William

Shakespeare

William Shakespeare[a] (c. 23[b] April 1564 – 23 April 1616)[c] was an English
playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the
English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.[3][4][5] He is often
called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard"). His
extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39 plays, 154 sonnets,
three long narrative poems and a few other verses, some of uncertain
authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and
are performed more often than those of any other playwright.[6] Shakespeare
remains arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his
works continue to be studied and reinterpreted.

William Shakespeare
:
 The Chandos portrait, likely
depicting Shakespeare, c. 1611

Born c. 23 April 1564

Stratford-upon-
Avon,
Warwickshire,
England

Died 23 April 1616

(aged 51–52)
Stratford-upon-
Avon,
:
 Warwickshire,
England

Resting place Church of the

Holy Trinity,
Stratford-upon-
Avon

Occupations Playwright · poet

· actor

Years active c. 1585–1613

Era Elizabethan ·
Jacobean

Organisations Lord
Chamberlain's
Men · King's Men

Works Shakespeare
:
 Works Shakespeare
bibliography

Movement English
Renaissance

Spouse Anne Hathaway (m. 1582)

Children Susanna Hall

Hamnet
Shakespeare
Judith Quiney

Parents John
Shakespeare
Mary Arden

Writing career
Language Early Modern
:
 English
Genres Play (comedy ·
history ·
tragedy)
Poetry (sonnet ·
narrative poem ·
epitaph)
Signature

Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the

age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children:
Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he
began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner
("sharer") of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known
as the King's Men after the ascension of King James VI of Scotland to the
English throne. At age 49 (around 1613), he appears to have retired to Stratford,
where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life
survive; this has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his
physical appearance, his sexuality, his religious beliefs and even certain fringe
theories[7] as to whether the works attributed to him were written by others.[8][9]
[10]

Shakespeare produced most of his known works between 1589 and 1613.[11][12]
His early plays were primarily comedies and histories and are regarded as some
:
 of the best works produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until
1608, among them Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth, all considered to be
among the finest works in English.[3][4][5] In the last phase of his life, he wrote
tragicomedies (also known as romances) such as The Winter's Tale and The
Tempest, and collaborated with other playwrights.

Many of Shakespeare's plays were published in editions of varying quality and

accuracy during his lifetime. However, in 1623, John Heminges and Henry
Condell, two fellow actors and friends of Shakespeare's, published a more
definitive text known as the First Folio, a posthumous collected edition of
Shakespeare's dramatic works that includes 36 of his plays. Its Preface was a
prescient poem by Ben Jonson, a former rival of Shakespeare, who hailed
Shakespeare with the now famous epithet: "not of an age, but for all time".[13]

Life

Early life

John Shakespeare's house, believed to

be Shakespeare's birthplace, in
Stratford-upon-Avon

Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful

glover (glove-maker) originally from Snitterfield in Warwickshire, and Mary
Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning family.[14] He was born in
Stratford-upon-Avon, where he was baptised on 26 April 1564. His date of birth
:
 is unknown but is traditionally observed on 23 April, Saint George's Day.[1] This
date, which can be traced to William Oldys and George Steevens, has proved
appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on the same date in 1616.
[15][16]
He was the third of eight children, and the eldest surviving son.[17]

Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree
that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford,
[18][19][20]
a free school chartered in 1553,[21] about a quarter-mile (400 m) from
his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but
grammar school curricula were largely similar: the basic Latin text was
standardised by royal decree,[22][23] and the school would have provided an
intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors.[24]

At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The

consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27
November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds
guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage.[25] The ceremony may
have been arranged in some haste since the Worcester chancellor allowed the
marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times,[26][27] and six
months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, baptised 26
May 1583.[28] Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two
years later and were baptised 2 February 1585.[29] Hamnet died of unknown
causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596.[30]
:
 Shakespeare's coat of arms,
from the 1602 book The book
of coates and creasts.
Promptuarium armorum. It
features spears as a pun on
the family name.[d]

After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is
mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the
appearance of his name in the "complaints bill" of a law case before the Queen's
Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589.
[31]
Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost
years".[32] Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported
many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first biographer,
recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to
escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy.
Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a
scurrilous ballad about him.[33][34] Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare
starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.
[35]
John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster.
[36]
Some 20th-century scholars suggested that Shakespeare may have been
employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic
landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will.[37][38] Little
evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his
death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area.[39][40]
:
 London and theatrical
career
It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary
allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the
London stage by 1592.[41] By then, he was sufficiently known in London to be
attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats-Worth of Wit
from that year:

