INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS

First Semester - insulates and cushions the deeper body organs

- protects body from:
● mechanical damage (bumps & cuts)
BODY MEMBRANES ● chemical damage (acids & bases)
● thermal damage (heat & cold)
it covers body surfaces, line body cavities, and form protective ● ultraviolet (UV) & radiation (sunlight)
sheets around organs. The body membranes fall into two ● microbes (bacteria)
major groups: epithelial membrane and connective tissue ● desiccation (drying out)
membrane. - regulating heat loss by the skin’s rich capillaries
network and sweat gland
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE - mini excretory system: urea, salts, and water (lost
when sweating)
are simple organs that are also called the covering and lining - chemical plant: manufactures several proteins to
membranes. immunity and synthesizes vitamin D
- produces acidic secretions called the acid mantle,
Cutaneous Membrane/Skin protection against bacterial invasions

- external or the outermost layer

- exposed to air and is a dry membrane
- consists of two layers:

1. Epidermis (superficial) is composed of keratinized

stratified squamous epithelium. It covers.
2. Dermis (underlying) mostly dense irregular (fibrous)
connective tissue.

Mucous Membrane/Mucosa

- resting on a loose (areolar) connective tissue

membrane called a lamina propria
- lines all body cavities that open to the exterior such as
the hollow organs.
- often adapted for absorption or secretion
- moist membranes
- ex. nose, esophagus

Serous Membrane/Serosa

- composed of a layer of simple squamous epithelium

resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue
- line open body cavities in the ventral body cavity that STRUCTURE
are closed to the exterior
- occurs in pairs: parietal layer and visceral layer - two kinds of tissue:
- serous layers are separated by a scanty amount of
thin, clear fluid called serous fluid 1. Epidermis is made up of stratified squamous
- the fluid allows the organs to slide easily across the epithelium that is capable of becoming hard and tough
cavity walls 2. Dermis is made up of dense irregular connective
tissue
● specific names of the serous membranes depend on 3. Hypodermis or Subcutaneous tissue is essentially
their locations adipose (fat) tissue
● not considered as part of the skin
1. Peritoneum- lining the abdominal cavity and covering ● anchor the skin to underlying organs
its organs ● provides site for nutrient storage
2. Pleura or pleurae- surrounding the lungs ● shock absorber
3. Pericardia or Pericardium- around the heart ● insulates deeper tissues from extreme temperature
changes
CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES
Epidermis
Synovial membranes
- outer layer
- composed of loose areolar connective tissue and no - most cells are keratinocytes (keratin cells) which
epithelial cells at all produce keratin
- line fibrous capsules surrounding joints where they - keratin, the fibrous protein that makes the epidermis a
provide smooth surface and secrete lubricating fluid tough protective layer in a process called keratinization
- line small sacs of connective tissue called bursae and - avascular (has no blood supply of its own)
the tubelike tendon sheaths - composed of five layers or strata:
- Both structures cushion organs during muscle activity
1. Stratum basale
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM - deepest layer
- lies closest to the dermis
- cells are undergoing mitosis
SKIN - alternate name: stratum germinativum (germinating
layer)
it maintains your body’s boundary and keeps water as well as - daughter cells are pushed upward, away from the
other precious molecules in the body and keeps excess water source of nutrition, to become part of the epidermal
out. layers
2. Stratum spinosum
SKIN APPENDAGES - part of the more superficial layers
3. Stratum granulosum
● Sweat glands and oil glands - they become flatter and increasingly keratinized
● Hair
● Nails
 4. Stratum lucidum - membrane-bound granules called melanosomes
- occurs only where the skin is hairless and extra thick - people who produce a lot of melanin have brown-toned
(palm of the hands & soles of the feet) skin, while people with less melanin are light skinned
- formed from dead cells of the deeper strata 2. Carotene
5. Stratum corneum - orange-yellow from some vegetables (orange, deep
- outermost layer yellow, leafy green)
- 20 to 30 cell layers thick, accounts about 3. Hemoglobin
three-quarters of the epidermal thicknesses - red color from blood cells in dermal capillaries
- shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin referred to - oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring
as cornified or horny cells (cornu = horn)
- abundance of the tough keratin protein allows the layer - emotions that also influences skin color, amd many
to provide a durable “overcoat” for the body alterations in skin color signal certain disease states:

