to
find out the volume of a regular object. To find out
ΔQ = mcΔT
the volume of an irregular object, put an object into a
measuring cylinder with water; the rise of water is the
object's volume.
Finding the mass: Use balance.
An object will float in a fluid if its density is lesser than
the density of the liquid, i.e. The volume of fluid
displaced has a greater mass than the object itself.
Equation:

pressure difference = height × density × gravitational field

strength
ΔP = ρhg

5.2. Solids, Liquids and Gases

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When you supply energy to a substance, you would

expect its temperature to rise, and this is generally true.
The more the kinetic energy in a gas, the faster its
particles move; therefore, the gas is at a higher
temperature.
The pressure gases exerted on a container are due to the
particles colliding on the walls.
The greater the kinetic energy in gasses, the faster they
move, and the more often they collide on the container’s
walls.
Therefore, the volume is constant, then increasing the
temperature will increase the pressure.
Thus, if there is a change in the momentum of the To convert from a Celsius scale (in °C) to a Kelvin scale
particles, the kinetic energy decreases, decreasing the temperature (in K), add 273 to the Celsius scale
collisions on the container walls and, thus, the pressure. temperature:
GAS LAWS: temperature in K = temperature in ℃ + 273
Charles's Law gives the relationship between
volume and temperature if pressure and amount of
gas are held constant. Volume and temperature are
6. Magnetism and
inversely proportional.
Boyle's Law - states that the volume of a given
Electromagnetism
amount of gas held at constant temperature varies
inversely with the applied pressure when the 6.1. Magnetism and Electromagnetism
temperature and mass are constant.
Pressure law - states that for a fixed mass of gas, the
pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin
temperature once the volume is kept constant.
P1 P2
=
​ ​

​ ​

T1 ​ T2 ​

If the volume increases and the temperature stays

constant, the particles hit the surface less often, thus
decreasing the pressure.
P1V1**=**P2V2
PV = constant

The constant is valid at a fixed gas mass at a constant

temperature.
At a temperature of - 273℃, the gas pressure would be
zero. This temperature is known as 'absolute zero'.

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Soft iron Steel
Magnets have a magnetic field around them Gets magnetised faster Slow to be magnetised
They are two opposite poles (North and South), which but loses its magnetism
as soon as inducing
but retains acquired
magnetism for a long
exert forces on other magnets. Like poles repel and magnet is removed. time.

unlike poles attract. The interaction of magnetic fields High susceptibility but Low susceptibility but
causes this. low retentivity high retentivity

Therefore, if magnets are facing each other with Use: core in the Use: making magnets.
opposite poles, they will come together, given a small transformer

space between them

They attract magnetic materials by inducing (permanent
or temporary) magnetism in them.
6.2. Transformers
Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material
The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction
of the force on a positive charge at that point
Induced Magnetism:
Magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in
them; the material becomes a magnet as well.
The side of the material facing the magnet will
become the opposite pole as the magnet. On the left-hand side, there is a primary coil, and on the
Methods of inducing magnetism: right-hand side, there is a secondary coil.
A piece of steel becomes permanently magnetised
when placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is These two coils are entirely two different coils.
usually weak.
It can be magnetised more strongly by stroking it with These two coils are wrapped around an iron core
one end of a magnet because it can be easily magnetised.
The most effective method is to place it in a solenoid The primary coil is connected to a (AC) Alternating
and pass a large, direct current (d.c.) through the coil. current with high voltage (P.D)
Methods of demagnetisation: When the current goes through the primary coil, it
If a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are creates magnetic fields, constantly changing its direction.
thrown out of line and demagnetised. This magnetic field passes through the iron core, and it is
Heating a magnet to a high temperature also passed to the secondary coil. When the current enters
demagnetise it. the secondary coil it changes the Voltage or the P.D
Stroking with another magnet to destroy the The iron core is used to increase the magnetic field, and
alignment of poles it can be easily magnetized.
Place magnet with poles opposite to that induced by Transformers only work with the AC because we
a d.c. Current and insert into a coil with d.c. current constantly need changes in the magnetic field to induce
The most efficient method is to place a magnet inside the P.D
a solenoid connected to an alternating current (a.c.) If there are the same number of coil turns, the PD will
supply. remain the same, assuming no energy is wasted.
If there are more turns in the secondary coil, the PD will
be greater than the current in the primary coil. This is
called a step-up transformer.
If there is a double number of turns, then the P.D. will
also be doubled.
Step-down transformers are transformers with more
number of turns in the primary coil.