... there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers,

that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide,
supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as
the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is
in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.[42]

Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene's words,[42][43] but most agree
that Greene was accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to
match such university-educated writers as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas
Nashe, and Greene himself (the so-called "University Wits").[44] The italicised
phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from
Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 3, along with the pun "Shake-scene", clearly
identify Shakespeare as Greene's target. As used here, Johannes Factotum
("Jack of all trades") refers to a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others,
rather than the more common "universal genius".[42][45]

Greene's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare's work in the

theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the
mid-1580s to just before Greene's remarks.[46][47][48] After 1594,
Shakespeare's plays were performed at The Theatre, in Shoreditch, only by the
Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players, including
:
 Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing company in London.[49]
After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal
patent by the new King James I, and changed its name to the King's Men.[50]

All the world's a stage,

and all the men and women merely players:
they have their exits and their entrances;
and one man in his time plays many parts ...

—As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7,

139–142[51]

In 1599, a partnership of members of the company built their own theatre on the
south bank of the River Thames, which they named the Globe. In 1608, the
partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Extant records of
Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that his association
with the company made him a wealthy man,[52] and in 1597, he bought the
second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, invested in a share of
the parish tithes in Stratford.[53]

Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions, beginning in

1594, and by 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on
the title pages.[54][55][56] Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other
plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's Works
names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus His
Fall (1603).[57] The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson's
Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing
its end.[46] The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the
Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after
Volpone, although one cannot know for certain which roles he played.[58] In
1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "good Will" played "kingly" roles.[59] In
1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of
Hamlet's father.[60] Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You
:
 Like It, and the Chorus in Henry V,[61][62] though scholars doubt the sources of
that information.[63]

Throughout his career, Shakespeare divided his time between London and
Stratford. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in
Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St Helen's, Bishopsgate, north
of the River Thames.[64][65] He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599,
the same year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there.[64][66] By
1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul's
Cathedral with many fine houses. There, he rented rooms from a French
Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of women's wigs and other
headgear.[67][68]

Later years and death

Shakespeare's funerary
monument in Stratford-upon-
Avon
:
 Nicholas Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition, repeated by
Samuel Johnson, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford "some years before his
death".[69][70] He was still working as an actor in London in 1608; in an answer to
the sharers' petition in 1635, Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the
lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans, the King's Men
"placed men players" there, "which were Heminges, Condell, Shakespeare,
etc.".[71] However, it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London
throughout 1609.[72][73] The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed
during extended outbreaks of the plague (a total of over 60 months closure
between May 1603 and February 1610),[74] which meant there was often no
acting work. Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time.[75]
Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614.[69] In 1612,
he was called as a witness in Bellott v Mountjoy, a court case concerning the
marriage settlement of Mountjoy's daughter, Mary.[76][77] In March 1613, he
bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory;[78] and from November
1614, he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall.[79] After
1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613.
[80]
His last three plays were collaborations, probably with John Fletcher,[81]
who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King's Men. He retired in
1613, before the Globe Theatre burned down during the performance of Henry
VIII on 29 June.[80]

Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52.[e] He died within a month of
signing his will, a document which he begins by describing himself as being in
"perfect health". No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died.
Half a century later, John Ward, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook:
"Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and, it seems,
drank too hard, for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted",[83][84] not an
impossible scenario since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton. Of the
tributes from fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: "We
wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon / From the world's stage to
the grave's tiring room."[85][f]
:
 Holy Trinity Church, Stratford-upon-
Avon, where Shakespeare was
baptised and is buried

He was survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a
physician, John Hall, in 1607,[86] and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a
vintner, two months before Shakespeare's death.[87] Shakespeare signed his
last will and testament on 25 March 1616; the following day, Thomas Quiney, his
new son-in-law, was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret
Wheeler, both of whom had died during childbirth. Thomas was ordered by the
church court to do public penance, which would have caused much shame and
embarrassment for the Shakespeare family.[87]

Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter
Susanna[88] under stipulations that she pass it down intact to "the first son of
her body".[89] The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without
marrying.[90][91] The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died
without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare's direct line.[92][93] Shakespeare's
will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one-third of
his estate automatically.[g] He did make a point, however, of leaving her "my
second best bed", a bequest that has led to much speculation.[95][96][97] Some
scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the
second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in
significance.[98]
:
 Shakespeare's grave, next to those of
Anne Shakespeare, his wife, and
Thomas Nash, the husband of his
granddaughter

Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after
his death.[99][100] The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave
includes a curse against moving his bones, which was carefully avoided during
restoration of the church in 2008:[101]

Good frend for Iesvs sake Good friend, for Jesus' sake
forbeare, forbear,
To digg the dvst encloased heare. To dig the dust enclosed here.
Bleste be yͤ man yͭ spares thes Blessed be the man that spares
stones, these stones,
And cvrst be he yͭ moves my And cursed be he that moves my
[102][h]
bones. bones.