Melanin ● redness or erythema- may indicate embarrassment

(blushing), fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy
- pigment that ranges from yellow to brown to black color ● pallor or blanching- emotional stress (fear, anger, and
- produced by special spider-shaped cells called others), some become pale that also signifies anemia,
melanocytes low blood pressure, or impaired blood flow in the area
- found mostly in the stratum basale ● jaundice or yellow cast- signifies a liver disorder
- amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics ● bruises or black and blue marks- clotted blood
and exposure to sunlight (hematomas), deficiency of vitamin C in the diet or
- freckles and moles are seen where melanin is bleeder’s disease (hemophilia)
concentrated in one spot
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
Epidermal Dendritic Cells
produced by cells that originate in the epidermal layer and
- scattered in the epidermis plays a unique role in maintaining body homeostasis
- important “sentries” that alert and activate immune
system cells to a threat (bacteria or viral invasion) CUTANEOUS GLANDS
Merkel Cells are all exocrine glands that release their secretion to the skin
surface via ducts
- seen here and there at the epidermal-dermal junction
- associated with sensory nerve endings Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
- serve as touch receptors called merkel discs
- found all over the skin except on the palm of the hands
Dermis and the soles of the feet
- product is sebum (seb = grease), mixture of oily
- “hide” substances and fragment cells
- strong, stretchy envelope that helps to bind body ● a lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist
together ● prevents hair from becoming brittle
- connective tissue ● contains chemical that kills bacteria
- underlies the epidermis - become very active when androgens (male sex
- two major regions: hormones) are produced in increased amounts (in both
sexes) during adolescence
1. Papillary layer
- superficial dermal region Sweat Glands or Sudoriferous Glands
- uneven and has peglike projections called dermal
papillae - widely distributed in the skin
- Many of the dermal papillae contain capillary loops - produce sweat
(furnish nutrients to the epidermis), other house pain - more than 2.5 million per person
receptors, and touch receptors - two types of sweat glands:
- on the palm and sole, papillae arranged in definite
patterns that increases friction and enhances the 1. Eccrine glands
gripping ability of the fingers and feet - more numerous and found all over the body
- fingertips are well provided with sweat pores and leave - produce sweat (clear secretion that is primarily water +
unique, identifying films of sweat called fingerprints salts = sodium chloride, vitamin C, traces of metabolic
2. Reticular layer waste: ammonia, urea, uric acid, lactic acid
- deepest skin layer - sweat is acidic (pH from 4 to 6)
- contains blood vessels, sweat, oil glands, and deep - highly efficient part of the body’s heat-regulating
pressure receptors called lamellar corpuscles equipment
2. Apocrine glands
Other dermal features - largely confined to the axillary (armpit) and genital
areas and their ducts empty into hair follicles
- cutaneous sensory receptor (part of the nervous - larger than eccrine glands
system which include touch, pressure, temperature, - scretion contains fatty acids and proteins, may have
and pain receptors) milky or yellowish color
- phagocytes (act to prevent microbes) ● secretion is odorless, however when bacteria live on
- collagen (responsible fot the toughness of the dermis the skin use its proteins and fats as a source of
and keepe the skin hydrated) and elastic fibers nutrients, it can produce a musky unpleasant odor
(provides elasticity when we are young) - minimal role in body temperature regulation
● as we grow old, the number of collagen and elastic
fibers also decreases, resulting to sagging and HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES
wrinkling
- blood vessels (important in maintaining body
temperature homeostasis) Hair

- produced by hair follicle

SKIN COLOR
- root is enclosed in the follicle
- projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is called
- three pigments contribute to skin color: shaft
- hair grows in the matrix (growth zone) of the hair bulb
1. Melanin in stratum basale
- yellow, reddish brown, or black - each hair is made up of a central core called medulla,
- exposure to sunlight stimulate melanocytes to produce surrounded by a bulky cortex, then cortex is enclosed
more melanin pigment (tanning of skin)
 by an outermost cuticle (most heavily keratinized
region)
Burns

Hair Follicle - tissue damage and cell death caused by intense heat,
electricity, UV radiation (sunburn), or certain chemicals
- compound structures (acids)
- inner epithelial root sheath is composed of epithelial - life-threatening problems result:
tissue amd forms the hair ● loses its precious supply of fluids containing proteins
- outer fibrous sheath is dermal connective tissue and electrolytes
- dermal region supplies blood vessels ● dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
- its nipplelike hair papilla provides blood supply to the ● circulatory shock (inadequate circulation of blood
matrix in the hair bulb caused by low blood volume)
- arrector pili connect each side of the hair follicle to the
dermal tissue RULE OF NINES