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Depending on their charge, they will be affected by

6.3. Equations electric and magnetic fields.
The parent nucleus becomes a daughter nucleus and a
particle (decay products).
The nucleus changes when undergoing alpha or beta
decay
Alpha decay: An element with a proton number 2 lower and
nucleon number 4 lower, and an alpha particle is made (2p +
2n)
e.g. 88226Ra → 86222Rn + 24α
Beta decay:

A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an

7. Radioactivity and Particles antineutrino so an element with the same nucleon
number but with a proton number 1 higher e.g.
7.1. Atoms and Radioactivity e.g. 53131I → 54131Xe + − 10β + 00v
Gamma emission:
Atoms consist of:
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons Gamma emission causes no change in mass number or
(positively charged) and neutrons. These two types of atomic number; they emit energy
particles are called nucleons. They are bound Some isotopes do not change in mass or atomic number
together by the strong nuclear force. however they emit energy as their particles rearrange
Electrons: almost mass-less particles which orbit themselves to become more stable
nucleus in shells
This is proved by Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment Radiation and Half-Life
Proton number: number of protons in an atom
The unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq). It is a
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons +
measure of how many unstable nuclei are disintegrating
neutrons) in an atom
per second.
Isotope:
Background radiation: a small amount of radiation
Atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons e.g., Carbon 12 and Carbon 14. around us because of radioactive materials in the
environment. Mainly comes from natural sources such as
There are non-radioactive isotopes and radio-
soil, rocks, air, building materials, food and drink – and
isotopes.
even space.
Radio isotopes are unstable atoms, which break
down giving radiation Sources of Background Radiation:
Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space & time
Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)
Helium nucleus (2 protons & 2 One high speed Electro-magnetic
Nature neutrons) electron radiation
Charge +2 -1 none
Stopped by
Penetration Stopped by paper aluminium Only reduced by lead
Effect from Deflected Very deflected Not deflected
fields
Ionizing effect Very strong Weak Very weak
Speed 1⁄10 c 9⁄10 c c

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Applications of Radioactivity
Uses:
Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) – rays
kill cancer cells using cobalt-60
Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes
(tracers) added to oil/gas. At leaks radiation is
detected using a Geiger counter.
Archaeological use: carbon 14 – used for carbon
dating.
Radioactive material is stored in a lead container
Picked up with tongs, not bare hands
Kept away from the body and not pointed at people
Left out of its container for as short a time as possible
A Geiger-Müller (GM) tube can be used to detects α, β
and γ radiation. Fission and Fusion
Radioactive decay: A radioisotope (unstable
arrangement of neutrons and protons) is altered to
make a more stable arrangement.
The half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for half
the nuclei present in any given sample to decay.
Some nuclei are more stable than others.
Remember to factor background radiation in half-life
calculations involving tables and decay curves.
The decay rate, C, corrected for background radiation, is
proportional to the amount of radioactive isotope
present. If we plot a graph of C against time, t, we can
measure the half-life from the graph.

Half-life calculations: Graphs of activity, in becquerels,

against time can be used to find the half-life of an
isotope, and this half-life information can be used to
make predictions of the activity of the radioisotope at a
later time.