Some time before 1623, a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the
north wall, with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing. Its plaque compares him
to Nestor, Socrates, and Virgil.[103] In 1623, in conjunction with the publication
of the First Folio, the Droeshout engraving was published.[104] Shakespeare has
been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world, including
funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets' Corner in Westminster
Abbey.[105][106]
:
 Plays

Procession of Characters from Shakespeare's Plays by an unknown 19th-century artist

Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point,
as critics agree Shakespeare did, mostly early and late in his career.[107]

The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of
Henry VI, written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama.
Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date precisely, however,[108][109] and studies
of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus, The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of
the Shrew, and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare's
earliest period.[110][108] His first histories, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition
of Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland,[111]
dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been
interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty.[112] The early
plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially
Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, by the traditions of medieval drama, and
by the plays of Seneca.[113][114][115] The Comedy of Errors was also based on
classical models, but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found,
though it has an identical plot but different wording as another play with a
similar name.[116][117] Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona, in which two friends
appear to approve of rape,[118][119][120] the Shrew's story of the taming of a
woman's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics,
directors, and audiences.[121]
:
 Oberon, Titania and Puck with Fairies
Dancing. By William Blake, c. 1786.

Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double

plots and precise comic sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic
atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies.[122] A Midsummer Night's Dream is
a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic lowlife scenes.[123]
Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic The Merchant of Venice,
contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock, which reflects
dominant Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences.
[124][125]
The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing,[126] the charming
rural setting of As You Like It, and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night
complete Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies.[127] After the lyrical
Richard II, written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose
comedy into the histories of the late 1590s, Henry IV, Part 1 and 2, and Henry V.
Henry IV features Falstaff, rogue, wit and friend of Prince Hal. His characters
become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and
serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative variety of his
mature work.[128][129][130] This period begins and ends with two tragedies:
Romeo and Juliet, the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged
adolescence, love, and death;[131][132] and Julius Caesar—based on Sir Thomas
North's 1579 translation of Plutarch's Parallel Lives—which introduced a new
kind of drama.[133][134] According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro, in
Julius Caesar, "the various strands of politics, character, inwardness,
contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections on the act of writing,
began to infuse each other".[135]
:
 Hamlet, Horatio, Marcellus, and the
Ghost of Hamlet's Father. Henry
Fuseli, 1780–1785.

In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "problem plays"
Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and All's Well That Ends Well and a
number of his best known tragedies.[136][137] Many critics believe that
Shakespeare's tragedies represent the peak of his art. Hamlet has probably
been analysed more than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his
famous soliloquy which begins "To be or not to be; that is the question".[138]
Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation, Othello and Lear
are undone by hasty errors of judgement.[139] The plots of Shakespeare's
tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and
destroy the hero and those he loves.[140] In Othello, Iago stokes Othello's sexual
jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him.[141][142]
In King Lear, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers,
initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of
Gloucester and the murder of Lear's youngest daughter, Cordelia. According to
the critic Frank Kermode, "the play...offers neither its good characters nor its
audience any relief from its cruelty".[143][144][145] In Macbeth, the shortest and
most compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies,[146] uncontrollable ambition
incites Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth, to murder the rightful king and
usurp the throne until their own guilt destroys them in turn.[147] In this play,
Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure. His last major
tragedies, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, contain some of Shakespeare's
finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and
critic T. S. Eliot.[148][149][150] Eliot wrote, "Shakespeare acquired more essential
history from Plutarch than most men could from the whole British Museum."[151]

In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and

:
 completed three more major plays: Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, and The
Tempest, as well as the collaboration, Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Less bleak than
the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the
1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic
errors.[152] Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a
more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part, but it may merely reflect the
theatrical fashion of the day.[153][154][155] Shakespeare collaborated on two
further surviving plays, Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen, probably with
John Fletcher.[156]

Classification

The Plays of William Shakespeare, a

painting containing scenes and
characters from several plays of
Shakespeare; by Sir John Gilbert,
c. 1849

Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623,
listed according to their folio classification as comedies, histories, and
tragedies.[157] Two plays not included in the First Folio,[13] The Two Noble
Kinsmen and Pericles, Prince of Tyre, are now accepted as part of the canon,
with today's scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made major contributions to
the writing of both.[158][159] No Shakespearean poems were included in the First
Folio.
:
 In the late 19th century, Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as
romances, and though many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies,
Dowden's term is often used.[160][161] In 1896, Frederick S. Boas coined the term
"problem plays" to describe four plays: All's Well That Ends Well, Measure for
Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and Hamlet.[162] "Dramas as singular in theme
and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may,
therefore, borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them
together as Shakespeare's problem plays."[163] The term, much debated and
sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively
classed as a tragedy.[164][165][166]

Performances
It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. The title
page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been
acted by three different troupes.[167] After the plagues of 1592–93,
Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and
the Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the Thames.[168] Londoners flocked there to
see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges recording, "Let but Falstaff come,
Hal, Poins, the rest ... and you scarce shall have a room".[169] When the company
found themselves in dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down
and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first playhouse built by
actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark.[170][171] The
Globe opened in autumn 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged.
Most of Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe,
including Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.[170][172][173]
:
 The reconstructed Globe Theatre on
the south bank of the River Thames in
London

After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the King's Men in 1603, they
entered a special relationship with the new King James. Although the
performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed seven of
Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604, and 31 October 1605,
including two performances of The Merchant of Venice.[62] After 1608, they
performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe
during the summer.[174] The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean fashion
for lavishly staged masques, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate
stage devices. In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and
lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their
knees."[175][176]

The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous Richard Burbage,

William Kempe, Henry Condell and John Heminges. Burbage played the leading
role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Richard
III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear.[177] The popular comic actor Will Kempe
played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About
Nothing, among other characters.[178][179] He was replaced around 1600 by
Robert Armin, who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool
in King Lear.[180] In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII "was set
forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony".[181] On 29
June, however, a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the
theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play
with rare precision.[181]
:
 Textual sources

Title page of the First Folio,

1623. Copper engraving of
Shakespeare by Martin
Droeshout.

In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's friends from
the King's Men, published the First Folio, a collected edition of Shakespeare's
plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first time.[182] The
others had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets
of paper folded twice to make four leaves.[183] No evidence suggests that
Shakespeare approved these editions, which the First Folio describes as "stol'n
and surreptitious copies".[184]

Alfred Pollard termed some of the pre-1623 versions as "bad quartos" because
of their adapted, paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in places have been
reconstructed from memory.[183][184][185] Where several versions of a play
survive, each differs from the others. The differences may stem from copying or
printing errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from
Shakespeare's own papers.[186][187] In some cases, for example, Hamlet, Troilus
and Cressida, and Othello, Shakespeare could have revised the texts between
the quarto and folio editions. In the case of King Lear, however, while most
:
 modern editions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is so different from the
1608 quarto that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both, arguing that they
cannot be conflated without confusion.[188]

Poems
In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of plague,
Shakespeare published two narrative poems on sexual themes, Venus and
Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley, Earl
of Southampton. In Venus and Adonis, an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual
advances of Venus; while in The Rape of Lucrece, the virtuous wife Lucrece is
raped by the lustful Tarquin.[189] Influenced by Ovid's Metamorphoses,[190] the
poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust.[191]
Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare's lifetime. A
third narrative poem, A Lover's Complaint, in which a young woman laments her
seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in
1609. Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover's Complaint.
Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects.[192][193][194]
The Phoenix and the Turtle, printed in Robert Chester's 1601 Love's Martyr,
mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover, the faithful turtle
dove. In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The
Passionate Pilgrim, published under Shakespeare's name but without his
permission.[192][194][195]

Sonnets
:
 Title page from 1609 edition
of Shake-Speares Sonnets

Published in 1609, the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic

works to be printed. Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was
composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout
his career for a private readership.[196][197] Even before the two unauthorised
sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres had referred
in 1598 to Shakespeare's "sugred Sonnets among his private friends".[198] Few
analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare's intended
sequence.[199] He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about
uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"),
and one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth"). It remains
unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial "I" who
addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth believed
that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked his heart".[198][197]

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate ...