Nails divides the body into 11 areas for quick estimation, each
accounting for 9 percent of the total body surface area, plus an
- has free edge, body, and root additional area surrounding the genitals (the perineum)
- nail folds the boarders of the nail that overlapped by representing 1 percent (part is hidden and not greatly affected)
folds of skin of body surface area
- cuticle edge of the thick proximal nail fold
- as the matrix produces nail cells, they become heavily - classified according to their severity:
keratinized and die
- stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed, which is 1. First-degree burns (superficial)
responsible for growth - only epidermis is damaged
- transparent and colorless however they look pink due - red and swolen
to rich blood supply - not usually serious and generally heal in two to three
days
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE OF SKIN - sunburn without blistering
2. Second-degree burns (partial-thickness burns)
- injury to the epidermis and the superficial part of the
INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES
dermis
- red, painful, blistered
- cause the following commonly occurring skin diseases: - regrowth of the epithelium can occur
- no permanent scar (if care is taken to prevent infection)
1. Athlete’s foot 3. Third-degree burns (full-thickness burns)
- itchy, red peeling condition - destroy both epidermis and dermis and oftem extend
- caused by fungal infection (tinea pedis) into subcutaneous tissue
- odor presence of fungus - blisters are present and burned area appears blanched
2. Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles (gray-white or blackened)
- caused by inflammation of hair follicles and - burn area is not painful (nerve endings are destroyed)
surrounding tissue - skin grafting must be fone and regeneration is not
- commonly on the dorsal neck possible
- carbuncles are clusters of boils often caused by 4. Fourth-degree burns (full-thickness burn with deep
bacteria (staphylococcus aureus) tissue involvement)
3. Cold sores (fever blisters) - extend into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, or tendons)
- small fluid-filled blisters that itch and sting - appears dry and leathery
- caused by human herpesvirus - requires surgery and grafting to cover exposed tissue
- usually occurs around the lips and in the mucosa of the - in severe cases, amputation may be required (to save
mouth and nose patient’s life)
- swolen gums
4. Contact dermatitis - in general, burns are considered critical if any of thr
- itching, redness, and swelling of the skin following conditions exists:
- caused by exposure to chemicals (those in poison ivy)
that provoke allergic responses in sensitive individuals ● over 30 percent of the body has second-degree burns
5. Impetigo ● over 10 percent of the body has third or fourth-degree
- pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions (around the mouth and burns
nose) that develop yellow crust and eventually rupture ● there are thirs or fourth-degree burns of the face,
and weep fluid hands, feet, or genitals
- caused by highly contagious staphylococcus (bacterial ● burns affect the airway
infection) ● circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have
6. Psoriasis occurred
- reddened epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery
scales that itch, burn, crack, and sometimes bleed Skin Cancer
- autoimmune disorder (immune system attacks a
person’s tissue) - most common form of cancer in humans
- triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, ot - numerous types of neoplasms (tumors) arise in the
stress skin
- overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation
- cancer can be classified two ways:

1. Benign- presence of tumor, but has not spread

2. Malignant or Cancerous- tumor has spread

MOST COMMON TYPES OF SKIN CANCER

Basal Cell Carcinoma

- least malignant and most common skin cancer

- arises from cells in stratum basale that are altered so
a. cold sores b. impetigo. c. psoriasis they can no longer make keratin
- cancerous lesions occur most often on sun-exposed
areas of the face
 - lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped nodules that DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN
develop a central ulcer
AND BODY MEMBRANES

Lanugo

- downy type of hair

- covers the fetus during the fifth and sixth months of
development but disappears by birth

Vernix Caseosa

- covered with an oily coating

Milia

- small white spots

- common at birth and disappear by the third week
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Acne
- from the cells of stratum spinosum
- lession appear as scaly, reddened papule (small, - appear during adolescence
rounded swellings) that gradually form shallow ulcers
- most often on the scalp, ears, back of the hands, and ● In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
lower lip ● With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
- grows rapidly and metastasizes to lymph nodes if not ● Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to
removed excessive sunlight
- believed to be induced by UV exposure ● Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both are
- ealy removal allows a good chance to cure genetically determined; other factors that may
contribute include drugs and emotional stress

Malignant Melanoma

- cancer of melanocytes
- accounts for only 5 percent of skin cancers, but is often
deadly
- metastasizes rapidly to surrounding lymph nodes and
blood vessels
- chances of survival is about 50 percent
- apply the ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma:

A. Asymmetry - two sides of the pigmented spot or mole

do not match
B. Border irregularity - borders of mole are not smooth,
but exhibit indentations
C. Color - pigmented spot contains areas of different
colors (black, brown, tan, and sometimes blue or red)
D. Diameter - spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter (size
of a pencil eraser)
E. Evolution - one or more of these characteristics
(ABCD) is evolving, or changing