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Nuclear reactions involve a change in the qualities of In the reactor, graphite is used as a moderator.
atoms. Heavy atoms split into lighter atoms and other The moderator absorbs some of the kinetic energy of the
pieces in a process called fission. neutrons to slow them down.
Lighter atoms may be forced to join together to make The control rods are made of boron or cadmium.
heavier atoms in a process called fusion. They absorb the neutrons and take them out of the
Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor. fission process completely.
It is used because a neutron can split its nuclei. The The reactor vessel is made of steel and surrounded by a
process of splitting an atom is called fission. concrete layer which prevents any radiation escaping.
In the fission reaction, a slow-moving neutron is Fusion is the energy source for stars.
absorbed by a nucleus of U-235. The problem in fusion is creating the very high
The resulting nucleus of uranium-236 is unstable and temperatures needed to make the deuterium and tritium
splits apart. nuclei collide.
The fragments of this decay are the two daughter nuclei Enough energy to overcome the repulsive force between
of barium-144 and krypton-89. the positive electric charge in the nuclei of each isotope
The fission reaction produces a huge amount of energy. is needed.
If more than one neutron from each fission causes
fission in surrounding nuclei, then the reaction gets
faster and faster. This is called a chain reaction. 8. Astrophysics
Each fission results in more nuclei splitting apart.
If the process is allowed in a nuclear reactor, the reactor 8.1. Motion in the Universe
core overheats, resulting in a nuclear explosion with the
sudden release of enormous amounts of heat energy
and radiation.
In a nuclear reactor, the process is controlled so heat
energy is released over a longer period of time.
The heat produced in the core or heart of the reactor is
used to heat water.
The steam produced then drives turbines to turn
generators.

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The universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies.

A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars.
Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy.
There is always a force of attraction between any two
objects. This attraction is due to the masses of the A star that is much larger than our Sun will expand into a
objects. This force is called gravitational force. large red supergiant.
The size of this force depends on the: As it contracts, it becomes unstable. It explodes,
masses of the two objects throwing dust and gas into space to form a new stellar
distance between the masses. nebula. This exploding star is called a supernova.
The Sun is the gravitational attraction between this mass Any matter remaining will form a very dense neutron
and each of the planets that holds the Solar System star. If the neutron star has a mass that is approximately
together and causes the planets to follow their curved five times greater than that of our Sun or more, it
paths. collapses further to become a black hole.
Those planets that are closest to the Sun feel the
greatest attraction and so follow the most curved paths.
Planets that are the furthest from the Sun feel the
weakest pull and follow the least curved path.
A satellite is an object that orbits a planet. There are two
types of the satellite: natural and artificial (human-
made).
Comets are large rock-like pieces of ice that orbit the
Sun. They have very elliptical (elongated) orbits, which
sometimes take them very close to the Sun.
The strength of gravity on a planet or moon is called its
gravitational field strength and is given the symbol g.
Different planets have different masses and different
radii.
The larger the mass of a planet, the greater its The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram):
gravitational field strength. shows the relationship between the brightness,
The larger the radius of a planet, the smaller the temperature and classification of a star.
gravitational field strength at its surface.
On the Moon, the gravitational field strength is only one-
sixth that of the Earth's.
The distance a satellite moves is the circumference of a
circle with the radius, r.
The time period, T, is the time for one complete orbit.
2 πr
v= ​

8.2. Stellar Evolution

8.3. Cosmology

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The Universe is expanding and at some time in the past,

all the matter in the Universe was in one place just
before an explosion. This theory is called the Big Bang
theory.
The equation below shows us how to calculate the speed
at which a star or galaxy is moving relative to us.
change in wavelength, △λ velocity of a galaxy,
= ​

ref erence in wavelength, λ speed of light, c

λ − λ0 Δλ v
= =
​

​ ​ ​

λ0 ​ λ0 c ​

The Doppler effect is a property of all waves.

When astronomers look at light spectra from distant
stars and galaxies, they can see the Doppler effect.
In the 1960s scientists detected this afterglow of energy.
They are microwaves and can be detected in all
directions in the Universe. They became known as
cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation.
Red-shift indicates that the source of the light waves is
moving away from the observer. Blue-shift would
indicate that the source of light is moving towards the
observer.
When we compare the light emitted from all the different
galaxies a clear pattern emerges.
Almost all the galaxies emit light with red-shift.
The further away a galaxy is the greater the red-shift and
therefore the faster it is moving away from us.

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Edexcel IGCSE
Physics

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