—Opening lines from

Shakespeare's Sonnet 18.[200]
:
 The 1609 edition was dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.", credited as "the only begetter"
of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself
or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the
dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous theories,
or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication.[201] Critics praise the
Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion,
procreation, death, and time.[202]

Style
Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day. He
wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the
needs of the characters or the drama.[203] The poetry depends on extended,
sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often
rhetorical—written for actors to declaim rather than speak. The grand speeches
in Titus Andronicus, in the view of some critics, often hold up the action, for
example; and the verse in The Two Gentlemen of Verona has been described as
stilted.[204][205]
:
 Pity by William Blake, 1795, is an
illustration of two similes in Macbeth:

"And pity, like a naked new-born

babe,
Striding the blast, or heaven's
cherubim, hors'd
Upon the sightless couriers of
the air."[206]

However, Shakespeare soon began to adapt the traditional styles to his own
purposes. The opening soliloquy of Richard III has its roots in the self-
declaration of Vice in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard's vivid self-
awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's mature plays.[207]
[208]
No single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style.
Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with Romeo and Juliet
perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles.[209] By the time of Romeo
and Juliet, Richard II, and A Midsummer Night's Dream in the mid-1590s,
Shakespeare had begun to write a more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his
metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself.

Shakespeare's standard poetic form was blank verse, composed in iambic

pentameter. In practice, this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and
consisted of ten syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second
syllable. The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later
ones. It is often beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and finish at the
end of lines, with the risk of monotony.[210] Once Shakespeare mastered
traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow. This technique
releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as Julius
Caesar and Hamlet. Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in
:
 Hamlet's mind:[211]

Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting

That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay
Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly—
And prais'd be rashness for it—let us know
Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well ...

— Hamlet, Act 5, Scene

2, 4–8[211]
After Hamlet, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the
more emotional passages of the late tragedies. The literary critic A. C. Bradley
described this style as "more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction,
less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical".[212] In the last phase of his career,
Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects. These included
run-on lines, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence
structure and length.[213] In Macbeth, for example, the language darts from one
unrelated metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you
dressed yourself?" (1.7.35–38); "... pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding
the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air ..."
(1.7.21–25). The listener is challenged to complete the sense.[213] The late
romances, with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last
poetic style in which long and short sentences are set against one another,
clauses are piled up, subject and object are reversed, and words are omitted,
creating an effect of spontaneity.[214]

Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre.[215]

Like all playwrights of the time, he dramatised stories from sources such as
Plutarch and Holinshed.[216] He reshaped each plot to create several centres of
interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible.
This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation,
:
 cutting, and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama.[217] As
Shakespeare's mastery grew, he gave his characters clearer and more varied
motivations and distinctive patterns of speech. He preserved aspects of his
earlier style in the later plays, however. In Shakespeare's late romances, he
deliberately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised the illusion of
theatre.[218][219]

Legacy

Influence

Macbeth Consulting the

Vision of the Armed Head. By
Henry Fuseli, 1793–1794.

Shakespeare's work has made a significant and lasting impression on later

theatre and literature. In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of
characterisation, plot, language, and genre.[220] Until Romeo and Juliet, for
example, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy.[221]
Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or
events, but Shakespeare used them to explore characters' minds.[222] His work
:
 heavily influenced later poetry. The Romantic poets attempted to revive
Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success. Critic George Steiner
described all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble
variations on Shakespearean themes".[223] John Milton, considered by many to
be the most important English poet after Shakespeare, wrote in tribute: "Thou in
our wonder and astonishment/ Hast built thyself a live-long monument."[224]

Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and

Charles Dickens. The American novelist Herman Melville's soliloquies owe much
to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick is a classic tragic hero, inspired
by King Lear.[225] Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to
Shakespeare's works, including Felix Mendelssohn's overture and incidental
music for A Midsummer Night's Dream and Sergei Prokofiev's ballet Romeo and
Juliet. His work has inspired several operas, among them Giuseppe Verdi's
Macbeth, Otello and Falstaff, whose critical standing compares with that of the
source plays.[226] Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the
Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites, while William Hogarth's 1745 painting of
actor David Garrick playing Richard III was decisive in establishing the genre of
theatrical portraiture in Britain.[227] The Swiss Romantic artist Henry Fuseli, a
friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German.[228] The
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular,
that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.[229] Shakespeare has been a
rich source for filmmakers; Akira Kurosawa adapted Macbeth and King Lear as
Throne of Blood and Ran, respectively. Other examples of Shakespeare on film
include Max Reinhardt's A Midsummer Night's Dream, Laurence Olivier's Hamlet
and Al Pacino's documentary Looking For Richard.[230] Orson Welles, a lifelong
lover of Shakespeare, directed and starred in Macbeth, Othello and Chimes at
Midnight, in which he plays John Falstaff, which Welles himself called his best
work.[231]

In Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling, and pronunciation were less

standardised than they are now,[232] and his use of language helped shape
modern English.[233] Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other
author in his A Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its
type.[234] Expressions such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a
foregone conclusion" (Othello) have found their way into everyday English
speech.[235][236]
:
 Shakespeare's influence extends far beyond his native England and the English
language. His reception in Germany was particularly significant; as early as the
18th century Shakespeare was widely translated and popularised in Germany,
and gradually became a "classic of the German Weimar era;" Christoph Martin
Wieland was the first to produce complete translations of Shakespeare's plays in
any language.[237][238] Actor and theatre director Simon Callow writes, "this
master, this titan, this genius, so profoundly British and so effortlessly universal,
each different culture – German, Italian, Russian – was obliged to respond to the
Shakespearean example; for the most part, they embraced it, and him, with
joyous abandon, as the possibilities of language and character in action that he
celebrated liberated writers across the continent. Some of the most deeply
affecting productions of Shakespeare have been non-English, and non-
European. He is that unique writer: he has something for everyone."[239]

According to Guinness World Records, Shakespeare remains the world's best-

selling playwright, with sales of his plays and poetry believed to have achieved in
excess of four billion copies in the almost 400 years since his death. He is also
the third most translated author in history.[240]

Critical reputation
Shakespeare was not revered in
his lifetime, but he received a He was not of an age, but for all time.
[242][243]
large amount of praise.
In 1598, the cleric and author
Francis Meres singled him out —Ben Jonson[241]
from a group of English
playwrights as "the most
excellent" in both comedy and tragedy.[244][245] The authors of the Parnassus
plays at St John's College, Cambridge, numbered him with Chaucer, Gower, and
Spenser.[246] In the First Folio, Ben Jonson called Shakespeare the "Soul of the
age, the applause, delight, the wonder of our stage", although he had remarked
:
 elsewhere that "Shakespeare wanted art" (lacked skill).[241]

Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th
century, classical ideas were in vogue. As a result, critics of the time mostly
rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson.[247] Thomas Rymer, for
example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic.
Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden rated Shakespeare highly, saying of
Jonson, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare".[248] He also famously remarked
that Shakespeare "was naturally learned; he needed not the spectacles of books
to read nature; he looked inwards, and found her there."[249] For several
decades, Rymer's view held sway. But during the 18th century, critics began to
respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and, like Dryden, to acclaim what they
termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly editions of his work, notably
those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, added to his
growing reputation.[250][251] By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as the national
poet,[252] and described as the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard").[253][i] In
the 18th and 19th centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among those
who championed him were the writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal, and Victor
Hugo.[255][j]
:
 William Ordway Partridge's
garlanded statue of William
Shakespeare in Lincoln Park,
Chicago, typical of many
created in the 19th and early
20th centuries

During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary
philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel
translated his plays in the spirit of German Romanticism.[257] In the 19th century,
critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on adulation.[258]
"This King Shakespeare," the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, "does not
he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet
strongest of rallying signs; indestructible".[259] The Victorians produced his
plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale.[260] The playwright and critic
George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry",
claiming that the new naturalism of Ibsen's plays had made Shakespeare
obsolete.[261]

The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far from
discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant-
garde. The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow mounted
productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised
an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T. S.
Eliot argued against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him
:
 truly modern.[262] Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight and the school of New
Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery. In
the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the
way for post-modern studies of Shakespeare.[263] Comparing Shakespeare's
accomplishments to those of leading figures in philosophy and theology, Harold
Bloom wrote, "Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Augustine. He
encloses us because we see with his fundamental perceptions."[264]

Speculation

Authorship
Around 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed
about the authorship of the works attributed to him.[265] Proposed alternative
candidates include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere,
17th Earl of Oxford.[266] Several "group theories" have also been proposed.[267]
All but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians consider it a fringe
theory, with only a small minority of academics who believe that there is reason
to question the traditional attribution,[268] but interest in the subject,
particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship, continues into the
21st century.[269][270][271]

Religion
Shakespeare conformed to the official state religion,[k] but his private views on
religion have been the subject of debate. Shakespeare's will uses a Protestant
:
 formula, and he was a confirmed member of the Church of England, where he
was married, his children were baptised, and where he is buried.

Some scholars are of the view that members of Shakespeare's family were
Catholics, at a time when practising Catholicism in England was against the law.
[273]
Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, certainly came from a pious Catholic
family. The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by
his father, John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in
Henley Street. However, the document is now lost and scholars differ as to its
authenticity.[274][275] In 1591, the authorities reported that John Shakespeare
had missed church "for fear of process for debt", a common Catholic excuse.
[276][277][278]
In 1606, the name of William's daughter Susanna appears on a list
of those who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford.[276][277][278]

Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare's

religious beliefs. Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare's
Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of belief in his plays, but the truth may be
impossible to prove.[279][280]

Sexuality

Artistic depiction of the Shakespeare

family, late 19th century

Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married 26-year-old

:
 Anne Hathaway, who was pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children,
was born six months later on 26 May 1583. Over the centuries, some readers
have posited that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical,[281] and point to
them as evidence of his love for a young man. Others read the same passages as
the expression of intense friendship rather than romantic love.[282][283][284] The
26 so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets, addressed to a married woman, are taken as
evidence of heterosexual liaisons.[285]

Portraiture
No written contemporary description of Shakespeare's physical appearance
survives, and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait. From
the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims
that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare.[286] That demand also led
to the production of several fake portraits, as well as misattributions, re-
paintings, and relabelling of portraits of other people.[287][288]

Some scholars suggest that the Droeshout portrait, which Ben Jonson approved
of as a good likeness,[289] and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best
evidence of his appearance.[290] Of the claimed paintings, art historian Tarnya
Cooper concluded that the Chandos portrait had "the strongest claim of any of
the known contenders to be a true portrait of Shakespeare". After a three-year
study supported by the National Portrait Gallery, London, the portrait's owners,
Cooper contended that its composition date, contemporary with Shakespeare,
its subsequent provenance, and the sitter's attire, all supported the attribution.
[291]

See also
:
 Outline of William Shakespeare
English Renaissance theatre
Spelling of Shakespeare's
name
World Shakespeare
Bibliography
Shakespeare's Politics
Shakespeare's sonnets
Shakespeare's plays

References

Notes

a. /ˈʃeɪkspɪǝr/
:
 a. /ˈʃeɪkspɪǝr/
b. The belief that Shakespeare
was born on 23 April is a
tradition and not a verified
fact;[1] see § Early life
below. He was baptised 26
April.
c. Dates follow the Julian
calendar, used in England
throughout Shakespeare's
lifespan, but with the start
of the year adjusted to 1
January (see Old Style and
New Style dates). Under the
Gregorian calendar,
:
 Gregorian calendar,
adopted in Catholic
countries in 1582,
Shakespeare died on 3 May.
[2]

d. The crest is a silver falcon

supporting a spear, while
the motto is Non Sanz
Droict (French for "not
without right"). This motto
is still used by Warwickshire
County Council, in
reference to Shakespeare.
e. Inscribed in Latin on his
funerary monument:
:
 funerary monument:
AETATIS 53 DIE 23 APR (In
his 53rd year he died 23
April).[82]
f. Verse by James Mabbe
printed in the First Folio.[85]
g. Charles Knight, 1842, in his
notes on Twelfth Night.[94]
h. In the scribal abbreviations
ye for the (3rd line) and yt
for that (3rd and 4th lines)
the letter y represents th:
see thorn.
i. The "national cult" of
:
 i. The "national cult" of
Shakespeare, and the
"bard" identification, dates
from September 1769,
when the actor David
Garrick organised a week-
long carnival at Stratford to
mark the town council
awarding him the freedom
of the town. In addition to
presenting the town with a
statue of Shakespeare,
Garrick composed a
doggerel verse, lampooned
in the London newspapers,
naming the banks of the
:
 naming the banks of the
Avon as the birthplace of
the "matchless Bard".[254]
j. Grady cites Voltaire's
Philosophical Letters
(1733); Goethe's Wilhelm
Meister's Apprenticeship
(1795); Stendhal's two-part
pamphlet Racine et
Shakespeare (1823–25);
and Victor Hugo's prefaces
to Cromwell (1827) and
William Shakespeare
(1864).[256]
k. For example, A.L. Rowse,
:
 k. For example, A.L. Rowse,
the 20th-century
Shakespeare scholar, was
emphatic: "He died, as he
had lived, a conforming
member of the Church of
England. His will made that
perfectly clear—in facts,
puts it beyond dispute, for it
uses the Protestant
formula."[272]

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Rowse, A.L. (1988).
Shakespeare: The Man
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OCLC 20527549 (https://sear
ch.worldcat.org/oclc/2052754
9) .
Sawyer, Robert (2003).
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Fairleigh Dickinson University
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:
 3970-2. OCLC 51040611 (http
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040611) .
Schanzer, Ernest (1963). The
Problem Plays of Shakespeare
(https://archive.org/details/pro
blemplaysofsh0000scha) .
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Schoch, Richard W. (2002).
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7%2FCCOL0521792959.00
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 OCLC 48140822 (https://searc
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Schoenbaum, Samuel (1981).
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19-520234-2. OCLC 6813367
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Shapiro, James (2005). 1599:
A Year in the Life of William
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 21480-8. OCLC 58832341 (ht
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Taylor, Gary (1987). William
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Wells, Stanley (1997).
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Wells, Stanley (2006).
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Articles and online

Casey, Charles (1998). "Was

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External links

Library resources about

William Shakespeare
:
 Online books (https://ftl.toolforge.
org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Willia
m+Shakespeare&library=OLBP)
Resources in your library (https://f
tl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=w
p&su=William+Shakespeare)
Resources in other libraries (http
s://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=
wp&su=William+Shakespeare&li
brary=0CHOOSE0)
By William Shakespeare
Online books (https://ftl.toolforge.
org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Willia
m+Shakespeare&library=OLBP)
Resources in your library (https://f
tl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=w
p&au=William+Shakespeare)
Resources in other libraries (http
s://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=
wp&au=William+Shakespeare&li
brary=0CHOOSE0)
:
 Digital editions

William Shakespeare's plays

on Bookwise (https://bookwise.
io/author/william-shakespeare)
Internet Shakespeare Editions (
https://internetshakespeare.uvi
c.ca/)
The Folger Shakespeare (http
s://shakespeare.folger.edu/)
Open Source Shakespeare (htt
p://www.opensourceshakespe
are.org/) complete works, with
search engine and
concordance
:
 The Shakespeare Quartos
Archive (https://wayback.archi
ve-it.org/org-467/201910160
94633/http://quartos.org/)
Works by William Shakespeare
in eBook form (https://standard
ebooks.org/ebooks/william-sh
akespeare) at Standard
Ebooks
Works by William Shakespeare
(https://www.gutenberg.org/eb
ooks/author/65) at Project
Gutenberg
:
 Works by or about William
Shakespeare (https://archive.or
g/search.php?query=%28%28
subject%3A%22Shakespear
e%2C%20William%22%20O
R%20subject%3A%22Willia
m%20Shakespeare%22%20O
R%20creator%3A%22Shakes
peare%2C%20William%22%2
0OR%20creator%3A%22Willia
m%20Shakespeare%22%20O
R%20creator%3A%22Shakes
peare%2C%20W%2E%22%20
OR%20title%3A%22William%
:
 20Shakespeare%22%20OR%
20description%3A%22Shakes
peare%2C%20William%22%2
0OR%20description%3A%22
William%20Shakespeare%2
2%29%20OR%20%28%2215
64-1616%22%20AND%20Sh
akespeare%29%29%20AND%
20%28-mediatype:software%
29) at the Internet Archive
Works by William Shakespeare
(https://librivox.org/author/37)
at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
:
 Exhibitions

Shakespeare Documented (htt

ps://shakespearedocumented.f
olger.edu/) an online exhibition
documenting Shakespeare in
his own time
Shakespeare's Will (https://we
barchive.nationalarchives.gov.
uk/ukgwa/+/https://www.natio
nalarchives.gov.uk/dol/images/
examples/pdfs/shakespeare.p
df) from The National Archives
The Shakespeare Birthplace
Trust (https://www.shakespear
:
 e.org.uk/)
William Shakespeare (https://w
ww.bl.uk/people/william-shake
speare) at the British Library.
Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20210923070227/http
s://www.bl.uk/people/william-s
hakespeare) 23 September
2021 at the Wayback Machine.
Music

Works by William Shakespeare

set to music: free scores in the
Choral Public Domain Library
(ChoralWiki)
:
 Works by William Shakespeare
set to music: Scores at the
International Music Score
Library Project
Education

Shakespeare at Home (https://

shakespeareathome.org/) an
online resource providing free
educational resources on
William Shakespeare and the
Renaissance world. Activities
are dyslexia friendly and
suitable for all ages.
Legacy and criticism

Records on Shakespeare's
:
 Theatre Legacy from the UK
Parliamentary Collections (http
s://www.parliament.uk/about/li
ving-heritage/transformingsoci
ety/towncountry/towns/collecti
ons/collections-shakespeare/)
Winston Churchill &
Shakespeare – UK Parliament
Living Heritage (https://www.p
arliament.uk/about/living-herit
age/transformingsociety/privat
e-lives/yourcountry/collection
s/churchillexhibition/churchill-
death/herbert-samuel/)
:
 Portals: Biography
England
History
Literature
Theatre

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=William_Shakespeare&oldid=1272
893066"

This page was last edited on 30

January 2025, at 18:01 (UTC). •
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